Theeconomicpositionwasthusassailedonmanypoints，thoughbyenemiesmutuallyopposedtoeachother。Thegeneraltendencyoftheeconomistswasagainstgovernmentinterference，andtheirmostpopulartriumphonapplicationofthedo-nothingprinciple。Inthefree-tradeagitation，theirmainopponentsweretheinterestedclasses，thelandowners，andthemerelystupidConservatives。Elsewheretheywereopposedbyagenuine，evenifamisguided，philanthropy；byConservativeswhowishedtomeetrevolutionnotbysimpleobstruction，butbyrousingthegovernmenttoasenseofitsduties。Southey’s’paternalgovernment’mightberidiculedbyMacaulayandtheWhigs；
Cobbett’sgoodoldtimesmightbetreatedasthefigmentofanignorantrailer。TheYoungEnglanderswhofoundtheirgospelinDisraeli’sSibylmightbetakentorepresentmerefancifulantiquarianismmasqueradingasseriouspolitics；andCarlyle，withhisfiercedenunciationsofthe’dismalscience’inChartismandtheLatter-DayPamphletssetdownasaneccentricandimpatientfanaticnaturallyatwarwithsoundreason。Theappropriateremedy，asMillthought，wasacalm，scientificexpositionofsoundprinciples。Hisadversaries，ashethought，reproducedinthemaintheoldsentimentalismagainstwhichBenthamandJamesMillhadwagedwar，takinganewcolouringfromasillyromanticismandweakregretsforapicturesquepast。Buttherewasaperplexingfact。ChurchmenandTorieswereactingasleadersoftheveryclassestowhomRadicalslookfortheirownnaturalallies。Shaftesburycomplainedthathecouldnotgettheevangelicalstotakeupthefactorymovement。32*Theyhadbeenthemainstayoftheanti-slaverymovement，buttheydidnotseemtobetroubledaboutwhiteslavery。Thereason，nodoubt，wasobvious；theevangelicalsweremainlyofthemiddleclass，andclassprejudicesweretoostrongfortheappealstoreligiousprinciples。Ontheotherhand，theRadicalartisanswouldacceptmenlikeSadlerorShaftesburyforleadersasadrowningmanmayaccepthelpfromanenemy。Thepointofagreementwassimplythatsomethingshouldbedone，andthatwasenoughtoalienatethepoormanfromWhigsandUtilitarians，whowerealwaysprovingthatnothingshouldbedone。
WhilethesecontroversieswereintheforegroundtheremarkablemovementofwhichMrandMrsSidneyWebb33*arethefirsthistorians，wasdevelopingitself。Workmenwerelearninghowtoorganiseeffectivetrades-unions，andco-operatorswereturningintoamorepracticablechannelsomeoftheaspirationsofwhichOwenhadbeentheprophet。WhatMillthoughtofsuchmovementswillappearpresently。Meanwhileitisenoughtosaythattheeconomistsgenerallyconfinedthemselvestothrowingcoldwateruponwhattheyheldtobeirrationalschemes。Theworkingclassescouldnotraisetheirpositionbycombination，thoughtheyhadanundeniablerighttotryfruitlessexperiments。
Theyweregoingastrayafterfalseprophets，andblindtothedaylightofatruescience。Theco-operativemovement，indeed，receivedawarmerwelcomewhenitcametobeknown。Buttheremarkablepointisoncemorethewidegapbetweenthe’philosophicalRadicals’andtheclasseswhomtheyaspiredtolead。Theaspirationsofthepoorerclasstookaformcondemnedassimplyabsurdandillogicalbythetheoriesoftheirwould-beleaders。34*
III。MALTHUSIANCONTROVERSY
PopularinstinctrecogniseditsnaturalenemyinMalthus。
’Malthusian’wasacompendiousphraseforanti-Christian，hard-hearted，grovelling，materialist，fatalistic。Theformalcontroversywasdyingout。Oneofthelast’confutations’wasbytheenthusiasticSadler，whichprovokedaslashingattackintheEdinburghbytherisinglightMacaulay。35*Alisonhadpreparedaponderoustreatise36*by1828，which，however，didnotappeartill1840，whenhispopularityasahistorianencourageditspublication。ThomasDoubleday1790-1870，anamiablemanandasturdyreformer，publishedhisTrueLawofPopulationin1831。37*Sadler，thechurchmanandphilanthropist，Alison，theponderousTory，andDoubleday，theRadical，areagreedupononepoint。Theyarealldefendingthebeneficenceofthedeity，andtakeMalthustobeadevil’sadvocate。Sadler，whowasamathematician，devotesthegreatestpartofhisbooktoadiscussion，helpedbyelaboratetables，ofthefamousgeometricalprogression。Alison，ofcourse，ramblesoverallthearticlesoftheToryfaith，defendingthecorn-laws，protection，andslaveryalongwiththefactoryacts，thepoor-law，andtheallotmentsystem，andexpoundinghissimplephilosophyofhistoryandtheinevitablecurrencyquestion。Therealdifficultyistoassigntheprecisepointatissue。IfMalthusistakenasassertingthat，asamatteroffact，populationactuallyandinvariablydoubleseverytwenty-fiveyears，oratanyratealwaysmultipliestostarvationpoint，itiseasyto’confute’him；butthenhehadhimselfrepudiatedanysuchdoctrine。If，ontheotherhand，youonlysaythatover-populationisinfactrestrainedbysomemeans，Malthushadsaidsohimself。Itwascommonground，forexample，thatgreattownswereunfavourabletopopulation；andMacaulaycouldfairlytellSadlerthatthiswasadmittedbyMalthus，andwasreallyacaseofthefamous’positivechecks。’38*Alisontakessimilargroundinmuchofhisargumentation。ThedifferenceseemstobethatSadlerandDoubledayassumeapre-establishedharmonywhereMalthustracestheactionof’checks。’Sadler，39*forexample，agreeswiththeopinionofMuret，ridiculedbyMalthus，thatGodhadmadetheforceoflife’ininverseratiotofecundity。’SadlerandDoubledayagreethat’fecundity’isdiminishedbycomfort。Menmultiplylessastheybecomericher，insteadofbecomingricherastheymultiplyless。J。S。MillsaysthatDoubledayaloneamongtheAnti-Malthusianshadsomefollowers，butthinksthatthisargumentissufficientlyconfutedbyaglanceattheenormousfamiliesoftheEnglishupperclasses。40*MacaulayhadtakenmoretroubletoreplybystatisticsdrawnfromthePeerage。Theoneobviouspointisthatnoneofthedisputantscouldproperlytalkof’scientificlaws。’WhatMalthushadindicatedwasa’tendency，’oraconsequenceoftheelasticityofpopulationwhichmightariseundercertainconditions，andtowhichitwasimportanttoattend。Butthisgivesnoapproachtoaformulafromwhichwecaninferwhatwillbetheactualgrowthundergivenconditions。MacaulayshowedclearlyenoughthefutilityofSadler’sreasoning。Itwashopelesstocompareareas，takenatrandom，largeandsmall，heterogeneousoruniform，indifferentcountries，climates，andsocialstates，andattemptbyasummaryprocesstoelicitadistinct’law。’Allmannerofphysiological，psychological，andsociologicalquestionsareinvolved；nottobesetasidebyahastyplungeintoawildernessofstatistics。Todiscoveratenable’lawofpopulation’weshallhavetowaitfortheconstitutionofhithertochaoticsciences。
Meanwhile，itmaybenoticedthattheWhigsasrepresentedbyMacaulaywereuponthismatterasdogmaticasJamesMillhimself，whosedogmatismMacaulayhadcensuredasroundlyashecensuredSadler。Malthus，infact，hadtriumphed；andMill’sMalthusianismdominateshiswholetreatise。HehadbeenbroughtupasanuncompromisingMalthusian；inyouthhehadbecomesomethingofamartyrinthecause，andheneverflinchedfromupholdingthegeneralprinciple。Whatwasit？Inanearlychapter41*ofhistreatisehelaysdowntheMalthusianpropositions。’Twentyorthirtyyearsago，’hesays，theymighthavebeeninneedofenforcement。Theevidenceis，however，soincontestablethattheyhavesteadilymadewayagainstallopposition，andmaynowberegardedas’axiomatic。’Thisincontestabledoctrine，asMillhereexplains，is，firstly，thatthehumanracecandoubleitselfinageneration；and，secondly，thattheobviousconsequencescanbeavoidedonlybylimitingthispowerthroughMalthus’spositiveorpreventivechecksthatis，byprudenceontheonehand，andstarvationanddiseaseontheother。42*Thisprudentialrestraint，then，is，ifnottheonethingnecessary，theuniversalconditionwithoutwhichnootherschemeofimprovementcanbesatisfactory。Itisthefocusuponwhichhiswholeargumentconverges。Mill，however，givesacharacteristicturntotheargument。Thedoctrinethattheprogressofsocietymust’endinshallowsandinmiseries’43*wasnot，ashadbeenthought，a’wickedinvention’ofMalthus。Implicitlyorexplicitly，itwasthedoctrineofhis’mostdistinguishedpredecessors’andcanonlybesuccessfullycombatedonhisprinciples。Thepublicationofhisessayistheerafromwhichbetterviewsofthissubjectmustbedated。’44*Itgivesthereallyfundamentalprinciple。
MillagreeswithMalthusthattherootofsocialevilisnottheinequalityofproperty。Evenanunjustdistributionofwealthdoesnotaggravate，butatmostaccelerates，theadventofmisery。’Withtheexistinghabitsofthepeople’anequaldivisionofpropertywouldonlycausethemtopopulatedowntotheformerstate。45*AndyetMillherepartscompanyfrom。
Malthusinthespirit，ifnotinthelogic，ofhisargument。
Malthusnodoubtwasthoroughlybenevolent，andlikemanyamiablecountryclergymendesiredtoseethespreadofsavingsbanks，friendlysocieties，andschools；buthewaspainfullyconsciousofthedifficultyofinfusingideasintothesodden，sluggishlabourersofhistime，andhopedratherforthediminutionofabusesthanfortheregenerationofmankind。Mill，onthecontrary，sympathisedwiththerevolutionistswhohadalarmedMalthus。Hetellsthem，indeed，withMalthus，thattheirschemesmustconformtoactualandinevitableconditions。Buthealsoholdsthatthe’existinghabits’ofthe’people’canbemateriallymodified；andbelievesthata’justdistributionofwealth’wouldtendtomodifythem。Malthusemphasisesthepointthatnothingcanbedoneunlessthestandardoflifeberaised。
Milldwellsontheotheraspect：ifthestandardberaised，anindefiniteimprovementcanbeeffected。WhatMalthustooktobeadifficultthoughnotimpassablebarrierMilltooktorepresentadifficultywhichmenmightbetrainedtorecogniseandsurmount。
HissanguinebeliefintheeducabilityofmankindenabledhimtoregardasarealisablehopewhattoMalthusinhisearlydayshadseemedamerevision，andeveninlaterdaysaremoteideal。ThevismedicatrixisthesameforMillasforMalthus，butMillhasafarmorevividexpectationoftheprobabilityofcuringthepatient。
IV。PEASANT-PROPRIETORSHIP
OneofMill’smostcharacteristicdoctrinesshowsconspicuouslythisrelation。MalthushadfoundinNorwayandSwitzerlandcommunitieswhichflourishedbecausetheyspontaneouslypractisedhisprinciples。’Itisworthyofremark，’
saysMill，46*’thatthetwocountriesthushonourablydistinguishedarecountriesofsmalllandedproprietors。’Thiscoincidencewasnotaccidental；andMill’sMalthusianismfallsinwithhisadmirationforpeasant-proprietorship。Hedivergedinthisrespectfromtheorthodoxeconomicaltradition。TheeconomistsgenerallyleftittosentimentaliststoregrettheBritishyeoman，andtoweepmusicallywithGoldsmithoverthetime’wheneveryroodofgroundmaintaineditsman。’WordsworthhaddweltpatheticallyuponthehomelyvirtuesoftheNorth-countrystatesman。47*Cobbetthadinhishappiestpassagesdweltfondlyupontheoldrurallife，anddenouncedinhisbitterestinvectivesthegreedylandownersandfarmerswhohadplunderedanddegradedtheEnglishpeasant。TheeconomistslookedatthematterfromthepointofviewrepresentedbyArthurYoung。Enclosecommons；consolidatesmallholdings；introducemachinery；giveafreehandtoenterprisinglandlordsandsubstantialfarmers，andagriculturewillimprovelikecommerceandmanufactures。Smallholdersareasobsoleteashandloomweavers；competition，supplyanddemand，andperfectfreedomoftradewillsweepthemaway，newmethodswillbeadopted，capitalintroduced，andthewagesofthelabourerberaised。M’Culloch，forexample，tookthisview；48*denouncedsmallholdings，andprophesied49*thatFrancewouldinfiftyyearsbecomethegreatest’pauper-warreninEurope。’AremarkableadvocateofasimilarviewwasRichardJones1790-1855，whoin1835succeededMalthusatHaileybury。50*JonesadmiredMalthusandacceptedwithqualificationstheaccountofrentgivenbyMalthusandWest。ButhedenouncedMalthus’ssuccessors，Ricardo，JamesMill，andM’Cullochforpreferring’anticipation’to’induction’，andventuringtostartwithgeneralmaximsanddeducedetailsfromthem。Jonesdeservesthecreditofperceivingtheimportanceofkeepinghistoricalfactswellinview。HeshowssufficientlythatRicardo’stheory，iftakentobeahistoricalstatementoftheactualprogressofevents，isnotcorrect。Herefusestodefinerent，buttreatshistoricallyofthevariouspaymentsmadeinrespectofland。Afterclassifyingthese，hedecidesthatrentoftheRicardiankindprevailsoverlessthanahundredthpartoftheearth’ssurface。Heconsidersit，however，asrepresentinganecessarystageofprogress。Itisfarsuperiortotheearlystages，becauseitsupposesthegrowthofaclassofcapitalists，abletodirectlabourandintroducethebestmethodsofcultivation。HenceJonescomesbyadifferentroutetoanagreementwithM’Culloch。Heprophesiesthatpeasant-proprietorswillrapidlyfallintowantandtheirnumbersbelimitedonlybythephysicalimpossibilityofprocuringfood。Theywerepreciselyinthepositionleastfavourabletotheactionofprudentialchecks。51*