Theidea,thusearlyborn,layinoblivionuntil1760,whenthedaguerreotypewasagainclearlyindicatedinabookpublishedinParis,writtenbyacertainTiphaniedelaRoche,undertheanagrammatictitleofGiphantie。Stilllater,atthebeginningofthepresentcentury,wefindThomasWedgwood,SirHumphryDavy,andJamesWatt,makingexperimentsontheactionoflightuponnitrateofsilver;andonlywithinthelastfewmonthsasilveredcopper-platehasbeenfoundamongsttheoldhouseholdlumberofMatthewBoultonWatt’spartner,havingonitarepresentationoftheoldpremisesatSoho,apparentlytakenbysomesuchprocess。*
[footnote……
TheplateisnowtobeseenattheMuseumofPatentsatSouthKensington。Intheaccountwhichhasbeenpublishedoftheabovediscoveryitisstatedthat”anoldmanofninetyrecentlydeadorstillaliverecollected,orrecollects,thatWattandothersusedtotakeportraitsofpeopleinadark?room;andthereisaletterextantofSirWilliamBeechey,beggingtheLunarSocietytodesistfromtheseexperiments,as,weretheprocesstosucceed,itwouldruinportrait-painting。”
Inlikemannertheinventionoftheelectrictelegraph,supposedtobeexclusivelymodern,wasclearlyindicatedbySchwenterinhisDelasementsPhysico-Mathematiques,publishedin1636;andhetherepointedouthowtwoindividualscouldcommunicatewitheachotherbymeansofthemagneticneedle。Acenturylater,in1746,LeMonnierexhibitedaseriesofexperimentsintheRoyalGardensatParis,showinghowelectricitycouldbetransmittedthroughironwire950
fathomsinlength;andin1753wefindoneCharlesMarshallpublishingaremarkabledescriptionoftheelectrictelegraphintheScotsMagazine,underthetitleof’AnexpeditionsMethodofconveyingIntelligence。’Again,in1760,wefindGeorgeLouisLesage,professorofmathematicsatGeneva,promulgatinghisinventionofanelectrictelegraph,whichheeventuallycompletedandsettoworkin1774。Thisinstrumentwascomposedoftwenty-fourmetallicwires,separatefromeachotherandenclosedinanon-conductingsubstance。
Eachwireendedinastalkmountedwithalittleballofelder-woodsuspendedbyasilkthread。Whenastreamofelectricity,nomatterhowslight。,wassentthroughthewire,theelder-ballattheoppositeendwasrepelled,suchmovementdesignatingsomeletterofthealphabet。AfewyearslaterwefindArthurYoung,inhisTravelsinFrance,describingasimilarmachineinventedbyaM。LomondofParis,theactionofwhichhealsodescribes。*
[footnote……”l6thOct。l787。IntheeveningtoM。Lomond,averyingeniousandinventivemechanic,whohasmadeanimprovementofthejennyforspinningcotton。Commonmachinesaresaidtomaketoohardathreadforcertainfabrics,butthisformsitlooseandspongy。Inelectricityhehasmadearemarkablediscovery:youwritetwoorthreewordsonapaper;hetakesitwithhimintoaroom,andturnsamachineinclosedinacylindricalcase,atthetopofwhichisanelectrometer,asmallfinepithball;awireconnectswithasimilarcylinderandelectrometerinadistantapartment;andhiswife,byremarkingthecorrespondingmotionsoftheball,writesdownthewordstheyindicate;fromwhichitappearsthathehasformedanalphabetofmotions。Asthelengthofthewiremakesnodifferenceintheeffect,acorrespondencemightbecarriedonatanydistance:
withinandwithoutabesiegedtown,forinstance;orforapurposemuchmoreworthy,andathousandtimesmoreharmless,betweentwoloversprohibitedorpreventedfromanybetterconnexion。Whatevertheusemaybe,theinventionisbeautiful。”——ArthurYoung’sTravelsinFrancein1787-8-9。London,1792,4to。ed。p。65。
Intheseandsimilarcases,thoughtheideawasbornandthemodeloftheinventionwasactuallymade,itstillwaitedtheadventofthescientificmechanicalinventorwhoshouldbringittoperfection,andembodyitinapracticalworkingform。
Someofthemostvaluableinventionshavedescendedtouswithoutthenamesoftheirauthorshavingbeenpreserved。Wearetheinheritorsofanimmenselegacyoftheresultsoflabourandingenuity,butweknownotthenamesofourbenefactors。Whoinventedthewatchasameasureroftime?Whoinventedthefastandloosepulley?Whoinventedtheeccentric?Who,asksamechanicalinquirer,*
[footnote……
Mechanic’sMagazine,4thFeb。1859。”inventedthemethodofcuttingscrewswithstocksanddies?Whoeverhemightbe,hewascertainlyagreatbenefactorofhisspecies。Yetaddsthewriterhisnameisnotknown,thoughtheinventionhasbeensorecent。”Thisisnot,however,thecasewithmostmoderninventions,thegreaternumberofwhicharemoreorlessdisputed。
Whowasentitledtothemeritofinventingprintinghasneveryetbeendetermined。WeberandSenefelderbothlaidclaimtotheinventionoflithography,thoughitwasmerelyanoldGermanartrevived。Eventheinventionofthepenny-postagesystembySirRowlandHillisdisputed;Dr。GrayoftheBritishMuseumclaimingtobeitsinventor,andaFrenchwriterallegingittobeanoldFrenchinvention。*
[footnote……
AwriterintheMondesays:——”Theinventionofpostage-stamps。isfarfrombeingsomodernasisgenerallysupposed。ApostalregulationinFranceoftheyear1653,whichhasrecentlycometolight,givesnoticeofthecreationofpre-paidticketstobeusedforParisinsteadofmoneypayments。Theseticketsweretobedatedandattachedtotheletterorwrappedroundit,insuchamannerthatthepostmancouldremoveandretainthemondeliveringthemissive。Thesefranksweretobesoldbytheportersoftheconvents,prisons,colleges,andotherpublicinstitutions,atthepriceofonesou。”
TheinventionofthesteamboathasbeenclaimedonbehalfofBlascodeGaray,aSpaniard,Papin,aFrenchman,JonathanHulls,anEnglishman,andPatrickMillerofDalswinton,aScotchman。TheinventionofthespinningmachinehasbeenvariouslyattributedtoPaul,Wyatt,Hargreaves,Higley,andArkwright。Theinventionofthebalance-springwasclaimedbyHuyghens,aDutchman,Hautefeuille,aFrenchman,andHooke,anEnglishman。Thereisscarcelyapointofdetailinthelocomotivebutisthesubjectofdispute。Thustheinventionoftheblast-pipeisclaimedforTrevithick,GeorgeStephenson,GoldsworthyGurney,andTimothyHackworth;thatofthetubularboilerbySeguin,Stevens,Booth,andW。H。James;thatofthelink-motionbyJohnGray,HughWilliams,andRobertStephenson。
Indeedmanyinventionsappeartobecoincident。Anumberofmindsareworkingatthesametimeinthesametrack,withtheobjectofsupplyingsomewantgenerallyfelt;and,guidedbythesameexperience,theynotunfrequentlyarriveatlikeresults。Ithassometimeshappenedthattheinventorshavebeenseparatedbygreatdistances,sothatpiracyonthepartofeitherwasimpossible。ThusHadleyandGodfreyalmostsimultaneouslyinventedthequadrant,theoneinLondon,theotherinPhiladelphia;andtheprocessofelectrotypingwasinventedatthesametimebyMr。Spencer,aworkingchemistatLiverpool,andbyProfessorJacobiatSt。Petersburg。Thesafety-lampwasacoincidentinvention,madeaboutthesametimebySirHumphryDavyandGeorgeStephenson;andperhapsastillmoreremarkableinstanceofacoincidentdiscoverywasthatoftheplanetNeptunebyLeverrieratParis,andbyAdamsatCambridge。
Itisalwaysdifficulttoapportionthedueshareofmeritwhichbelongstomechanicalinventors,whoareaccustomedtoworkuponeachother’shintsandsuggestions,aswellasbytheirownexperience。
Someideaofthisdifficultymaybeformedfromthefactthat,inthecourseofourinvestigationsastotheoriginoftheplaningmachine——oneofthemostusefulofmoderntools——wehavefoundthatithasbeenclaimedonbehalfofsixinventors——FoxofDerby,RobertsofManchester,MatthewMurrayofLeeds,SpringofAberdeen,ClementandGeorgeRennieofLondon;andtheremaybeotherclaimantsofwhomwehavenotyetheard。Butmostmechanicalinventionsareofaverycompositecharacter,andareleduptobythelabourandthestudyofalongsuccessionofworkers。ThusSavaryandNewcomenleduptoWatt;Cugnot,Murdock,andTrevithicktotheStephensons;andMaudslaytoClement,Roberts,Nasmyth,Whitworth,andmanymoremechanicalinventors。Thereisscarcelyaprocessintheartsbuthasinlikemannerengagedmindaftermindinbringingittoperfection。”Thereisnothing,”saysMr。Hawkshaw,”reallyworthhavingthatmanhasobtained,thathasnotbeentheresultofacombinedandgradualprocessofinvestigation。Agiftedindividualcomesacrosssomeoldfootmark,stumblesonachainofpreviousresearchandinquiry。Hemeets,forinstance,withamachine,theresultofmuchpreviouslabour;hemodifiesit,pullsittopieces,constructsandreconstructsit,andbyfurthertrialandexperimenthearrivesatthelongsought-forresult。”*
[footnote……
InauguralAddressdeliveredbeforetheInstitutionofCivilEngineers,l4thJan。1862。
Butthemakingoftheinventionisnotthesoledifficulty。Itisonethingtoinvent,saidSirMarcBrunel,andanotherthingtomaketheinventionwork。ThuswhenWatt,afterlonglabourandstudy,hadbroughthisinventiontocompletion,heencounteredanobstaclewhichhasstoodinthewayofotherinventors,andforatimepreventedtheintroductionoftheirimprovements,ifnotledtotheirbeinglaidasideandabandoned。Thiswasthecircumstancethatthemachineprojectedwassomuchinadvanceofthemechanicalcapabilityoftheagethatitwaswiththegreatestdifficultyitcouldbeexecuted。
WhenlabouringuponhisinventionatGlasgow,Wattwasbaffledandthrownintodespairbytheclumsinessandincompetencyofhisworkmen。WritingtoDr。Roebuckononeoccasion,hesaid,”Youaskwhatistheprincipalhindranceinerectingengines?Itisalwaysthesmith-work。”Hisfirstcylinderwasmadebyawhitesmith,ofhammeredironsolderedtogether,buthavingusedquicksilvertokeepthecylinderair-tight,itdroppedthroughtheinequalitiesintotheinterior,and”playedthedevilwiththesolder。”Yet,inefficientthoughthewhitesmithwas,Wattcouldillsparehim,andwefindhimwritingtoDr。Roebuckalmostindespair,saying,”Myoldwhite-ironmanisdead!”feelinghislosstobealmostirreparable。HisnextcylinderwascastandboredatCarron,butitwassountruethatitprovednexttouseless。Thepistoncouldnotbekeptsteamtight,notwithstandingthevariousexpedientswhichwereadoptedofstuffingitwithpaper,cork,putty,pasteboard,andoldhat。EvenafterWatthadremovedtoBirmingham,andhehadtheassistanceofBoulton’sbestworkmen,Smeatonexpressedtheopinion,whenhesawtheengineatwork,thatnotwithstandingtheexcellenceoftheinvention,itcouldneverbebroughtintogeneralusebecauseofthedifficultyofgettingitsvariouspartsmanufacturedwithsufficientprecision。ForalongtimewefindWatt,inhisletters,complainingtohispartnerofthefailureofhisenginesthrough”villainousbadworkmanship。”
Sometimesthecylinders,whencast,werefoundtobemorethananeighthofaninchwideratoneendthantheother;andundersuchcircumstancesitwasimpossibletheenginecouldactwithprecision。
Yetbetterworkcouldnotbehad。First-rateworkmeninmachinerydidnotasyetexist;theywereonlyinprocessofeducation。Nearlyeverythinghadtobedonebyhand。Thetoolsusedwereofaveryimperfectkind。Afewill-constructedlathes,withsomedrillsandboring-machinesofarudesort,constitutedtheprincipalfurnitureoftheworkshop。Yearsafter,whenBrunelinventedhisblock-machines,considerabletimeelapsedbeforehecouldfindcompetentmechanicstoconstructthem,andevenaftertheyhadbeenconstructedhehadequaldifficultyinfindingcompetenthandstoworkthem。*
[footnote……
BEAMISH’SMemoirofSirI。M。Brunel,79,80。
Wattendeavouredtoremedythedefectbykeepingcertainsetsofworkmentospecialclassesofwork,allowingthemtodonothingelse。
Fatherswereinducedtobringuptheirsonsatthesamebenchwiththemselves,andinitiatetheminthedexteritywhichtheyhadacquiredbyexperience;andatSohoitwasnotunusualforthesamepreciselineofworktobefollowedbymembersofthesamefamilyforthreegenerations。Inthiswayasgreatadegreeofaccuracyofamechanicalkindwasarrivedatwaspracticableunderthecircumstances。Butnotwithstandingallthiscare,accuracyoffittingcouldnotbesecuredsolongasthemanufactureofsteam-engineswasconductedmainlybyhand。Therewasusuallyaconsiderablewasteofsteam,whichtheexpedientsofchewedpaperandgreasedhatpackedoutsidethepistonwereinsufficienttoremedy;anditwasnotuntiltheinventionofautomaticmachine-toolsbythemechanicalengineersabouttobementioned,thatthemanufactureofthesteam-enginebecameamatterofcomparativeeaseandcertainty。Wattwascompelledtorestsatisfiedwithimperfectresults,arisingfromimperfectworkmanship。Thus,writingtoDr。Smallrespectingacylinder18
inchesindiameter,hesaid,”attheworstplacethelongdiameterexceededtheshortbyonlythree-eighthsofaninch。”Howdifferentfromthestateofthingsatthisday,whenacylinderfivefeetwidewillberejectedasapieceofimperfectworkmanshipifitbefoundtovaryinanypartmorethanthe80thpartofaninchindiameter!
Notfiftyyearssinceitwasamatteroftheutmostdifficultytosetanenginetowork,andsometimesofequaldifficultytokeepitgoing。Thoughfittedbycompetentworkmen,itoftenwouldnotgoatall。Thentheforemanofthefactoryatwhichitwasmadewassentfor,andhewouldalmostlivebesidetheengineforamonthormore;
andaftereasingherhereandscrewingherupthere,puttinginanewpartandalteringanoldone,packingthepistonandtighteningthevalves,themachinewouldatlengthbegottowork。*
[footnote……
Therewasthesameclumsinessinallkindsofmill-workbeforetheintroductionofmachine-tools。Wehaveheardofapieceofmachineryoftheoldschool,thewheelsofwhich,whensettowork,madesuchaclatterthattheownerfearedtheenginewouldfalltopieces。Theforemanwhosetitagoing,afterworkingatituntilhewasalmostindespair,atlastgaveitup,saving,”Ithinkwehadbetterleavethecogstosettletheirdifferenceswithoneanother:theywillgrindthemselvesrightintime!”