willmakeitoneofthecornerstonesoftheirnewbuilding。Butitisverydoubtfulwhethertheantientlawswillcondemnhim，andwhetherthepeoplewillpermithimtobeacquitted。TheDukedelaVauguyonalso&hissonaretakenatHavre——IndrawingtheparallelbetweenwhatEnglandis，&whatFranceistobeIforgottoobservethatthelatterwillhavearealconstitution，whichcannotbechangedbytheordinarylegislature；whereasEnglandhasnoconstitutionatall：thatistosaythereisnotoneprincipleoftheirgovernmentwhichtheparliamentdoesnotalteratpleasure。
Theomnipotenceofparliamentisanestablishedprinciplewiththem——
PostponingmydeparturetoAmericatilltheendofSeptemberI
shallhopetohavethepleasureofseeingyouatParisbeforeIgo，&
ofrenewinginpersontoyourself&MadamelaComtesseassurancesofthosesentimentsofrespect&attachmentwithwhichIhavethehonortobeDearSiryourmostobedienthumbleserv’t。
P。S。Itisrumored&beleivedinParisthattheEnglishhavefomentedwithmoneythetumultsofthisplace，&thattheyarearmingtoattackFrance。Ihaveneverseenanyreasontobelieveeitheroftheserumors。”THEEARTHBELONGSTOTHELIVING”
_ToJamesMadison_
_Paris，September6，1789_
DEARSIR，——IsitdowntowritetoyouwithoutknowingbywhatoccasionIshallsendmyletter。IdoitbecauseasubjectcomesintomyheadwhichIwouldwishtodevelopealittlemorethanispracticableinthehurryofthemomentofmakingupgeneraldespatches。
ThequestionWhetheronegenerationofmenhasarighttobindanother，seemsnevertohavebeenstartedeitheronthisoroursideofthewater。Yetitisaquestionofsuchconsequencesasnotonlytomeritdecision，butplacealso，amongthefundamentalprinciplesofeverygovernment。Thecourseofreflectioninwhichweareimmersedhereontheelementaryprinciplesofsocietyhaspresentedthisquestiontomymind；andthatnosuchobligationcanbetransmittedIthinkverycapableofproof。IsetoutonthisgroundwhichIsupposetobeselfevident，”_thattheearthbelongsinusufructtotheliving_；”thatthedeadhaveneitherpowersnorrightsoverit。Theportionoccupiedbyanindividualceasestobehiswhenhimselfceasestobe，andrevertstothesociety。Ifthesocietyhasformednorulesfortheappropriationofitslandsinseveralty，itwillbetakenbythefirstoccupants。Thesewillgenerallybethewifeandchildrenofthedecedent。Iftheyhaveformedrulesofappropriation，thoserulesmaygiveittothewifeandchildren，ortosomeoneofthem，ortothelegateeofthedeceased。Sotheymaygiveittohiscreditor。Butthechild，thelegateeorcreditortakesit，notbyanynaturalright，butbyalawofthesocietyofwhichtheyaremembers，andtowhichtheyaresubject。Thennomancanby_naturalright_obligethelandsheoccupied，orthepersonswhosucceedhiminthatoccupation，tothepaimentofdebtscontractedbyhim。Forifhecould，hemightduringhisownlife，eatuptheusufructofthelandsforseveralgenerationstocome，andthenthelandswouldbelongtothedead，andnottotheliving，whichwouldbereverseofourprinciple。Whatistrueofeverymemberofthesocietyindividually，istrueofthemallcollectively，sincetherightsofthewholecanbenomorethanthesumoftherightsofindividuals。Tokeepourideasclearwhenapplyingthemtoamultitude，letussupposeawholegenerationofmentobebornonthesameday，toattainmatureageonthesameday，andtodieonthesameday，leavingasucceedinggenerationinthemomentofattainingtheirmatureagealltogether。Lettheripeagebesupposedof21。years，andtheirperiodoflife34。yearsmore，thatbeingtheaveragetermgivenbythebillsofmortalitytopersonswhohavealreadyattained21。yearsofage。Eachsuccessivegenerationwould，inthisway，comeonandgooffthestageatafixedmoment，asindividualsdonow。ThenIsaytheearthbelongstoeachofthesegenerationsduringit’scourse，fully，andintheirownright。The2d。generationreceivesitclearofthedebtsandincumbrancesofthe1st。，the3d。ofthe2d。andsoon。Forifthe1st。couldchargeitwithadebt，thentheearthwouldbelongtothedeadandnotthelivinggeneration。Thennogenerationcancontractdebtsgreaterthanmaybepaidduringthecourseofit’sownexistence。At21。yearsofagetheymaybindthemselvesandtheirlandsfor34。yearstocome：at22。for33：at23for32。andat54
foroneyearonly；becausethesearethetermsoflifewhichremaintothematthoserespectiveepochs。Butamaterialdifferencemustbenotedbetweenthesuccessionofanindividualandthatofawholegeneration。Individualsarepartsonlyofasociety，subjecttothelawsofawhole。Theselawsmayappropriatetheportionoflandoccupiedbyadecedenttohiscreditorratherthantoanyother，ortohischild，onconditionhesatisfieshiscreditor。Butwhenawholegeneration，thatis，thewholesocietydies，asinthecasewehavesupposed，andanothergenerationorsocietysucceeds，thisformsawhole，andthereisnosuperiorwhocangivetheirterritorytoathirdsociety，whomayhavelentmoneytotheirpredecessorsbeyondtheirfacultyofpaying。
Whatistrueofagenerationallarrivingtoself-governmentonthesameday，anddyingallonthesameday，istrueofthoseonaconstantcourseofdecayandrenewal，withthisonlydifference。A
generationcominginandgoingoutentire，asinthefirstcase，wouldhavearightinthe1styearoftheirselfdominiontocontractadebtfor33。years，inthe10th。for24。inthe20th。for14。inthe30th。for4。whereasgenerationschangingdaily，bydailydeathsandbirths，haveoneconstanttermbeginningatthedateoftheircontract，andendingwhenamajorityofthoseoffullageatthatdateshallbedead。Thelengthofthattermmaybeestimatedfromthetablesofmortality，correctedbythecircumstancesofclimate，occupation&c。peculiartothecountryofthecontractors。Take，forinstance，thetableofM。deBuffonwhereinhestatesthat23，994
deaths，andtheagesatwhichtheyhappened。Supposeasocietyinwhich23，994personsareborneveryyearandlivetotheagesstatedinthistable。Theconditionsofthatsocietywillbeasfollows。
1st。itwillconsistconstantlyof617，703personsofallages。2dly。
ofthoselivingatanyoneinstantoftime，onehalfwillbedeadin24。years8。months。3dly。10，675willarriveeveryyearattheageof21。yearscomplete。4thly。itwillconstantlyhave348，417personsofallagesabove21。years。5ly。andthehalfofthoseof21。yearsandupwardslivingatanyoneinstantoftimewillbedeadin18。
years8。months，orsay19。yearsasthenearestintegralnumber。
Then19。yearsisthetermbeyondwhichneithertherepresentativesofanation，noreventhewholenationitselfassembled，canvalidlyextendadebt。
Torenderthisconclusionpalpablebyexample，supposethatLouisXIV。andXV。hadcontracteddebtsinthenameoftheFrenchnationtotheamountof10。000milliardsoflivresandthatthewholehadbeencontractedinGenoa。Theinterestofthissumwouldbe500
milliards，whichissaidtobethewholerent-roll，ornettproceedsoftheterritoryofFrance。Mustthepresentgenerationofmenhaveretiredfromtheterritoryinwhichnatureproducedthem，andcededittotheGenoesecreditors?No。Theyhavethesamerightsoverthesoilonwhichtheywereproduced，astheprecedinggenerationshad。
Theyderivetheserightsnotfromtheirpredecessors，butfromnature。Theythenandtheirsoilarebynatureclearofthedebtsoftheirpredecessors。AgainsupposeLouisXV。andhiscontemporarygenerationhadsaidtothemoneylendersofGenoa，giveusmoneythatwemayeat，drink，andbemerryinourday；andonconditionyouwilldemandnointeresttilltheendof19。years，youshallthenforeverafterreceiveanannualinterestof*12。’5percent。Themoneyislentontheseconditions，isdividedamongtheliving，eaten，drank，andsquandered。Wouldthepresentgenerationbeobligedtoapplytheproduceoftheearthandoftheirlabourtoreplacetheirdissipations?Notatall。
*100poundatacompoundinterestof6percentmakesattheendof19yearsanaggregateofprincipalandinterestofpound252。14theinterestofwhichisapound12degreesdegrees。12”。
7’d。whichisnearly12”。p’r。centonthefirstcapitalofpound100。
Isupposethatthereceivedopinion，thatthepublicdebtsofonegenerationdevolveonthenext，hasbeensuggestedbyourseeinghabituallyinprivatelifethathewhosucceedstolandsisrequiredtopaythedebtsofhisancestorortestator，withoutconsideringthatthisrequisitionismunicipalonly，notmoral，flowingfromthewillofthesocietywhichhasfounditconvenienttoappropriatethelandsbecomevacantbythedeathoftheiroccupantontheconditionofapaimentofhisdebts；butthatbetweensocietyandsociety，orgenerationandgenerationthereisnomunicipalobligation，noumpirebutthelawofnature。Weseemnottohaveperceivedthat，bythelawofnature，onegenerationistoanotherasoneindependantnationtoanother。”
TheinterestofthenationaldebtofFrancebeinginfactbutatwothousandthpartofit’srent-roll，thepaimentofitispracticableenough；andsobecomesaquestionmerelyofhonororexpediency。Butwithrespecttofuturedebts；woulditnotbewiseandjustforthatnationtodeclareintheconstitutiontheyareformingthatneitherthelegislature，northenationitselfcanvalidlycontractmoredebt，thantheymaypaywithintheirownage，orwithinthetermof19。years?Andthatallfuturecontractsshallbedeemedvoidastowhatshallremainunpaidattheendof19。yearsfromtheirdate?Thiswouldputthelenders，andtheborrowersalso，ontheirguard。Byreducingtoothefacultyofborrowingwithinitsnaturallimits，itwouldbridlethespiritofwar，towhichtoofreeacoursehasbeenprocuredbytheinattentionofmoneylenderstothislawofnature，thatsucceedinggenerationsarenotresponsibleforthepreceding。
Onsimilargrounditmaybeprovedthatnosocietycanmakeaperpetualconstitution，orevenaperpetuallaw。Theearthbelongsalwaystothelivinggeneration。Theymaymanageitthen，andwhatproceedsfromit，astheyplease，duringtheirusufruct。Theyaremasterstoooftheirownpersons，andconsequentlymaygovernthemastheyplease。Butpersonsandpropertymakethesumoftheobjectsofgovernment。Theconstitutionandthelawsoftheirpredecessorsextinguishedthem，intheirnaturalcourse，withthosewhosewillgavethembeing。Thiscouldpreservethatbeingtillitceasedtobeitself，andnolonger。Everyconstitution，then，andeverylaw，naturallyexpiresattheendof19。years。Ifitbeenforcedlonger，itisanactofforceandnotofright。
Itmaybesaidthatthesucceedinggenerationexercisinginfactthepowerofrepeal，thisleavesthemasfreeasiftheconstitutionorlawhadbeenexpresslylimitedto19。yearsonly。Inthefirstplace，thisobjectionadmitstheright，inproposinganequivalent。Butthepowerofrepealisnotanequivalent。Itmightbeindeedifeveryformofgovernmentweresoperfectlycontrivedthatthewillofthemajoritycouldalwaysbeobtainedfairlyandwithoutimpediment。Butthisistrueofnoform。Thepeoplecannotassemblethemselves；theirrepresentationisunequalandvicious。
Variouschecksareopposedtoeverylegislativeproposition。
Factionsgetpossessionofthepubliccouncils。Briberycorruptsthem。Personalinterestsleadthemastrayfromthegeneralinterestsoftheirconstituents；andotherimpedimentsarisesoastoprovetoeverypracticalmanthatalawoflimiteddurationismuchmoremanageablethanonewhichneedsarepeal。
Thisprinciplethattheearthbelongstothelivingandnottothedeadisofveryextensiveapplicationandconsequencesineverycountry，andmostespeciallyinFrance。ItentersintotheresolutionofthequestionsWhetherthenationmaychangethedescentoflandsholdenintail?Whethertheymaychangetheappropriationoflandsgivenantientlytothechurch，tohospitals，colleges，ordersofchivalry，andotherwiseinperpetuity?whethertheymayabolishthechargesandprivilegesattachedonlands，includingthewholecatalogueecclesiasticalandfeudal?itgoestohereditaryoffices，authoritiesandjurisdictions；tohereditaryorders，distinctionsandappellations；toperpetualmonopoliesincommerce，theartsorsciences；withalongtrainof_etceteras_：anditrendersthequestionofreimbursementaquestionofgenerosityandnotofright。Inallthesecasesthelegislatureofthedaycouldauthorizesuchappropriationsandestablishmentsfortheirowntime，butnolonger；andthepresentholders，evenwheretheyortheirancestorshavepurchased，areinthecaseof_bonafide_purchasersofwhatthesellerhadnorighttoconvey。
Turnthissubjectinyourmind，myDearSir，andparticularlyastothepowerofcontractingdebts，anddevelopeitwiththatperspicuityandcogentlogicwhichissopeculiarlyyours。Yourstationinthecouncilsofourcountrygivesyouanopportunityofproducingittopublicconsideration，offorcingitintodiscussion。