Evencoalsofaninferiorqualitywerebyitsmeansmadeavailableforthemanufactureofiron。ButoneofthepeculiarqualitiesoftheBlackBandironstoneisthatinmanycasesitcontainssufficientcoalymatterforpurposesofcalcination,withoutanyadmixtureofcoalwhatever。Beforeitsdiscovery,alltheironmanufacturedinScotlandwasmadefromclay-band;buttheuseofthelatterhasinagreatmeasurebeendiscontinuedwhereverasufficientsupplyofBlackBandcanbeobtained。AnditisfoundtoexistveryextensivelyinmostofthemidlandScotchcounties,——thecoalandironmeasuresstretchinginabroadbeltfromtheFirthofForthtotheIrishChannelattheFirthofClyde。Atthetimewhenthehotblastwasinvented,thefortunesofmanyoftheolderworkswereatalowebb,andseveralofthemhadbeendiscontinued;buttheywerespeedilybroughttolifeagainwhereverBlackBandcouldbefound。In1829,theyearafterNeilson’spatentwastakenout,thetotalmakeofScotlandwas29,000tons。Asfreshdiscoveriesofthemineralweremade,inAyrshireandLanarkshire,newworkswereerected,until,in1845,wefindtheproductionofScotchpig-ironhadincreasedto475,000tons。Ithassinceincreasedtoupwardsofamillionoftons,nineteen-twentiethsofwhicharemadefromBlackBandironstone。*
[footnote……
ItisstatedintheNorthBritishReviewforNov。1845,that”AsinScotlandeveryfurnace——withtheexceptionofoneatCarron——nowusesthehotblastthesavingonourpresentproduceof400,000tonsofpig-ironis2,000,000tonsofcoals,200,000tonsoflimestone,and#650,000sterlingperannum。”ButastheScotchproduceisnowaboveamilliontonsofpig-ironayear,theabovefigureswillhavetobemultipliedby21/2togivethepresentannualsavings。
Employmenthasthusbeengiventovastnumbersofourindustrialpopulation,andthewealthandresourcesoftheScotchirondistrictshavebeenincreasedtoanextraordinaryextent。Duringthelastyeartherewere125furnacesinblastthroughoutScotland,eachemployingabout400meninmakinganaverageof200tonsaweek;andthemoneydistributedamongsttheworkmenmayreadilybecomputedfromthefactthat,underthemostfavourablecircumstances,thecostofmakingironinwagesaloneamountsto36s。a-ton。*
[footnote……
PapersreadbyMr。RalphMoore,MiningEngineer,Glasgow,beforetheRoyalScottishSocietyofArts,Edin。1861,pp。13,14。
AnimmenseadditionalvaluewasgiventoalllandinwhichtheBlackBandwasfound。Mr。Mushetmentionsthatin1839theproprietoroftheAirdrieestatederivedaroyaltyof16,500L。fromthemineral,whichhadnotbeforeitsdiscoveryyieldedhimonefarthing。Atthesametime,manyfortuneshavebeenmadebypushingandenergeticmenwhohaveoflateyearsentereduponthisnewbranchofindustry。
AmongstthesemaybementionedtheBairdsofGartsherrie,whoviewiththeGuestsandCrawshaysofSouthWales,andhaveadvancedthemselvesinthecourseofaveryfewyearsfromthestationofsmallfarmerstothatofgreatcapitalistsowningestatesinmanycounties,holdingthehighestcharactercommercialmen,andrankingamongthelargestemployersoflabourinthekingdom。
CHAPTERX。
MECHANICALINVENTIONSANDINVENTORS。”L’inventionnest-ellepaslapoesiedelascience?……Touteslesgrandesdecouvertesportentavecelleslatraceineffacabled’unepenseepoetique。llfautetrepoetepourcreer。Aussi,sommes-nousconvaincusquesilespuissantesmachines,veritablesourcedelaproductionetdel’industriedenosjours,doiventrecevoirdesmodificationsradicales,ceseraadeshommesd’imagination,etnonpointadeahommespurementspeciaux,quel’ondevracettetransformation。”——E。M。BATAILLE,TraitedesMachinesaVapeur。
Toolshaveplayedahighlyimportantpartinthehistoryofcivilization。Withouttoolsandtheabilitytousethem,manwereindeedbuta”poor,bare,forkedanimal,”——worseclothedthanthebirds,worsehousedthanthebeaver,worsefedthanthejackal。”Weakinhimself,”saysCarlyle,”andofsmallstature,hestandsonabasis,atmostfortheflattest-soled,ofsomehalfsquarefoot,insecurelyenough;hastostraddleouthislegs,Jesttheverywindsupplanthim。Feeblestofbipeds!Threequintalsareacrushingloadforhim;thesteerofthemeadowtosseshimaloftlikeawasterag。
Neverthelesshecanusetools,candevisetools:withthesethegranitemountainmeltsintolightdustbeforehim;hekneadsglowingironasifitweresoftpaste;seasarehissmoothhighway,windsandfirehisunvaryingsteeds。Nowheredoyoufindhimwithouttools:
withouttoolsheisnothing;withtoolsheisall。”Hisveryfirstcontrivancestosupportlifeweretoolsofthesimplestandrudestconstruction;andhislatestachievementsinthesubstitutionofmachineryforthereliefofthehumanhandandintellectarefoundedontheuseoftoolsofastillhigherorder。HenceitisnotwithoutgoodreasonthatmanhasbysomephilosophersbeendefinedasA
TOOL-MAKINGANIMAL。
Tools,likeeverythingelse,hadsmallbeginnings。Withtheprimitivestone-hammerandchiselverylittlecouldbedone。Thefellingofatreewouldoccupyaworkmanamonth,unlesshelpedbythedestructiveactionoffire。Dwellingscouldnotbebuilt,thesoilcouldnotbetilled,clothescouldnotbefashionedandmade,andthehewingoutofaboatwassotediousaprocessthatthewoodmusthavebeenfargoneindecaybeforeitcouldbelaunched。Itwasagreatstepinadvancetodiscovertheartofworkinginmetals,moreespeciallyinsteel,oneofthefewmetalscapableoftakingasharpedgeandkeepingit。Fromthedateofthisdiscovery,workinginwoodandstonewouldbefoundcomparativelyeasy;andtheresultsmustspeedilyhavebeenfeltnotonlyintheimprovementofman’sdailyfood,butinhisdomesticandsocialcondition。Clothingcouldthenbemade,theprimitiveforestcouldbeclearedandtillagecarriedon;abundantfuelcouldbeobtained,dwellingserected,shipsbuilt,templesreared;everyimprovementintoolsmarkinganewstepinthedevelopmentofthehumanintellect,andafurtherstageintheprogressofhumancivilization。
Theearliesttoolswereofthesimplestpossiblecharacter,consistingprincipallyofmodificationsofthewedge;suchastheknife,theshearsformedoftwoknivesworkingonajoint,thechisel,andtheaxe。These,withtheprimitivehammer,formedtheprincipalstock-in-tradeoftheearlymechanics,whowerehandicraftsmenintheliteralsenseoftheword。Buttheworkwhichtheearlycraftsmeninwood,stone,brass,andiron,contrivedtoexecute,sufficedtoshowhowmuchexpertnessinthehandlingoftoolswillservetocompensatefortheirmechanicalimperfections。
Workmenthensoughtrathertoaidmuscularstrengththantosupersedeit,andmainlytofacilitatetheeffortsofmanualskill。Anothertoolbecameaddedtothosementionedabove,whichprovedanadditionalsourceofpowertotheworkman。WemeantheSaw,whichwasconsideredofsomuchimportancethatitsinventorwashonouredwithaplaceamongthegodsinthemythologyoftheGreeks。Thisinventionissaidtohavebeensuggestedbythearrangementoftheteethinthejawofaserpent,usedbyTalusthenephewofDaedalusindividingapieceofwood。FromtherepresentationsofancienttoolsfoundinthepaintingsatHerculaneumitappearsthattheframe-sawusedbytheancientsverynearlyresembledthatstillinuse;andweareinformedthatthetoolsemployedinthecarpenters’shopsatNazarethatthisdayareinmostrespectsthesameasthoserepresentedintheburiedRomancity。AnotherveryancienttoolreferredtointheBibleandinHomerwastheFile,whichwasusedtosharpenweaponsandimplements。
ThustheHebrews”hadafileforthemattocks,andforthecoulters,andfortheforks,andfortheaxes,andtosharpenthegoads。”*
[footnote……
1Samuel,ch。xiii。v。21。
Whentotheseweaddtheadze,plane-irons,theanger,andthechisel,wesumupthetoolsprincipallyreliedonbytheearlymechanicsforworkinginwoodandiron。
Suchcontinuedtobethechieftoolsinusedownalmosttoourownday。Thesmithwasatfirsttheprincipaltool-maker;butspecialbranchesoftradeweregraduallyestablished,devotedtotool-making。
Solong,however,astheworkmanreliedmainlyonhisdexterityofhand,theamountofproductionwascomparativelylimited;forthenumberofskilledworkmenwasbutsmall。Thearticlesturnedoutbythem,beingtheproductoftediousmanuallabour,weretoodeartocomeintocommonuse,andweremadealmostexclusivelyforthericherclassesofthecommunity。Itwasnotuntilmachineryhadbeeninventedandbecomegenerallyadoptedthatmanyoftheordinaryarticlesofnecessityandofcomfortwereproducedinsufficientabundanceandatsuchpricesasenabledthemtoenterintotheconsumptionofthegreatbodyofthepeople。
Buteveryimproveroftoolshadalonganddifficultbattletofight;
foranyimprovementintheireffectivepowerwassuretotouchtheinterestsofsomeestablishedcraft。Especiallywasthisthecasewithmachines,whicharebuttoolsofamorecompletethoughcomplicatedkindthanthoseabovedescribed。
Take,forinstance,thecaseoftheSaw。Thetediousdrudgeryofdividingtimberbytheoldfashionedhand-sawiswellknown。Toavoidit,someingeniouspersonsuggestedthatanumberofsawsshouldbefixedtoaframeinamill,socontrivedastoworkwithareciprocatingmotion,upwardsanddownwards,orbackwardsandforwards,andthatthisframesomountedshouldbeyokedtothemillwheel,andthesawsdrivenbythepowerofwindorwater。Theplanwastried,and,asmayreadilybeimagined,theamountofeffectiveworkdonebythismachine-sawwasimmense,comparedwiththetediousprocessofsawingbyhand。
Itwillbeobserved,however,thatthenewmethodmusthaveseriouslyinterferedwiththelabourofthehand-sawyers;anditwasbutnaturalthattheyshouldregardtheestablishmentofthesaw-millswithsuspicionandhostility。Hencealongperiodelapsedbeforethehand-sawyerswouldpermitthenewmachinerytobesetupandworked。
Thefirstsaw-millinEnglandwaserectedbyaDutchman,nearLondon,in1663,butwasshortlyabandonedinconsequenceofthedeterminedhostilityoftheworkmen。Morethanacenturypassedbeforeasecondsaw-millwassetup;when,in1767,Mr。JohnHoughton,aLondontimber-merchant,bythedesireandwiththeapprobationoftheSocietyofArts,erectedoneatLimehouse,tobedrivenbywind。TheworkwasdirectedbyoneJamesStansfield,whohadgoneovertoHollandforthepurposeoflearningtheartofconstructingandmanagingthesawingmachinery。Butthemillwasnosoonererectedthanamobassembledandrazedittotheground。Theprincipalriotershavingbeenpunished,andthelosstotheproprietorhavingbeenmadegoodbythenation,anewmillwasshortlyafterbuilt,anditwassufferedtoworkwithoutfurthermolestation。
Improvedmethodsofmanufacturehaveusuallyhadtoencounterthesamekindofopposition。Thus,whentheFlemishweaverscameovertoEnglandintheseventeenthcentury,bringingwiththemtheirskillandtheirindustry,theyexcitedgreatjealousyandhostilityamongstthenativeworkmen。Theircompetitionasworkmenwasresentedasaninjury,buttheirimprovedmachinerywasregardedasafargreatersourceofmischief。Inamemorialpresentedtothekingin1621wefindtheLondonweaverscomplainingoftheforeigners’competition,butespeciallythat”theyhavemadesobouldoflateastodeviseenginesforworkingoftape,lace,ribbin,andsuchlike,whereinonemandothmoreamongthemthan7Englishemencandoe;soastheircheapsaleofcommoditiesbeggerethallourEnglisheartificersofthattrade,andenricheththem。”*
[footnote……
StatePapers,Dom。1621,Vol。88,No。112。
Atamuchmorerecentperiodnewinventionshavehadtoencounterseriousriotingandmachine-breakingfury。Kayofthefly-shuttle,Hargreavesofthespinning-jenny,andArkwrightofthespinning-frame,allhadtoflyfromLancashire,gladtoescapewiththeirlives。Indeed,saysMr。Bazley,”sojealouswerethepeople,andalsothelegislature,ofeverythingcalculatedtosupersedemen’slabour,thatwhentheSankeyCanal,sixmileslong,nearWarrington,wasauthorizedaboutthemiddleoflastcentury,itwasontheexpressconditionthattheboatsplyingonitshouldbedrawnbymenonly!”*
[footnote……
LecturesontheResultsoftheGreatExhibitionof1851,2ndSeries,117。
Evenimprovedagriculturaltoolsandmachineshavehadthesameoppositiontoencounter;andinourowntimebandsofrurallabourershavegonefromfarmtofarmbreakingdrill-ploughs,winnowing,threshing,andothermachines,downeventothecommondrills,——notperceivingthatiftheirpolicyhadprovedsuccessful,andtoolscouldhavebeeneffectuallydestroyed,thehumanracewouldatoncehavebeenreducedtotheirteethandnails,andcivilizationsummarilyabolished。*
[footnote……
Dr。Kirwan,latePresidentoftheRoyalIrishAcademy,whohadtravelledmuchonthecontinentofEurope,usedtorelate,whenspeakingofthedifficultyofintroducingimprovementsintheartsandmanufactures,andoftheprejudicesentertainedforoldpractices,that,inNormandy,thefarmershadbeensolongaccustomedtotheuseofplough’swhosesharesweremadeentirelyofWOODthattheycouldnotbeprevailedontomaketrialofthosewithIRON;thattheyconsideredthemtobeanidleanduselessinnovationonthelong-establishedpracticesoftheirancestors;andthattheycarriedtheseprejudicessofarastoforcethegovernmenttoissueanedictonthesubject。Andeventothelasttheyweresoobstinateintheirattachmenttoploughsharesofwoodthatatumultuousoppositionwasmadetotheenforcementoftheedict,whichforashorttimethreatenedarebellionintheprovince——PARKES,ChemicalEssays,4thEd。473。
Itis,nodoubt,naturalthattheordinaryclassofworkmenshouldregardwithprejudice,ifnotwithhostility,theintroductionofmachinescalculatedtoplacethematadisadvantageandtointerferewiththeirusualemployments;fortopoorandnotveryfar-seeingmenthelossofdailybreadisanappallingprospect。Butinventiondoesnotstandstillonthataccount。HumanbrainsWILLwork。Oldtoolsareimprovedandnewonesinvented,supersedingexistingmethodsofproduction,thoughtheweakandunskilledmayoccasionallybepushedasideoreventroddenunderfoot。Theconsolationwhichremainsis,thatwhilethefewsuffer,societyasawholeisvastlybenefittedbytheimprovedmethodsofproductionwhicharesuggested,invented,andperfectedbytheexperienceofsuccessivegenerations。
Thelivingraceistheinheritoroftheindustryandskillofallpasttimes;andthecivilizationweenjoyisbutthesumoftheusefuleffectsoflabourduringthepastcenturies。Nihilpersaltum。
ByslowandoftenpainfulstepsNature’ssecretshavebeenmastered。