venturestoerecttheresultsofhisindividualexperienceintoauniversalstandard，heislikelytooverratesomepleasuresandunderrateothers。
Perhapsthemostconvincingillustrationsofthisarefurnishedbythinkersnotoftheidealistortranscendentaltype，butprofessedHedonists，suchasEpicurusandHobbes。WecannotacceptasfairexpressionsoftheordinaryexperienceofthehumanraceeitherEpicurus’sidentificationofpainlessnesswiththehighestdegreeofpleasure，orHobbes’sasseverationthatthegratificationsofcuriosity``farexceedinintensityallcarnaldelights’’。
Thusweseemtobeinthisdilemma:themassofmankind，towhosecommonopinionwearenaturallyreferredforcatholicallyauthoritativebeliefsrespectingtheconditionsofhappiness，aredeficientinthefacultyorthehabitofobservingandrecordingtheirexperience:andusually，inproportionasamanis，bynatureandpractice，abetterobserver，thephenomenathathehastoobservearemoreandmoredivergentfromtheordinarytype。
Onthewhole，itmust，Ithink，beadmittedthattheHedonisticmethodcannotbefreedfrominexactnessanduncertaintybyappealingtothejudgmentsofcommonsenserespectingthesourcesofhappiness。AtthesametimeIwouldnotexaggeratethedifficultyofcombiningtheseintoatolerablycoherentbodyofprobabledoctrine，notuselessforpracticalguidance。Forfirst，itmustbeobserved，thatitisonlyoccasionallyandtoalimitedextentthatthesecommonlycommendedsourcesofhappinesscomeintocompetitionwithoneanotherandarepresentedasalternatives。Forexample，thepursuitofwealthoftenleadsalsotopowerbesidesthepowerthatliesinwealthandtoreputation:andagain，theseobjectsofdesirecanusuallybebestattained——asfarasitisinourpowertoattainthematall——byemploymentwhichinitselfgivesthepleasurethatnormallyattendsenergeticexerciseofone’sbestfaculties:andthiscongenialemploymentisnotincompatiblewithadequateexerciseoftheaffections，socialanddomestic；norwithcultivatedamusementwhichmustalwaysbecarefullylimitedinamountifitistobereallyamusing。Andnoonedoubtsthattocarryeitheremploymentoramusementtoadegreethatinjureshealthinvolvesgenerallyasacrificeofhappiness，nolessthanover-indulgenceinsensualgratifications。
Andasforthephilosophicalorquasi-philosophicalparadoxesastotheillusorinessofsensualenjoyments，wealth，power，fame，etc。，wemayexplainthewidespreadacceptancewhichthesefindbyadmittingacertaingeneraltendencytoexaggerationinthecommonestimatesofsuchobjectsofdesire，whichfromtimetotimecausesareactionandanequallyexcessivetemporarydepreciationofthem。Aswesawchap。iii。
itisnaturalformentovaluetoohighlytheabsentpleasuresforwhichtheyhopeandlong:powerandfame，forexample，arecertainlyattendedwithanxietiesanddisgustswhicharenotforeseenwhentheyarerepresentedinlongingimagination:yetitmaystillbetruethattheybringtomostmenaclearbalanceofhappinessonthewhole。Itseemsclear，again，thatluxuryaddslesstotheordinaryenjoymentoflifethanmostmenstrugglingwithpenurysuppose:therearespecialdelightsattendingthehard-earnedmeal，andtherarely-recurringamusement，whichmustbeweighedagainsttheprofuserpleasuresthattherichcancommand:sothatwemayfairlyconcludethatincreaseofhappinessisveryfarfromkeepingpacewithincreaseofwealth。Ontheotherhand，whenwetakeintoaccountallthepleasuresofCulture，Power，Fame，andBeneficence，andstillmorethesecuritythatwealthgivesagainstthepainsofprivationandtheanxietiesofpenury——fortheownerhimselfandthosewhomheloves——wecanhardlydoubtthatincreaseofwealthbringsontheaveragesomeincreaseofhappiness:atleastuntilamanreachesailincomebeyondthatofthegreatmajorityinanyactualcommunity。Thusonthewholeitwouldseemtobeareasonableconclusionthat，whileitisextravaganttoaffirmthathappinessis``equallydistributedthroughallranksandcallings’’，itisyetmoreequallydistributedthantheaspectofmen’sexternalcircumstanceswouldleadustoinfer:especiallyconsideringtheimportanceofthepleasuresthatattendtheexerciseoftheaffections。Again，commonsenseisquitepreparedtorecognisethattherearepersonsofpeculiartemperamenttowhomtheordinarypleasuresoflifearereallyquitetriflingincomparisonwithmorerefinedenjoyments:andalsothatmengenerallyareliabletofall，forcertainperiods，undertheswayofabsorbingimpulses，whichtakethemoutoftherangewithinwhichthejudgmentsofcommonsenseareevenbroadlyandgenerallyvalid。Noonee。g。expectsalovertocaremuchforanythingexcepttheenjoymentsoflove；norconsidersthatanenthusiastsacrificeshappinessinmakingeverythinggivewaytohishobby。
Infactwemaysaythatcommonsensescarcelyclaimstoprovidemorethanratherindefinitegeneralrules，whichnoprudentmanshouldneglectwithoutgivinghimselfareasonfordoingso。Suchreasonsmayeitherbedrawnfromone’sknowledgeofsomepeculiaritiesinone’snature，orfromtheexperienceofotherswhomonehasgroundforbelievingtobemorelikeoneselfthantheaverageofmankindare。Still，aswesaw，thereisconsiderableriskoferrorinthusappropriatingthespecialexperienceofotherindividuals:and，inshort，itdoesnotappearthatbyanyprocessofthiskind，——eitherbyappealingtothecommonopinionofthemany，ortothatofcultivatedpersons，ortothatofthosewhomwejudgemosttoresembleourselves，——wecanhopetosolvewithprecisionorcertaintytheproblemsofegoisticconduct。
Thequestionthenremains，whetheranygeneraltheorycanbeattainedofthecausesofpleasureandpainsocertainandpracticallyapplicablethatwemaybyitsaidriseabovetheambiguitiesandinconsistenciesofcommonorsectarianopinion，nolessthantheshortcomingsoftheempirical-reflectivemethod，andestablishtheHedonisticartoflifeonathoroughlyscientificbasis。TotheconsiderationofthisquestionIshallproceedinthelastchapterofthisbook:butbeforeenteringuponit，Iwishtoexaminecarefullyacommonbeliefastothemeansofattaininghappinesswhich——thoughithardlyclaimstorestuponascientificbasis——isyetgenerallyconceivedbythosewhoboldittohaveahigherdegreeofcertaintythanmostofthecurrentopinionsthatwehavebeenexamining。ThisisthebeliefthatamanwillattainthegreatesthappinessopentohimbytheperformanceofhisDutyascommonlyrecognisedandprescribed——exceptsofarashemaydeviatefromthisstandardinobediencetoatruerconceptionoftheconductbywhichuniversalgoodistoberealisedorpromoted。ThespecialimportanceofthisopiniontoawriteronMoralsrendersitdesirabletoreserveourdiscussionofitforaseparatechapter。
ThebeliefintheconnexionofHappinesswithDutyisonetowhichwefindageneraltendencyamongcivilisedmen，atleastafteracertainstageincivilisationhasbeenreached。Butitisdoubtfulwhetheritwouldbeaffirmed，amongourselves，asageneralisationfromexperience，andnotratherasamatterofdirectDivineRevelation，oraninevitableinferencefromthebeliefthattheworldisgovernedbyaperfectlyGoodandOmnipotentBeing。Toexaminethoroughlythevalidityofthelatterbeliefisoneofthemostimportanttasksthathumanreasoncanattempt:butinvolvingasitdoesanexhaustiveinquiryintotheevidencesofNaturalandRevealedReligion，itcouldhardlybeincludedwithinthescopeofthepresenttreatise。
Here，then，IshallonlyconsiderthecoincidenceofDutyandHappinessinsofarasitismaintainedbyargumentsdrawnfromexperienceandsupposedtoberealisedinourpresentearthlylife。Perhaps，assorestricted，thecoincidencecanhardlybesaidtobe``currentlybelieved’’:indeeditmaybesuggestedthattheoppositebeliefisimpliedinthegeneraladmissionofthenecessityofrewardsandpunishmentsinafuturestate，inordertoexhibitandrealisecompletelythemoralgovernmentoftheworld。Butreflectionwillshowthatthisimplicationisnotnecessary——foritispossibletoholdthatevenherevirtueisalwaysrewardedandvicepunished，sofarastomakethevirtuouscourseofactionalwaysthemostprudent；whileyettherewardsandpunishmentsarenotsufficienttosatisfyoursenseofjustice。Admittingthatthevirtuousmanisoftenplacedonearthincircumstancessoadversethathislifeisnotashappyasthatofmanylessvirtuous；itisstillpossibletomaintainthatbyvirtuehewillgainthemaximumofhappinessthatcanbegainedunderthesecircumstances，allappearancestothecontrarynotwithstanding。Andthisviewhascertainlybeenheldbymoralistsofreputationongroundsdrawnfromactualexperienceofhumanlife；andseemsoftentobeconfidentlyputforwardonsimilargroundsbypopularpreachersandmoralisers。Itappearsthereforedesirabletosubjectthisopiniontoacarefulandimpartialexamination。Inconductingthisexamination，atthepresentstageofourinquiry，weshallhavetousethereceivednotionsofDutywithoutfurtherdefinitionoranalysis:
butitiscommonlyassumedbythosewhoseviewwearetoexaminethattheseconceptions——astheyarefoundinthemoralconsciousnessofordinarywell-meaningpersons——areatleastapproximatelyvalidandtrustworthy；
andtheprecedingchapterswillhavefullyshownthatthegeneralisationsofHedonismmustbeestablished，ifatall，bylargeconsiderationsanddecisivepreponderances，andthatitwouldbeidleinconsideringaquestionofthiskindtotakeaccountofslightdifferences，andtopretendtoweighinourmentalscalescomparativelysmallportionsofhappiness。[2]
Accepting，then，
thecommondivisionofdutiesintoself-regardingandsocial，itmaybeconcededthatasfarasthefirstareconcernedtheviewthatweareexaminingisnotlikelytoprovokeanycontroversy:forby`dutiestowardsoneself’
arecommonlymeantactsthattenddirectlyorindirectlytopromoteone’shappiness。WemaythereforeconfineourattentiontothesocialdepartmentofDuty，andconsiderwhetherbyobservingthemoralrulesthatprescribecertainmodesofbehaviourtowardsothersweshallalwaystendtosecurethegreatestbalanceofhappinesstoourselves。
HereitwillbeconvenienttoadoptwithsomemodificationtheterminologyofBentham；andtoregardthepleasuresconsequentonconformitytomoralrules，andthepainsconsequentontheirviolation，asthe`sanctions’
oftheserules。These`sanctions’wemayclassifyasExternalandInternal。
Theformerclasswillincludeboth`LegalSanctions’，orpenaltiesinflictedbytheauthority，directorindirect，ofthesovereign；and`SocialSanctions’，whichareeitherthepleasuresthatmaybeexpectedfromtheapprovalandgoodwillofourfellowmengenerally，andtheservicesthattheywillbepromptedtorenderbothbythisgoodwillandbytheirappreciationoftheusefulnessofgoodconduct，ortheannoyanceandlossesthataretobefearedfromtheirdistrustanddislike。Theinternalsanctionsofduty——sofarasitdivergesfromtheconductwhichself-interestapartfrommoralitywoulddictate——willlieinthepleasurableemotionattendingvirtuousaction，orintheabsenceofremorse，orwillresultmoreindirectlyfromsomeeffectonthementalconstitutionoftheagentproducedbythemaintenanceofvirtuousdispositionsandhabits。Thisclassificationisimportantforourpresentpurpose，chieflybecausethesystemsofrulestowhichthesedifferentsanctionsarerespectivelyattachedmaybemutuallyconflicting。
ThePositiveMoralityofanycommunityundergoesdevelopment，andisthussubjecttochangeswhichaffecttheconsciencesofthefewbeforetheyareacceptedbythemany；sothattherulesatanytimesustainedbythestrongestsocialsanctionsmaynotonlyfallshortof，butevenclashwith，theintuitionsofthosemembersofthecommunitywhohavemostmoralinsight。
ForsimilarreasonsLawandPositiveMoralitymaybeatvariance，indetails。
Forthoughalawcouldnotlongexist，whichitwasuniversallythoughtwrongtoobey；theremayeasilybelawscommandingconductthatisconsideredimmoralbysomemoreorlessenlightenedfractionofthecommunity，especiallybysomesectorpartythathasapublicopinionofitsown:andanyindividualmaybesomuchmorecloselyconnectedwiththisfractionthanwiththerestofthecommunity，thatthesocialsanctionmayinhiscasepracticallyoperateagainstthelegal。
Thisconflictofsanctionsisofgreatimportanceinconsideringwhetherthesesanctions，asatpresentcapableofbeingforeseen，aresufficientinallcasestodeterminearationalegoisttotheperformanceofsocialduty:forthemorestresswelayoneitherthelegalorthesocialsanctionsofmoralconduct，thegreaterdifficultyweshallhaveinprovingthecoincidenceofdutyandself-interestintheexceptionalcasesinwhichwefindthesesanctionsarrayedagainstwhatweconceivetobeduty。
Butevenifweputthesecasesoutofsight，itstillseemsclearthattheexternalsanctionsofmoralityalonearenotalwayssufficienttorenderimmoralconductalsoimprudent。
Wemustindeedadmitthatinaneventolerablywell-orderedsociety——i。e。inanordinarycivilisedcommunityinitsnormalcondition——allseriousopenviolationoflawiscontrarytoprudence，unlessitisanincidentinasuccessfulprocessofviolentrevolution:andfurther，thatviolentrevolutionswouldveryrarely——perhapsnever——bemadebyacombinationofpersons，allperfectlyunderthecontrolofenlightenedself-love；onaccountofthegeneralandwidespreaddestructionofsecurityandofothermeansofhappinesswhichsuchdisturbancesinevitablyinvolve。Still，solongasactualhumanbeingsarenotallrationalegoists，suchtimesofdisorderwillbeliabletooccur:andwecannotsaythatunderexistingcircumstancesitisaclearuniversalpreceptofRationalSelf-lovethatamanshould``seekpeaceandensueit’’；sincethedisturbanceofpoliticalordermayoffertoacoolandskilfulperson，whohastheartoffishingintroubledwaters，opportunitiesofgainingwealth，fame，andpower，farbeyondwhathecouldhopeforinpeacefultimes。Inshort，thoughwemayadmitthatasocietycomposedentirelyofrationalegoistswould，whenonceorganised，tendtoremaininastableandorderlycondition，itdoesnotfollowthatanyindividualrationalegoistwillalwaysbeonthesideoforderinanyexistingcommunity。[2]
Butatanyrate，inthemostorderlysocietieswithwhichweareacquainted，theadministrationoflawandjusticeisneverinsoperfectastateastorendersecretcrimesalwaysactsoffolly，onthescoreofthelegalpenaltiesattachedtothem。Forhowevermuchthesemayoutweightheadvantagesofcrime，casesmustinevitablyoccurinwhichtheriskofdiscoveryissosmall，thatonasobercalculationthealmostcertaingainwillmorethancompensatefortheslightchanceofthepenalty。Andfinally，innocommunityisthelawactuallyinsoperfectastatethattherearenotcertainkindsofflagrantlyanti-socialconductwhichslipthroughitsmeshesandescapelegalpenaltiesaltogether，orincuronlysuchlegalpenaltiesasareoutweighedbytheprofitoflaw-breaking。