TheIdeaofJusticeinPoliticalEconomybyGustavSchmoller1881
AnnalsoftheAmericanAcademyofPoliticalandSocialScienceVolume4，（1893—4）
Germanedition：JahrbuchfurGesetzgebungVerwallung，undVolkswirtschaft。
volume1，newseries1881。
TranslatedbyErnestHalleandCarlSchutzIsthereajustdistributionofeconomicgoods？Orshouldtherebe？Thisisaquestionwhichisraisedagainto—day，aquestionwhichhasbeenaskedaslongashumansocietyandsocialinstitutionshaveexisted。Thegreatestthinkerofancienthistoryaskedthequestionandthousandsafterhimhaverepeatedit，sagesandscholars，greatstatesmenandhungryproletarians，thoughtfulphilanthropistsandenthusiasticidealists。
To—daythequestionseemslessopportunethanever。Eventhosewhopridethemselvesontheiridealismdeclareittobeoneoftheuselessquestionswhichnobodycananswer。
Aristotle’sideasofdistributivejusticearelookeddownuponasantiquatedandsetasidebytheprogressofscience。
Comparingsuperficiallythephenomenaofnaturewiththesocialprocesses，Darwin’stheoryofthestruggleforexistence，whichpermitsthestrongtooppresstheweakandexcludesallpossibilityofajustdistributionofearthlypossessions，isbroughtintoplay。Manypoliticaleconomistsalsodisregardthequestion，themoresothefathertheyareremovedfromphilosophicalinquiries，andthemoretheydelveintospecialquestionsremaining，despitemanyconcessionstomodernschools，intheirfundamentalviewsinthebeatenpathsofEnglishandGermandogmas，whichknownoothercategoriesthandemandandsupply。Theyhave，asarule，avague，half—consciousfeelingthatsocialismdemandsajusterdistributionofgoods，andhencetheconservativecitizenandfriendoforderhasnochoicebuttoopposethisidea。Thosewhoharborsuchthoughtsandfeelingsplacethemselves，itistrue，inthesharpestcontrasttothegreatfoundersofmodernsocialscience。
NoonewasevermoreconvincedthathisproposedreformswouldeffectamorejustorindeedanabsolutelyjustdistributionofgoodsthanAdamSmithorTurgot，ortheirsincerefollowers。Faithinthejusticeofitsdemandswasthebackboneoftheeconomicsofnaturallaw。Asaconsequenceof\"naturalfreedomandjustice，\"AdamSmithrequiresfreedomofmigrationandtrade。TothegreatestdiscipleofAdamSmith，forthushaveRicardo’sideasbeenrecentlycorrectlysummarized，freeindividualcompetitionappearstobetruestjusticetoalllaboringhumanity。Thisisnotaccidental。Nogreatsocialoreconomicreformcanconquerthesluggishresistancewhichopposesitbymerelyshowingitsutility。Onlywhenitcanbemadetoappearthatwhatisdemandedisthedemandofjustice，doesitinflameandmovethemasses。ForyearsIhavewatchedinpublicdiscussionsandineconomicpublicationshenandwherethequestionofjusticewasdrawnintoeconomicmatters，andIhavefoundthatinvoluntarilyitoccursalmosteverywhere。Indiscussingthebankquestion，theopponentofunsecurednotesdeclaresthemtobeaninjustice；whendutiesareproposed，thefree—traderclaimsfirstthattheyareunjust，thenimmoral，andonlyinthethirdplacethattheyareeconomicallyharmful。InalldiscussionsaboutthechangeintheGermancustomspolicyof1878，bothsidestriedtoprovethatwhattheopponentdesiredespeciallyinjuredtheworkingmanandthesmallcapitalist，andthusaffectedinthemostunjustwaythedistributionofincomeandwealth。Awell—knownpolitician，whodeclaresthediscussionofjusticeinthedistributionofincomeandwealthtobesuperfluous，fallsintothesamemistakewithwhichhereproacheshisopponents，inhispolemicagainstMarx。HedeclaresthepresentdistributionofwealthinGermanytobelegitimate，becauseitwasnotthepossessionofcolonies，nottheworkofslaves，butthehonestlaborofGermancitizenswhichcreatedthiswealth。Hethusunconsciouslycallsattentionquitecorrectlytothecentralideawhichto—daygovernsthepopularmindinregardtothejustdistributionofwealth。Aleadingspeakerofthefree—traders，intheReichstag，saidthatto—daythenaiveadvocacyoflowwagesdarenolongerventureintothelight。To—dayweconsiderconditionseconomicallysoundonlywhentheyguaranteetoeachparticipantintheworkajustparticipationintheearnings。Andheadds：\"Theeconomicidealisreachedwhenthegreatestproductionandthemostuniformdistributionamongtheparticipantsoftheprofitsearnedcoincide。\"
Whetherajustdistributionofgoodsexistsinrealityornot，aquestionwhichforthepresentIwillleaveunanswered，stillitisalwaysspokenof，thereisageneralbeliefinit；
thisbeliefisspeculatedupon，andithasitspracticalconsequences。
Thisbringsustothecorrectformulationofthequestionwithwhichwemustbegin。Wewouldnotfromanyprinciplewhatsoeverlogicallydeduceaformulawhosestrictapplicationwouldatalltimesproducejustice；wewouldsimplyandmodestlyputthequestion，Howdoesithappenthateconomictransactionsandsocialphenomenasooftenbringforthafavorableoradversecriticismwhichassertsthatthisisjust，thatunjust？Whenwehaveacorrectanswertothis，thenitwillbeeasytodrawfurtherconclusionsandtodecidewhatforce，weightandinfluencethisapprovingordisapprovingjudgmentwillexerciseretroactivelyonthesocialandeconomicphenomena。
I
Evenhewhoreducesallhumanimpulsesandactionstothefeelingsofpleasureandpainmustadmitthat，asfarasweknowhumannature，thereare，besideslowerimpulses，higherintellectual，aestheticandmoralones。Theygivetolifethoseidealaims，fromthemgrowthoseconceptionswhichaccompanyandinfluenceallhumanlife，allactions，allinstitutions，asidealvisionsofwhatoughttobe。Shouldwecalltheessenceofwhatoughttobe，theabstractGood，theabstractJustwouldbepartofit。Justiceisahumanvirtue。Ithasbeencalledthevirtueofvirtues。ItisthepermanenthabitofmankindtoadaptitsactionstotheideaswhichwecalltheabstractJust。TheJustperse，anythingabsolutelyjust，isfoundinrealityaslittleandasseldomasanythingabsolutelygood。TheJustisalwaysanidealconception，towhichrealitymayapproach，butwhichitwillneverattain；theethicaljudgmentthatanactionorthedeedsofamanarejustalwaysaffirmsonlythathisdeedscorrespondtoanidealconception，andonesingleactionmayperhapscompletelydothis；butaman’swholelife，societyasawholeanditsactionscanonlyapproachit。Whatkindofanactiondowecalljust？Thewordisusedindifferentsenses。Weoftenuseitmerelytoindicatethattheindividualisconformingtothelawsofthewhole，thathisactionsareinaccordwithpositivelaw。Weuseitalsointhemuchbroadersensetodescribehisactions，notsomuchascorrespondingtopositivelawastoitsideals。Weopposearightthatoughttobe—asthejust—tothepositivelaw，judgethelatterbytheformer，andcallactuallawunjustinsofarasitdoesnotcorrespondtothisideal。Theconceptionswhichguideusherein，andfromwhichwederiveourideaofthejust，arebynomeanssimple；ontheonehandthepeculiarnatureoflegalprescriptions，beingcertainformalrulesofsocialintercourse，andontheothertheidealaimsofsociallifewhichdeterminethematerialcontentsoflaw，combinetocreatethisideal。Conceptionsoftheperfectcommonwealthandoftheperfectindividualareassociatedinit。
Whenwespeakofwhatisjustinanarrowersense，whenweusethewordnotasitisusedinschools，butinthedailyusageofcommonspeech，weconsideronlyoneoftheseconceptions，orbetter，onlyoneoftheseco—operatingspheresofconception。
Whenwespeakofajustjudge，ajustpunishment，orjustinstitutions，weusuallyconceiveofasociety，anumberofpeople，acomparisonofthem，andafairdistributionofgoodandofbad，ofthatwhichcausespainandpleasure，measuredbyuniformobjectivestandards。Thespecificconceptionofjustice，theonewhichprincipallyinterestsushere，isthatofjusticeindistribution；italwayspresupposestheproportionalityoftwooppositequantities，oneofhumanbeingsandoneofgoodswhicharetobedistributed。Wenecessarilyclassifyinseries，accordingtoobjectivecharacteristics，everymultiplicityofpersonswhichappearstousinsomerespectasaunity；andtheidealconceptionofwhatoughttobe，demandsthedistributionofgoodsandevilsaccordingtothisclassification。Bythisstandardouridealalwaysmeasuresreality。Ourmoraljudgmentisalwaysactiveinestimatingtheactionsofmen，theirvicesaswellastheirvirtuesandtheirachievementsthatisincomparingandclassifyingthem。Oursocialinstinctiseveractiveinfixingtherelationoftheindividualandhisdoingstothewholeofthecommunity，oftheStateandofhumanity，inmeasuringandlocatingthemaccordingly。Withrelentlessnecessitytheconvictionalwaysgovernsusthatthisclassificationmustdeterminethedistributionofhonorsandpoliticalinfluence，ofposition，ofincomesandpunishments。Thesimilarshouldbetreatedalike，thedissimilarunlike。Itisareciprocityofhumanactionswhichwedemand。Themaintenanceofreciprocityappearsjust，itsdisregardunjust。Inanunjustproportiononepartobtainstoomuch，theothertoolittle。Theunjustusurpstoomuchofthegoodtobedistributed，theunjustlysufferingreceivestoolittle。
Wecallanelectionsystemjustwhichdistributespoliticalinfluenceaccordingtoindividualabilityandmeritinstateandcommunity。Wecallapenalcodejustwhich，inspiteofthemanifoldvarietyofmisdemeanorsandcrimes，inspiteoftheseemingincomparabilityofthedifferentpunishments，hasfoundauniformlyweighingsystemwhichparallelsoffencesandpunishmentsinaccordancewithpublicsentiment。Wespeakofajustgradationofsalaries，ofajustpromotionofofficersineverystockcompany，ineveryrailroad，aswellasinthearmy，andinthehierarchyofStateofficials。Wespeakofajustdistributionoftaxes，ofajustgradationofwages，ofjustprofits，ofajustinterestonloans。Andalwaysthereisthesameconceptioninthebackground：menaregroupedandclassifiedaccordingtocertaincharacteristics，qualities，deedsandaccomplishments，descentandprosperity。Burdensandadvantagesshouldcorrespondtotheseclasses。
Theprofitofanundertakingissaidtobejustlyhigherthantherateofinterest，becauseagreaterriskandanindemnityforlaborarethereininvolved，bothofwhichareforeigntointerest。Interestoncapitalisjustbecausethelenderforegoesapossibleprofitorenjoyment，becausetheborrowerisinamuchworsepositionwithoutthisaid，andbecausefortheserviceoftheoneaconsiderationfromtheotherseemsjust。Thehighearningsofthewell—knownphysicianorlawyerarejust，suchisAdamSmith’sargument，becauseofthelargenumberwhogotogreatexpenseintheirstudies；manyhaveverysmallincomes；thechosen，ableonesarethusinamannercompensatedtherefor。
Everyhouse—wife，everyservantgirl，dailyandhourlythinksthispriceandthatunjust，andthisalwaysonthegroundofcomparisons，classificationsandvaluations。Mostimportant，however，isthejudgmentofthejusticeorinjusticeoftheconditionofsocialclassesingeneral。
Aristotlecallsslaveryjustwhenmasterandslavearebynatureasdifferentassoulandbody，asgoverningwillandexternalinstrument。Then，hesays，itisanatural，intrinsicallyjustifiedslavery；theexternallegalrelationofsocietycorrespondstohumannature。Exactlythesamecanbesaidofallsocialgradationsandclassifications。Wefeelthemtobejustasfaraswefindtheminaccordwithourobservationsofsimilarordissimilarqualitiesoftheclassesinquestion。Thepublicmindhasnever，apartfromtimesoferrorandexcitement，begrudgedhonor，richesandpositiontothosewhoseactions，whoseabilitiescorrespondinglyexcelled。Itfoundfaultwiththeconditionofthemiddleandlowerclasseswheneveritobservedthatmenofthesamerace，thesamecreed，thesamecommunity，weremaltreatedbytheirequalsandwereheldinasubjectionnotcorrespondingtotheireducationandmerit。Allclassstrugglesofthepasthavearisenfromthesesentiments。Thegreatestpoliticiansandpopularleadersofalltimes，aswellasthegreatestkingsandCaesars，placedthemselvesattheheadofmovementswhich，originatinginoppressed，abusedandmaltreatedclasses，aspired，successfullyorotherwise，toaremovalofunjustsocialconditions。Theseclass—struggleshaveoftenbeenonlyforpoliticalrights，forhonors，orformarriagerights。
Theessentialelement，however，wasalwaysaneconomicquestion，thedistributionofincomesandwealthortheconditionsandavenuestothem，thepossibilitiesofacquisition；forinthesocialstruggleforlife，economicexistenceisthemostimportantfactor。
Andthereforethequestionalwaysarisesherealso，whetherthatwhichis，isjust。Isthisrestrictionoftrade，thisorthatinstitutiontouchingthedistributionofwealth，isthisentiredistributionofincomesjust？
Thisquestion，indeed，isnotalwaysequallyemphasized；thefeelingswhichspringfromtheanswerdonotatalltimesequallyinfluencethemassesandsingleparties。Thejudgment，thatacertainclassificationanddistributionofincomesisjustorunjust，isofcoursenottheonlyonethatisgivenaboutthesocialphenomenoninquestion。Noristhisjudgment，eventhoughthousandsareagreeduponit，theonlypowerwhichrulesthedistributionofincomes。Butthisjudgmentistheonlypsychologicalbasisfromwhichalldemandsfortherightofequalityhavearisen。Itisthebasisofallindividualism。Fromthestandpointofmankindtheremaybeotherdemands；mankindanditsinterestsdemandsacrificesintheupperaswellasinthelowerranks。Thepracticalrepresentativesofthisstandpointinpoliticallifemust，therefore，necessarilyseektocombatortoweakentheconclusionsresultingfromthisfundamentalprincipleofindividualism。Andfromtheirstandpointtheyarejustifiedinsodoing。Butequallyjustifiedontheotherhandisthestandpointofindividualism；anditisthiswhichdemandsjustice，proportionalityofdutiesandrights；itdemandsequalityforequal，inequalityforunequalmen。Theprincipleofcivil，politicalandsocialequalitywillneverhaveafirmfoundationunlessoneseeksitinthisconnection。Everylimitationoftheprincipleofequality，otherthanthatwhichispromptedbythequalitiesandmeritsofmen，isarbitrary。
Materialjusticedemandsequalrightsonlyinsofarasitobservesequalqualities，asitpresumesthepossibilityofequalachievementandfulfillmentofduties。
II
Thustheapprovingordisapprovingjudgmentofthejusticeofhumanactionsorinstitutionsalwaysrestsonthesamepsychologicalprocesses。Buttheresultstowhichitcomesmaybeverydifferent。Howwoulditotherwisebepossiblethattheconceptionsofjusticeofbarbarians，ofheathens，ofChristians，ofmenofmodernculture，differsomuchthatsomethingdifferentisalwaysdemandedunderthepleaofjustice？Evenwithinthesamenationandthesameperiodthecontroversyastowhatconstitutesjusticewillnevercease；butfromtimetotimecertainjudgmentswillsucceedinplacingthemselvesinthedominatingcentreoftheprogressivemovement，certainresultsofformerintellectualcontestswilldescendtoposterityasasecuredinheritance；andaslongasthenightofbarbarismdoesnotbreakinagaintheywillruleandinfluenceitmoreandmore。
Ifwenowtrytoexplainsomewhatmorefullythepsychologicalprocessesinquestion，thefirststepalwaysseemstobetogroupinourconceptionsanumberofmenintobodiesofmoralcommunity。Thesebodiesarethencomparedandtestedaccordingtotheirqualitiesandactions。Theequalitiesaresearchedforandfoundbythejudgment，theinequalitiesandtheirdegreesaretriedbytheestimatingandvaluingsense。Itisintherealmofthefeelingsinwhichallthefinaldecisionsonthismostimportantpointarereached。Allfeelingsfinallyresolvethemselvesintoanadjudgingordisparaging，intoanestimationandasensationofthatwhichfurthersandthatwhichimpedesus；theyaredecisionsontheworthofmenandthings。
Anduponthisnowfollowsfinallythesimplelogicalconclusion：
thepersonswhomIamtoconceiveasamoralcommunitymust，asfarashumaninterventionreaches，betreatedequallyinthemeasureoftheirequality，unequallyinthemeasureoftheirinequality。
Thegroupsofpersonsintowhichourconceptionsnecessarilyclassifymankindaremanifold。Themembersofthefamilyandthetribe，thebellowsofasocietyandacommunity，thecitizensofaStateandofafederation，themembersofachurchandofarace，finallyallhumanityinacertainsensecanbesogrouped，butonlyinsofarastheyformamoralcommunityandpursuecertaincommonends。Whosoeverstandswithoutthegroupisforeigntothecomparison，isnotcomprisedinthejudgmentofwhatisjust。Henceabarbariandoesnotthinkitunjusttokillthestranger；onlytheconceptionofamoralcommunitybetweenallnationsandallmenpreventsthis。LikewiseitdoesnotseemtomeunjustthatanEnglishmanpaysdoublethetaxespaidbyaGermanofequalincome。Withthevarietyofdifferenthumanpurposesandcommunitiesthesamemanappearsatonetimelikehisfellows，atanotherunlike。Inaclubofanykindwhichclaimsbutasmallfractionofourinterest，weseenoinjusticeinapercapitaassessmentwhichwewouldconsiderunbearableinaStateorcommunity。Itaccordswithourideaofjusticethatallyoungandvigorousmenhaveanequaldutyinthedefenceofourcountry，whereasforotherpublicandsocialpurposestheyshowthegreatestdissimilarities，andareaccordinglytreateddifferently。
Thejudgmentofequalityorinequalityis，therefore，alwaysaverycomplicatedone。Notonlymustthehumanqualitiesanddeedsbeconsideredperse，butalsointheirrelationstotheaimsofhumansociety。Inonegroupingandclassificationwehaveinviewonlysomeonecertainwell—definedqualityofmankind；inanotherweattemptaweighingofallqualities，weseektheaveragehumanbeing。Ashipwreckedparty，whichhassaveditselfinaboattoosmalltocarryall，willbeapttovaluealltheircompanionsequallyinthequestionoflifeanddeath，andcastlotsequallyforall。Buttheprovisionswhichhavebeensavedwillbedistributedaccordingtothevariousneeds，i。e。，theseamanattheoarwillbegiventwiceasmuchasthethree—year—oldchild。Inatribeofwarlikenomadsthebravestfighter，inthejockeyclubthebestrider，isfairlygivenapreferencewhichwouldappearunjustinothergroupsofmen。EveninthefamilyandintheStateacertainkindonlyofqualitiesoractionsoftenformsthebasisofjudgment。Thejudgeonthebenchcaresonlyforcertainwrongfulacts；thefatherwhowishestobequeaththesametoeachchild，becausehethinksthisjust，willnotdenytheirdissimilarityinmanyrespects。TheState，however，willdistributehonorsanddignitiesinthenearestpossiblerelationtotheaverageofqualitiesmostimportanttoit。Everyelection，everypromotionisgovernedbyanaverageofcompositeimpressions。Thejudgmentuponajustorunjustdistributionofwealthandincomewillalwaysrestonasimilarbasis。
Whetheritbeasinglequalityoraction，orasumofthem，thosewhichareconsideredaresuchasrelatetotheaimsandendsofthecommunity。Andtheymaynaturallybeofthegreatestvariety，mayinclude，forinstance，evenphysicalstrengthorbeauty。Inanathleticclubitseemsjusttogiveaprizetothestrongestman，intableauxvivantstofavorabeautifulwoman。Asarule，however，insocialbodiesofahigherorderthosequalitiesaretobeconsideredwhich，likevirtueandtalent，areofthegreatestservicetothem，whichmanifestthemselvesinactionsadvantageoustothecommunity。Oftenthereareveryheterogeneousqualitiestobecompared，astheaimsofthegreatmoralcommunities，especiallyoftheState，arethemostvarious。
Thequestioncanarise，isthebravegeneralorthegreatstatesman，thegreatpainterorthegreatsinger，ofgreaterUniversalvalue？Thedecisionisgivenbypublicsentimentaccordingtothatclassificationofpurposeswhichappearsatthemomenttobethecorrectone，andfollowingitwefindaverdictofthepublicwhichdeclaresthesalaryofageneral，ofasecretaryofstateorofasingertobejustorunjust。
Quiteasdifficultasthecomparisonofdifferentqualitiesoractsisthevaluationoftheinequalitiesinthesamesphereofhumanaction。Thatthestatesmandeservesahighersalarythanhissecretary，thattheheadofagreatfirmearnsmorethanhiscashier，andthelattermorethantheyoungestclerk，thatthedesignerinafactoryismoreimportantthantheporter——inallthis，publicsentimentandvaluationagree。Butwhenthegradesofinequalityaretobemeasuredandtobeexpressedinfigures，whichisindispensableinallthepracticalquestions，therewillbemanydifferencesofopinion；andfromthispointofviewindeedtheopinionmightbeupheldthatthepsychologicaljudgmentswhichformthefoundationsoftheconceptionsofthejustarealwaysachaoswithoutunityandclearness。Theobjectionwhichwesooftenmeetonthefieldofaestheticjudgmentseemsobvious，thatthereisnogeneraljudgment，thatallisamatterofindividualtaste，thatmereindividualprocessesoffeelingareinquestion，whichareimmeasurablyentangled，andwhichafoolalonecouldregardasabasisofpublicaffairsandinstitutions。
Thiswouldinfactbetrue，iftheindividualthoughtsandsentimentsofmenwere，indeed，onlytheproductofindependentandisolatedindividuals。Buteverydispositionofmind，everyword，everyidea，everyconception，moreprofoundlyexamined，istheresultnotofanindividual，butofasocialprocess。Thegreatestgeniuseventhinksandfeelsasamemberofthecommunity；ninetypercentofwhathepossessesisatrustconveyedtohimbyforefathers，teachers，fellow—creatures，tobecherishedandbequeathedtoposterity。Themajorityofeverydaypersonsarelittlemorethanindifferentvesselsintowhichflowthefeelingsandthoughtsofprecedingandcontemporarymillions。
Languageisaproductofsociety。Bymeansofthespokenword，Herbartsays，thoughtandfeelingpassoverintothemindofanother。Theretheyoriginatenewfillingsandthoughts，whichforthwithcrossthesamebridge，toenrichtheideasofthefirst。Thusithappensthatthesmallestpartofourthoughtsoriginatesinourselves，andthatwedraw，asitwere，fromapublicstorehouse，andparticipateinauniversalgenerationofthoughtstowhicheachindividualmakesonlyacomparativelyscantycontribution。
Supposingforthemomentthatthefeelingsonwhichtheestimatingjudgmentsofwhatisjustarefounded，remainwhollyintheobscurerealmofmentaltemperaments，eveninthisstagetheyarenotapsychologicalchaos，butarhythmicmovementofmasses。Andthemoretheyrisetojudgmentsandstandardsofvaluation，themorethementaltemperamentsarecondensedthroughthemediumofpublicdiscussion，todecisionswhichpossessdistinctcharacteristicsandcriteria，themorewehavebeforeusmass—judgmentswhicharenotquiteuniform，itistrue，butstillclassedaccordingtomasses，groupedaccordingtocentresandauthorities，andwhichareclear，firmandgenerallyadmitted。Onaccountofthesamequalities，inregardtothesamepurposes，theygivethesameresultsagainandagainandbecometherulingstandardsofvaluation。
Everyperiodhasprevailingconventionalstandardsofvaluationforhumanqualitiesanddeeds，virtuesandvices；itconventionallyvaluesthiskindofactionmorehighlythanthat，andsodemandsaccordinglyinonecasegreaterrewardsorgreaterhonors，inanothersevererpunishmentsorsmallerincomes。Theseconventionalstandardsofvaluationaremoreorlessthestarting—pointofeveryjudgmentofjustice。Anewandchangedconceptionismeasuredinthefirstinstancebyitsdeviationfromthetraditions。Aseveryfixationofpriceinsocietyisnotanewtheresultofdemandandsupply，butasdemandandsupplyonlytrytomodifytraditionalvalues，soitisalsowiththevaluingjudgmentsofjusticeorinjustice。Thesumofthatwhichhasbeenhandeddownasjust，invariablyformstherealbasisofalljudgments。Arefinedintuitionofrightdemandsachangehereandthere；inoppositiontothesumtotalofconceptionsofthejust，thisisonlyasingle，butanimportantpoint。
Inexistingcustomsandinexistinglaw，theseconventionalandtraditionalstandardsofvaluationhavetheirrealbulwark；
thustheyhaveassumedaformwhichfirmly，rigidlyanduniformlygovernswidecirclesofmankind，andinthatwell—definedformtheyarehandeddownfromgenerationtogeneration。Buttheyalsocanbefoundoutsideofthissolidground；theyoriginateeverywherefromrepetitionsofsimilarcasesandformthebasisofjudgmentsofwhatisjust。Thesejudgments，indeed，arisedailyandhourlyinthemindofeverythoughtfulmaninregardtoallsocialrelationsoflife；theyarenotconfinedtoactuallaw。Infamilylifethesisterthinksitunjustthatthebrotherisfavored；ineverysocialcircle，visits，invitations，evensmiles，looksandcomplimentsareresentedasunjustpreferences。
Thementalprocessesarethesamewhetherhereoronthegroundofactuallaw。Everywhereitisinthemaintraditionalstandardswhichgovernourjudgment。Thesetraditionalandconventionalstandardsarethehistoricalprecipitateoftheconceptionofjusticeofhundredsofmillionsofmen，onwhoseshoulderswestand。Throughthesetraditionstheseeminglyirregular，thecasualandindividualtakesfirmbodyandlastingforminspiteofconstanttransformationsandrenewals。
Fromthisstandpointwecaneasilyrefutethenaiveobjectionthatthereisnowaytoapplytheconceptionofthejusttoeconomicmatters，because，itissaid，incomparablequantitiesandqualitiesareinquestion，thedifferentkindsofwork，thefunctionsoftheemployerandtheday—laborerbeingimmeasurablebyanycommonstandard。Theyforgetthattheformationofpricesinthemarketequalizesthatwhichisseeminglyincomparable，as，forinstance，aneditionofGoetheandabottleofchampagne；
thatineverypenalcodetwothingswhichappeartobestillmoreheterogeneous，afineofsoandsomuchmoneyandaday’simprisonmentareinafixedratioaccordingtoaconventionalstandard。Everywhereinthequestionsofpricesandoflawthetraditionalandconventionaljudgment，thatthisistobecalledequalandnotthat，isfundamental。Onlyshouldwehavetobegineverymomenttoformourjudgmentsanewwouldthisobjectionbereasonable。Asthingsare，thefactremainsthattheaverageearningsoftheemployer；comparedtothewagesofthelaborer，canberaisedorloweredbyachangeindemandandsupplywithinsuchaneconomicorganizationasexiststo—day；thatindependentlythereof，inconsequenceoftraditionalstandardsontheonehandandofthemodernsentimentsandidealsontheother，thischange，assoonasithasreachedacertainextent，willappearjustorunjust。
Andwhenevertheseandsimilarquestionsarediscussed，whenopinionsdifferaboutthem，thecontroversyisnot，asarule，betweenthosewhowishtoapplythecategoriesofjusticetothesephenomena，andthosewhodenytheirapplicability；butthestruggleisbetweenolderandtraditionalstandardsofjudgmentandnewones，theidealsoftheeighteenthcenturywiththoseofthenineteenth；thestruggleisbetweenacruderconceptionofrightandamorerefinedone，betweenidealswhoserealizationisto—dayimpossibleandthosethatareattainablethroughthecustomsandthelawofourage；finallyidealconceptionsofjusticewhichhavealreadybeenco—ordinatedwithothernotlessjustifiedidealsarearrayedagainstthosewhichhavechosenprinciplesofjusticeexclusivelyfortheirbattle—cry。
Andjustbecausethisstruggleneverceasesthereis，aswehaveseenabove，nosimple，universallyintelligible，familiarandapplicableformulaofjustice。Theconceptionsinquestionmayallbereducedtothisfundamentalidea：everyoneaccordingtohismerit，\"suumcuique\"；butthepossibleapplicationofthisruleisalwaysdifferentaccordingtothepossibilityofinnumerableconceptionsofvalue，estimations，groupingsandclassifications。Theabstractpretension，forexample，thatinlabororeveninhandiworkreststheuniquestandardofjusticeisinequalrightwiththeotherpretensethattalent，virtueoreventhehumanfacemustbetakenintoaccount。Incertainspheresandinrespecttocertainaimsonlywilloneformulaortheothergraduallyproveitsjustificationandthusgainrecognition。
Butwhatisitthatgivesthefinaldecisioninthiscontestofopinions？Isitlogicalreasoning？Apparentlynot，oratleastnotprimarily。Muchasinthestruggleforpublicandsocialinstitutions，allkindsoflogicalreasonsforthejusticeofacauseareappealedto，theyseldomconvinceandalwaysseemmoreorlessflat。Atleasttheydonotconvincetheopponent，althoughtheyarecapableofincitingtheirfollowerstoenthusiasticanddesperatestruggles。Andthisisnatural。Theyarenotlogicaldecisions。Whethertheybetraditionalstandardsofvaluation，whoseimmemorialageorevendivineoriginimpressesourspiritsornewerconceptions，whichbythepowerofpassioninflamethedisciplesofaschool，aparty，themembersofaclassorapeople，thefinaldecisionrestswiththeheart，withtheinnermostcentreofhumansoulandmind。
Thisexplainsthevastpossibilityoferror，ofdelusion，ofvehementpassions。Idealsofjusticemayappearinthemostdistortedforms，initsnamethemostinsaneaswellasthehighestandholiestthingsaredemanded。Longstrugglesareoftennecessarytopurifyconceptsoftheirerrorsandtodeveloptheidealinitspurity。Butatthesametimetheinwardconnectionbetweentheconceptionsofthe\"just\"andthedepthofhumanemotionsexplainsthemagicpoweroftheireffect。Thatwhichmovestheinmostheartdominatesthewills，theegoism，inspiresdeedsofvalor，carriesawaytheindividualandmillionstodeedsandsacrifices。Hencethemysterythatapoliticalplatform，aneconomiccontrivance，onlyinfluenceswhereitseemsanoutcomeofjustice。Hencetheinvoluntarytendencytoappealtojusticeineverydiscussion。Hencealsothefactthatthesametheorywhichproposesademandofjusticeasitsconsequenceoftenismadebyindividuals，butrepudiatedbypublicopinion；andthensuddenlywithirresistibleelementaryforceittakesholdofthemasses，leadsthemonnewpaths，radicallyinfluenceslegislationandputsachangedstamponwholeepochs。
III
Letusreturnfromdiscussingthepsychologicalaspectofthequestion，tothemainsubstanceofourdiscourse，whichwehavehithertoonlygrazed，ortoucheduponbywayofillustrations。Wehavenowtoinquirewhetherthedistributionofincomeandwealthisfelttobejustorunjustatallandunderwhatcircumstancesandconditions。
Ifweconfineourselvestothestrictlyphilosophicalreflectionsofancientandmoderntimes，therescarcelyseemstobeanycontroversyaboutthequestion。FromAristotle’sdoctrineofjusticeindistributiontothephilosophersofto—day，thereiscontroversyoverthepracticaleffectofthejudgmentsinquestion，buthardlyoverthejudgmentsthemselves。Amongmorerecentthinkers——onlytomentionafew——Herbartconceivesthepenalsystemandtheeconomicconditionsofanationasaunitedwhole；whatelsewhereiscalledjusticehedenominatesasequity。
Onequityhisso—calledsystemofwages，whichcomprisestheeconomicconditionsandthepenallawofanation，isbuiltup；
thejudgmentrequiresrecompenseforbenefitsandretributionformisdeeds。Theconceptionsofthewagesystemmust，accordingtoHartenstein，beappliedequallytobenefitsandmisdeeds。\"Thegeneralideamustbemaintained，thatthesocialinstitutionsandactionsshouldbecapableandfittedtorequiteequallymeritandoffence。\"AndTrendelenburg，inasimilarfashion，affirmsthatthemoralestimationofpoliticalandeconomicaffairsis，atbottom，derivedfromthesamestandpoint。\"Indeed，\"hesays，\"inthestructureoftheStatetheconstantproportionbetweendutiesandrightsisthefundamentalideaofjustice，andthesameproportionbetweenlaborandearningsshouldbeaimedatinprivateintercourse，butthemarketpricemakestheexponentsovariable，thatitcausesaconstantinequality。\"Theexecutionthusseemsdimtohim；butitappearstohimtheidealcondition，thatlaborandearningsshouldaccord，asdutydoeswithright。
Thereisnodoubtthatthisconceptionisconfrontedbyanotherwhichresultsfromtheinvestigationofdetails，whichisnottheoutgrowthofpopularinstinctsandsentiment，andisevenofteninvoluntarilydeniedbyitsveryrepresentatives，butthroughtheauthorityofcertaindoctrineshasbecomeneverthelessofgreatimportanceforpracticallife。Imeantheconceptionwhichseesinthedifferencebetweenrichandpooronlyanoccurrenceofnature。Intheinvestigationoftheimmediatecausesofthedistributionofwealth，thisconceptionisnotabletodiscovertheremotercauses。Itseesonlydemandandsupply，proportions，naturalphenomena，climaticinfluences，theaccidentsoflifeanddeath；alltheseareunquestionablymechanicalcauseswhichinfluencethisorthatdistributionofincomes。Theearningsoftheindividual，itissaid，aredeterminedbythe\"strengthandtheluckoftheindividual。\"
FreeintercourseappearsastheanalogyoftheDarwinianstruggleforexistence。Mightmakesright；purposesandmoraljudgmentsarenothereinconsideration，oronlytoalimitedextent。Sofarasmankinddemandsajustdistributionofincomes，theirideasateinthemainfoolish；justicemayatthemostbedemandedoftheStatewhenitintervenesdirectly；opposedasitistofreeintercourseandthelegitimateinfluenceoffortune，thisstrivingiswrong。\"Shallwe，\"wehearfromthisquartet，\"censureourGod，thatHesofrequentlyinterferesunjustly？
ShallweprescribetoHimwhereHislightningsshallstrikeandwhereHeshallpermitthebulletstohit？Shallwequarrelwithnaturebecauseshegrantsthedeliciousfruitsofthesouthandanolympicexistencetoonerace，whileshebanishesanothertothereekinghovelsofthearctic？\"
Wewillnotdismissthisconceptionofthingsbytheaccusationofmaterialism，for，thoughmaterialistic，itneverthelesshasthemeritofbeingrealisticandofhavingfurtherdetailedinvestigationincertaindirections。Butwhateveritsmeritsinthisdirection，ourquestionisnotreallytouchedatallbythesearguments。Theindividualscholarwho，inhisresearches，considersonlyforces，proportions，demandandsupply，andendeavorstograspthem，mayignorethequestionwhethertheresultbejust，butthepopularmindwillalwaysrepeatthequestionaslongasitseesbeforeithumanactions。
Butonlytothisextentandalwaystothisextent；andfurthermoretheuncertainresultsoffortuneandthecourseofnaturalprocessesalsowillappearjustorunjusttohimwhobelievesthattheyaregovernedbyajustProvidencerulinganalogouslytohumanactions；maythecompensationonlyoccurinanotherworld，itisexpectedanddemandedbythesoul。
Whenontheotherhandtheintellectseesbutblindforces，itconsolesitselfwiththeargumentthatitisnotthetaskofhumanitytomasterthem；thenhewillnolongerdemandjusticefromtheflashinglightning，fromthehostilebulletfromthedemonofcholeraandthesunnyzephyrs，butalwaysfromallconsciousactionsofhumanbeings。
Thedistinctionisthereforenot，ashasbeenclaimed，betweenStateandchance，Stateandfreeintercourse，governmentaldistributionanddistributionbydemandandsupply，buttheantithesisisthis：Asfarashumanactiongovernsandinfluencesthedistributionofincomes，sofarthisactionwillcreatethepsychologicalprocesseswhosefinalresultisthejudgmentwhichfindsthedistributionjustorunjust；sofarasblindextra—humancausesinterfere，reasonablereflectionwilldemandthatmenshouldsubmittothemwithresignation。
Ifitisobjectedthatdemandandsupplydistributeincomes，wereplyinthefirstinstance：Aredemandandsupplyblindpowersindependentofhumaninfluence？Thisyear’scropsdependonrainandsunshine，buttheaverageresultsofourcropsareaproductofourcultivation。Demandandsupplyaresummarytermsforthemagnitudesofopposinggroupsofhumanwills。Thecausesandconditionsofthesemagnitudesarepartlynatural，mostlyhowever，humanrelationsandpowers，humandeliberationsandactions。
Ifitisobjectedthatnatureconditionsthewealthofanation，weanswer：Shecertainlydoesinpart，andasfarasshedoes，noonethinksitunjustthatonenationisrichandtheotherpoor。Butwhenonenationenslaves，plundersandkeepsinsubjectionanother，weimmediatelyfindthewealthoftheformerandthepovertyofthelatterunjust。
Ifitisobjectedthattheonemaniswealthierthantheotherbecausehewasnotcompelledtodividehisinheritancewithbrotherandsister，thattheonehasthegoodfortunetopossessahealthywife，theothernot，weanswer：Nonormalfeelingofrightwishestodoawaywithsuchchanceoffortune。Butthequestionis，ifsucheffectsofnature，notsubjecttoourinfluence，whichwecallfortuneorchance，areindeedtheessentialcausesofthedistributionofincomesandwealth。Insuchacasetherecouldbenoscienceofpoliticaleconomyorsocialpolicy，fortheirregulargameofchancecannotbebroughtundergeneralpointsofview。
IfitisobjectedthatlaborandnottheStatedistributesincomes，weanswerthatthisisasurprisingobjectioninthemouthofonewhodeclaresstrengthandfortunebothatthesametimetobethecausesofdistribution。Fortheobjectionhasmeaningonlywhenitsignifiesthatdifferentlaboranddifferentaccomplishmentsproducecorrespondinglydifferentcompensation。
Inoureyes，laborproducesgoods，buildshouses，bakesbread，butitdoesnotdirectlydistributeincomes。Thedifferentkindsoflaborwillaffectdistributiononlybytheirdifferentvaluationsinsociety。Thedemandforthisorthatlaborwillinfluenceitsmarketprice，butthemoralvaluationofthisorthatlaborwillinfluencethejudgmentwhetherthispriceisjust。Thuslaborinfluences，indirectlyitistrue，thedistributionofincomes；butinsuchacase，andsofarasitdoesso，itexcludesthenotionofluckorchance。
Bothassertions，however，confinethemselvestoocloselytotheindividualdistributionofincomes，whereasfortheeconomisttheessentialpointisthedistributionamongtheclassesofsociety。ForeverymoregeneralscientificorpracticalinquiryitisnottheimportantpointwhetherTom，thedaylaborer，hasmorethanDickorHarry，whetherthegrocer，Jones，earnsmorethanBrown，whetherthebanker，Bleichroder，hasbetterluckinhisspeculationsthanthebanker，Hanseman；aboutthisgeneraljudgmentswillonlyoccasionallybeformed。Theaveragewagesofthedaylaborer，theaverageconditionofdomesticworkers，theaverageprofitsoftheclassofpromoters，theaverageprofitsofgrocers，oflandedproprietors，offarmersontheotherhandareconsideredbypublicopinionandjudgedtobejustifiedornot。
Andtheseearningsaresurelynotdependentonfortuneorchance；
theyaretheresultoftheaveragequalitiesoftherespectiveclassesinconnectionwiththeirrelationstotheotherclassesofsociety；theyareinthemaintheresultofhumaninstitutions。
Theprevailingrightsofproperty，inheritanceandcontractformthecentreoftheinstitutionswhichgovernthedistributionofincomes。Theirformsforthetimebeingdetermineademocraticoraristocraticdistributionofwealth。Who，forinstance，hasmadethedivisionoflandedproperty，whichgenerallydeterminesthedistributionofbothwealthandincome？Isitnature，luckorchance，ordemandandsupply？No，inthefirstplacethesocialandagrarianinstitutionsofthepastandpresent。Whereversmallpeasantproprietorshipprevailsto—day，itisderivedfromthemediaevalvillagecommunitysystemandthelawofpeasantsuccession。Whereverwemeetwithasystemoflargeestatesweseearesultofthebaronialandfeudalsystem，ofthelatermanorialregimeandofthesystemofestates；atpresenttheinstitutionsofmortgagesandleasesplayapart；thelegislationtouchingthecommutationoftenuresandsystemofcultivationwereofthesameimportancetoGermanyasthecolonialsystemofothergovernmentstotheircolonies。Inthedistributionofpersonalpropertyindividualqualitiesaremoreprevalentthaninthatofrealestate。Butneverthelesstheinstitutionsofancientandmoderntimesseemtousthemostimportant。Theformsofundertakingsandthelegalstatusofthelaboringclassesaretheessentialpoints：whereverslaveryprevaileditgovernedatalltimesthewholeeconomiclife，thewholesocialclassificationandthedistributionofincomes；guildswere，atthetimeoftheirconsistentmaintenance，asmuchaninstitutionofdistributionofincomesasanorganizationoflabor；andthesameistrueofthedomesticsystemofindustryoftheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturywithitsgovernmentalregulation；therulingconsiderationsweretheneedsofcommerceandtechnicalpracticeontheonehand，thesituationofthelaborersinadomesticsystemofindustriesontheother。Andarenotto—daytheinstitutionsofunrestrictedtradeandinterestonloans，oftheexchangesandthesystemofpublicdebts，theformsofundertakings，thesystemofjointstockcompanies，ofco—operativeassociations，theunionsandcorporationsofemployersandlaborers，alllaborlaw，theinstitutionsoffriendlyandsimilarsocietiesthematerialfoundationandcauseofourpresentdistributionofincomes？Theindividualcausesandthechanceofluckeffectwithintheboundsoftheseinstitutionsthelittleaberrationsofpersonaldestiny；thepositionofsocialclassesingeneralisdeterminedbytheinstitutions。