Notes:
[1]\"Collectiondeséconomistes，\"II。832。SeeatabularstatementbyBeaudan。
[2]\"Ephéméridesducitoyen，\"IX。15；anarticlebyM。deButré，1767。
[3]\"Collectiondeséconomistes，\"I。551，562。
[4]\"Procès—verbauxdel’assembléeprovincialedeChampagne\"
（1787），p。240。
[5]Cf。，\"NoticehistoriquesurlaRévolutiondansledépartementdel’Eure，\"byBoivin—Champeaux，p。37。—AregisterofgrievancesoftheparishofEpreville；on100francsincometheTreasurytakes22forthetaille，16forcollaterals，15forthepoll—tax，11forthevingtièmes，total67livres。
[6]\"Procès—verbauxdel’assembléeprovincialedeIle—de—France（1787），p。131。
[7]\"Procèx—verbauxdel’ass。provdelaHaute—Guyenne\"（1784），II。
17，40，47。
[8]\"Procès—verbauxdel’ass。prov。d’Auvergne\"（1787），p。253。—
Doléances，byGautierdeBiauzat，memberofthecouncilelectedbytheprovincialassemblyofAuvergne。（1788），p。3。
[9]Seenote5attheendofthevolume。
[10]\"ThérondeMontaugé，\"p。109（1763）。Wagesatthistimearefrom7to12sousadayduringthesummer。
[11]Archivesnationales，procès—verbauxandregistersoftheStates—General，V。59，p。6。MemorandumtoM。NeckerfromM。d’Orgeux，honorarycouncilortotheParliamentofBourgogne，25Oct。1788……
[12]Ibid。H，1418。AletteroftheintendantofLimoges，Feb。26，1784。
[13]Turgot，II。259。
[14]Archivesnationales，H，426（remonstrancesoftheParliamentofBrittany，Feb。1783）。
[15]Mercier；XI。59；X。262。
[16]Archivesnationales，H，1422，aletterbyMd’Aine，intendantofLimoges（February17，1782）onebytheintendantofMoulins（April，1779）；thetrialofthecommunityofMollon（Bordelais），andthetablesofitscollectors。
[17]\"Procès—verbauxdel’ass。prov。d’Auvergne，\"p。266。
[18]AlbertBabeau，\"HistoiredeTroyes，\"I。72
[19]\"Procés—verbauxdel’ass。prov。deBerry\"（1778），I。pp。72，80。
[20]DeTocqueville，187。
[21]Archivesnationales，H，1417。（AletterofM。deCypièrre，intendantatOrleans，April17，1765）。
[22]\"TraitédePopulation，\"2dpart，p。26。
[23]Archivesnationales，H，1417。（AletterofM。deCypièrre，intendantatOrleans，April17，1765）。
[24]Ibid。H，1418。（LetterofMay28，1784）。
[25]Ibid。（LetteroftheintendantofTours，June15，1765。）
[26]ArchivesNationales，H，1417。AreportbyRaudon，receiveroftaillesintheelectionofLaon，January，1764。
[27]\"Procèx—verbauxdel’ass。prov。deBerry\"（1778），I。p。72。
[28]Champfort，93。
[29]\"Procèx—verbauxdel’ass。prov。deBerry，\"I。77。
[30]ArthurYoung，II。205。
[31]\"Procès—verbauxoftheass。prov。ofthegeneralshipofRouen\"
（1787），p。271。
[32]Letrosne（1779）。\"Del’administrationprovincialeetdeIareformedel’imp？t，\"pp。39to262and138。—Archivesnationales，H。
138（1782）。CahierdeBugey，\"Saltcostsapersonlivinginthecountrysidepurchasingitfromtheretailersfrom15to17sousapound，accordingtothewayofmeasuringit。
[33]Floquet，VI。367（May10，1760）。
[34]Boivin—Champeaux，p。44。（CahiersofBrayandofGamaches）。
[35]ArthurYoung，II。175—178。
[36]Archivesnationales，G，300；G，319。（RegistersandinstructionsofvariouslocaldirectorsoftheExcisetotheirsuccessors）。
[37]Letrosne，ibid。523。
[38]Octroi:atollortaxleviedatthegatesofacityonarticlesbroughtin。（SR。）
[39]ArchivesNationales，H，426（PapersoftheParliamentofBrittany，February，1783）。
[40]\"Procès—verbauxdel’ass。prov。deSoissonnais\"（1787），p。45。
—Archivesnationales，H，1515（RemonstrancesoftheParliamentofMetz，1768）。Theclassofindigentsformmorethantwelve—thirteenthsofthewholenumberofvillagesoflaborersandgenerallythoseofthewine—growers。\"Ibid。G，319（TableaudesdirectionsofChateaudonandIssoudun），[41]AlbertBabeau，I。89。p。21。
[42]\"Mémoires，\"presentedtotheAssemblyofNotables，byM。deCalonne（1787），p。67。
[43]Hereweareattherootofthereasonwhydemocraticallyelectedpoliticiansandtheiradministrativestaffsaretodaytaxedeventhoughsuchtaxationisonlyapaper—exerciseaddingcoststothecostofgovernmentadministration。（SR。）
[44]GautierdeBianzat，\"Doléances，\"193，225。\"Procès—verbauxdel’ass。prov。dePoitou\"（1787），p。99。
[45]GautierdeBianzat，ibid……
[46]Archivesnationales，theprocès—verbauxandcahiersoftheStates—General，V。59。P。6。（LetterofM。OrgeuxtoM。Necker），V。
27。p。560—573。（CahiersoftheThird—EstateofArnay—le—Duc）
[47]Inthesefigurestheriseofthemoneystandardhasbeenkeptinmind，thesilver\"marc，\"worth59francsin1965，beingworth49
francsduringthelasthalfoftheeighteenthcentury。
[48]\"Procès—verbauxdel’ass。prov。deIle—de—France，\"132，158；
del’Orléanais，96，387。
[49]\"Mémoire，\"presentedtotheAssemblyofNotables（1787），p。1。
—Seenote2attheendofthevolume，ontheestateofBlet。
[50]\"Procès—verbeauxdel’ass。prov。d’Alsace\"（1787），p。116；\"—
ofChampagne，\"192。（AccordingtoadeclarationofJune2，1787，thetaxsubstitutedforthecorvéemaybeextendedtoone—sixthofthetaille，withaccessorytaxesandthepoll—taxcombined）。\"Delagénéralitéd’Alen？con，\"179；\"—duBerry，\"I。218。
[51]Archivesnationales，G，322（MemorandumontheexciseduesofCompiègneanditsneighborhood，1786）
[52]\"Procès—verbauxdel’ass。prov。del’Ile—de—France，\"p。104。
[53]\"Procès—verbauxdel’ass。prov。deBerry，I。85，II。91。\"—
del’Orléanais，p。225。\"\"Arbitrariness，injustice，inequality，areinseparablefromthetaillewhenanychangeofcollectortakesplace。\"
[54]\"ArchivesNationales，\"H。615。LetterofM。deLagourda，anoblefromBretagne，toM。Necker，datedDecember4，1780:\"Youarealwaystaxingtheusefulandnecessarypeoplewhodecreaseinnumbersallthetime:thesearetheworkersoftheland。Thecountrysidehasbecomedesertedandnoonewillanylongerplowtheland。ItestifytoGodandtoyou，Sir，thatwehavelostmorethanathirdofourbuddingwheatofthelastharvestbecausewedidnothavethenecessaryman—powerdotothework。\"
[55]Ibid。1149。（letterofM。deReverseau，March16，1781）；H，200（letterofM。Amelot，Nov。2，1784）。
[56]\"Procès—verbauxdel’ass。prov。delagénéralitedeRouen，\"
p。91。
[57]Hippeau，VI。22（1788）。
[58]D’Argenson。VI。37。
[59]Archivesnationales，H。200（MemoirofM。Amelot，1785）。
[60]Procès—verbauxdel’ass。prov。d’Auvergne，\"253。
[61]Boivin—Champeaux，\"DoléancesdelaparvissedeTilleul—
Lambert\"（Eure）。\"Numbersofprivilegedcharacters，Messieursoftheelections，Messieursthepost—masters，Messieursthepresidentsandotherattachésofthesalt—warehouse，everyindividualpossessingextensivepropertypaysbutathirdorahalfofthetaxestheyoughttopay。\"
[62]DeTocqueville，385。—\"Procès—verbauxdel’ass。prov。deLyonnais，\"p。56
[63]Archivesnationales，H，1422。（LettersofM。d’Aine，intendant，alsoofthereceiverfortheelectionofTulle，February23，1783）。
[64]DeTocqueville，64，363。
[65]Archivesnationales，H，612，614。（LettersofM。delaBove，September11，andDec。2，1774；June28，1777）。
[66]Mercier，II。62。
[67]\"Grievances\"oftheparishofAubervilliers。
[68]Archivesnationales，G，300；G，322（\"Mémoires\"ontheexciseduties）。
[69]\"Procès—verbauxdel’ass。prov。desTrois—Evêchésp。442。
[70]Archivesnationales，H，1422（LetteroftheintendantofMoulins，April1779）。
[71]Archivesnationales，H。1312（LettersofM。D’Anthemanprocureur—généraloftheexcisecourt（May19，1783），andoftheArchbishopofAix（June15，1783）。）—Provenceproducedwheatonlysufficientforsevenandahalfmonths’consumption。
[72]Abbreviationforthe\"cahierdesdoléances\"，inEnglish’registerofgrieviances’，broughtwiththembytherepresentativesofthepeopletothegreatgatheringinParisofthe\"States—Généraux\"in1789。（SR。）
[73]Thefeudalduesmaybeestimatedataseventhofthenetincomeandthedimealsoataseventh。Thesearethefiguresgivenbytheass。prov。ofHaute—Guyenne（Procès—verbaux，p。47）。—Isolatedinstances，inotherprovinces，indicatesimilarresults。Thedimerangesfromatenthtothethirteenthofthegrossproduct，andcommonlythetenth。Iregardtheaverageasaboutthefourteenth，andasone—halfofthegrossproductmusthedeductedforexpensesofcultivation，itamountstoone—seventh。Letrosnesaysafifthandevenaquarter。
[74]Boivin—Champeaux，72。
[75]GrievancesofthecommunityofCulmon（ElectiondeLangres。）
[76]Boivin—Champeaux，34，36，41，48。—Périn（\"Doléancesdesparoissesruralesdel’Artuis，\"301，308）。—Archivesnationales，procès—verbauxandcahiersoftheStates—Géneraux，vol。XVII。P。12
（LetteroftheinhabitantsofDracy—leViteux）。
[77]Motte:amoundindicativeofSeigniorialdominion；quevaise；
therightofforcingaresidenttoremainonhispropertyunderpenaltyofforfeiture；domainecongéable；propertyheldsubjecttocapriciousejection。（TR）
[78]Prud’homme，\"Résumédescahiers，\"III。passim，andespeciallyfrom317to340。
CHAPTERIII。INTELLECTUALSTATEOFTHEPEOPLE。
I。
Intellectualincapacity。—Howideasaretransformedintomarvelousstories。
Tocomprehendtheiractionsweoughtnowtolookintotheconditionoftheirminds，toknowthecurrenttrainoftheirideas，theirmodeofthinking。Butisitreallyessentialtodrawthisportrait，andarenotthedetailsoftheirmentalconditionwehavejustpresentedsufficient？Weshallobtainaknowledgeofthemlater，andthroughtheiractions，when，inTouraine，theyknockamayorandhisassistant，chosenbythemselves，senselesswithkicksfromtheirwoodenshoes，because，inobeyingthenationalAssembly，thesetwounfortunatemenpreparedatableoftaxes；orwhenatTroyes，theydragthroughthestreetsandteartopiecesthevenerablemagistratewhowasnourishingthematthatverymoment，andwhohadjustdictatedhistestamentintheirfavor。—Takethestillrudebrainofacontemporarypeasantanddepriveitoftheideaswhich，foreightyyearspast，haveentereditbysomanychannels，throughtheprimaryschoolofeachvillage，throughthereturnhomeoftheconscriptaftersevenyears’service，throughtheprodigiousmultiplicationofbooks，newspapers，roads，railroads，foreigntravelandeveryotherspeciesofcommunication。[1]Trytoimaginethepeasantoftheeighteenthcentury，pennedandshutupfromfathertosoninhishamlet，withoutparishhighways，deprivedofnews，withnoinstructionbuttheSundaysermon，continuouslyworryingabouthisdailybreadandthetaxes，\"withhiswretched，dried—upaspect，\"[2]notdaringtorepairhishouse，alwayspersecuted，distrustful，hismindcontractedandstinted，sotosay，bymisery。Hisconditionisalmostthatofhisoxorhisass，whilehisideasarethoseofhiscondition。Hehasbeenalongtimestolid；\"helackseveninstinct，\"[3]mechanicallyandfixedlyregardingthegroundonwhichhedragsalonghishereditaryplow。In1751，d’Argensonwroteinhisjournal:
\"nothinginthenewsfromthecourtaffectsthem；thereignisindifferenttothem……thedistancebetweenthecapitalandtheprovincedailywidens……HeretheyareignorantofthestrikingoccurrencesthatmostimpressedusatParis……Theinhabitantsofthecountrysidearemerelypoverty—strickenslaves，draftcattleunderayoke，movingonastheyaregoaded，caringfornothingandembarrassedbynothing，providedtheycaneatandsleepatregularhours。\"
Theymakenocomplaints，\"theydonotevendreamofcomplaining；\"[4]theirwretchednessseemstothemnaturallikewinterorhail。Theirminds，liketheiragriculture，stillbelongtothemiddleages。—IntheenvironmentofToulouse，[5]toascertainwhocommittedarobbery，tocureamanorasickanimal，theyresorttoasorcerer，whodivinesthisbymeansofasieve。Thecountrymanfullybelievesinghostsand，onAllSaints’eve，helaystheclothforthedead。—InAuvergne，attheoutbreaktheRevolution，onacontagiousfevermakingitsappearance，M。deMontlosier，declaredtobeasorcerer，isthecauseofit，andtwohundredmenassembletogethertodemolishhisdwelling。Theirreligiousbeliefisonthesamelevel。[6]
\"Theirpriestsdrinkwiththemandsellthemabsolution。OnSundays，atthesermon，theyputuplieutenanciesandsub—lieutenancies（amongthesaints）forsale:somuchforalieutenant’splaceunderSt。
Peter！—Ifthepeasanthesitatesinhisbid，aneulogyofSt。Peteratoncebegins，andthenourpeasantsrunitupfastenough。\"—Tointellectsinaprimitivestate，barrenofideasandcrowdedwithimages，idolsonearthareasessentialasidolsinheaven。\"Nodoubtwhateverexistedinmymind，\"saysRétitdelaBretonne，[7]\"ofthepowerofthekingtocompelanymantobestowhiswifeordaughteronme，andmyvillage（Sacy，inBurgundy）thoughtasIdid。\"[8]Thereisnoroominmindsofthisdescriptionforabstractconceptions，foranyideaofsocialorder；theyaresubmissivetoitandthatisall。\"Themassofthepeople，\"writesGovernorin1789，\"havenoreligionbutthatoftheirpriests，nolawbutthatofthoseabovethem，nomoralitybutthatofself—interest；thesearethebeingswho，ledonbydrunkencurates，arenowonthehighroadtoliberty，andthefirstusetheymakeofitistorebelonallsidesbecausethereisdearth。\"[9]
Howcouldthingsbeotherwise？Everyidea，previoustotakingrootintheirbrain，mustpossessalegendaryform，asabsurdasitissimple，adaptedtotheirexperiences，theirfaculties，theirfearsandtheiraspirations。Onceplantedinthisuncultivatedandfertilesoilitvegetatesandbecomestransformed，developingintogrossexcrescences，somberfoliageandpoisonousfruit。Themoremonstrousthegreateritsvigor，clingingtotheslightestofprobabilitiesandtenaciousagainstthemostcertainofdemonstrations。UnderLouisXV，inanarrestofvagabonds，afewchildrenhavingbeencarriedoffwillfullyorbymistake，therumorspreadsthatthekingtakesbathsinbloodtorestorehisexhaustedfunctions，and，sotruedoesthisseemtobe，thewomen，horrifiedthroughtheirmaternalinstincts，joinintheriot；apolicemanisseizedandknockeddown，and，onhisdemandingaconfessor，awomaninthecrowd，pickingupastone，criesoutthathemustnothavetimetogotoheaven，andsmasheshisheadwithit，believingthatsheisperforminganactofjustice[10]。UnderLouisXVIevidenceispresentedtothepeoplethatthereisnoscarcity:in1789，[11]anofficer，listeningtotheconversationofhissoldiers，hearsthemstate\"withfullbeliefthattheprincesandcourtiers，withaviewtostarveParisout，arethrowingflourintotheSeine。\"Turningtoaquarter—masterheaskshimhowhecanpossiblybelievesuchanabsurdstory。\"Lieutenant，\"hereplies，\"’tistime—thebagsweretiedwithbluestrings（cordonsbleus）。\"Tothemthisisasufficientreason，andnoargumentcouldconvincethemtothecontrary。Thus，amongthedregsofsociety，foulandhorribleromancesareforged，inconnectionthefamineandtheBastille，inwhichLouisXVI。，thequeenMarieAntoinette，theComted’Artois，MadamedeLamballe，thePolignacs，therevenuefarmers，theseigniorsandladiesofhighrankareportrayedasvampiresandghouls。Ihaveseenmanyeditionsoftheseinthepamphletsoftheday，intheengravingsnotexhibited，andamongpopularprintsandillustrations，thelatterthemosteffective，sincetheyappealtotheeye。TheysurpassthestoriesofMandrin[12]andCartouche，beingexactlysuitableformenwhoseliteratureconsistsofthepopularlamentsofMandrinandCartouche。
II。
Politicalincapacity。—Interpretationofpoliticalrumorsandofgovernmentaction。
Bythiswecanjudgeoftheirpoliticalintelligence。Everyobjectappearstotheminafalselight；theyarelikechildrenwho，ateachturnoftheroad，seeineachtreeorbushsomefrightfulhobgoblin。ArthurYoung，onvisitingthespringsnearClermont，isarrested，[13]andthepeoplewanttoimprisonawoman，hisguide，someofthebystandersregardinghimasan\"agentoftheQueen，whointendedtoblowthetownupwithamine，andsendallthatescapedtothegalleys。\"Sixdaysafterthis，beyondPuy，andnotwithstandinghispassport，thevillageguardcomeandtakehimoutofbedateleveno’clockatnights，declaringthat\"IwasundoubtedlyaconspiratorwiththeQueen，theCountd’ArtoisandtheCountd’Entragues（whohaspropertyhere），whohademployedmeasarpenteurtomeasuretheirfieldsinordertodoubletheirtaxes。\"Weheretaketheunconscious，apprehensive，popularimaginationintheact；aslightindication，aword，promptingtheconstructionofeitheraircastlesorfantasticdungeons，andseeingtheseasplainlyasiftheyweresomanysubstantialrealities。Theyhavenottheinwardresourcesthatrendercapableofseparatinganddiscerning；theirconceptionsareformedinalump；bothobjectandfancyappeartogetherandareunitedinonesingleperception。AtthemomentofelectingdeputiesthereportiscurrentinProvince[14]that\"thebestofkingsdesiresperfectequality，thattherearetobenomorebishops，norseigniors，nortithes，norseigniorialdues，nomoretithesordistinctions，nomorehuntingorfishingrights，……thatthepeoplearetobewhollyrelievedoftaxation，andthatthefirsttwoordersalonearetoprovidetheexpensesofthegovernment。\"Whereuponfortyorfiftyriotstakeplaceinoneday。\"Severalcommunitiesrefusetomakeanypaymentstotheirtreasureroutsideofroyalrequisitions。\"Othersdobetter:\"onpillagingthestrong—boxofthereceiverofthetaxonleatheratBrignolles，theyshoutoutViveleRoi！\"\"Thepeasantconstantlyassertshispillageanddestructiontobeinconformitywiththeking’swill。\"Alittlelater，inAuvergne，thepeasantswhoburncastlesaretodisplay\"muchrepugnance\"inthusmaltreating\"suchkindseigniors，\"buttheyallege\"imperativeorders，havingbeenadvisedthatthekingwishedit。\"[15]AtLyons，whenthetapstersofthetownandthepeasantsoftheneighborhoodtramplethecustomsofficialsunderfoottheybelievethatthekinghassuspendedallcustomsduesforthreedays。[16]Thescopeoftheirimaginationisproportionatetotheirshortsightedness。\"Bread，nomorerents，nomoretaxes！\"isthesolecry，thecryofwant，whileexasperatedwantplungesaheadlikeafamishedbull。Downwiththemonopolist！—
storehousesareforcedopen，convoysofgrainarestopped，marketsarepillaged，bakersarehung，andthepriceofbreadisfixedsothatnoneistobehadorisconcealed。Downwiththeoctroi！—
barriersaredemolished，clerksarebeaten，moneyiswantinginthetownsforurgentexpenses。Burntaxregistries，account—books，municipalarchives，seigniors’charter—safes，conventparchments，everydetestabledocumentcreativeofdebtorsandsufferers！Thevillageitselfisnolongerabletopreserveitsparishproperty。Therageagainstanywrittendocument，againstpublicofficers，againstanymanmoreorlessconnectedwithgrain，isblindanddetermined。
Thefuriousanimaldestroysall，althoughwoundinghimself，drivingandroaringagainsttheobstaclethatoughttobeoutflanked。
III。
Destructiveimpulses。—Theobjectofblindrage。—Distrustofnaturalleaders。—Suspicionofthemchangedintohatred。—
Dispositionofthepeoplein1789。
Thisowingtotheabsenceofleadersandintheabsenceoforganization，amobissimplyaherd。Itsmistrustofitsnaturalleaders，ofthegreat，ofthewealthy，ofpersonsinofficeandclothedwithauthority，isinveterateandincurable。Vainlydothesewishitwellanddoitgood；ithasnofaithintheirhumanityordisinterestedness。Ithasbeentoodown—trodden；itentertainsprejudicesagainsteverymeasureproceedingfromthem，eventhemostliberalandthemostbeneficial。\"Atthemerementionofthenewassemblies，\"saysaprovincialcommissionin1787，[17]\"weheardaworkmanexclaim，’What，morenewextortioners！’\"Superiorsofeverykindaresuspected，andfromsuspiciontohostilitytheroadisnotlong。In1788[18]Mercierdeclaresthat\"insubordinationhasbeenmanifestforsomeyears，especiallyamongthetrades……Formerly，onenteringaprinting—officethementookofftheirhats。Nowtheycontentthemselveswithstaringandleeringatyou；scarcelyhaveyoucrossedthresholdwhenyouyourselfmorelightlyspokenofthanifyouwereoneofthem。\"ThesameattitudeistakenbythepeasantsintheenvironmentofParis；MadameVigée—Lebrun，[19]ongoingtoRomainvilletovisitMarshaldeSégur，remarks:\"Notonlydotheynotremovetheirhatsbuttheyregardusinsolently；someofthemeventhreateneduswithclubs。\"InMarchandAprilfollowingthis，herguestsarriveatherconcertinconsternation。\"Inthemorning，atthepromenadeofLongchamps，thepopulace，assembledatthebarrierofl’Etoile，insultedthepeoplepassingbyincarriagesinthegrossestmanner；
someofthewretchesonthefootstepsexclaiming:’Nextyearyoushallbebehindthecarriageandweinside。’\"Atthecloseoftheyear1788，thestreambecomesatorrentandthetorrentacataract。Anintendant[20]writesthat，inhisprovince，thegovernmentmustdecide，andinthepopularsense，toseparatefromprivilegedclasses，abandonoldformsandgivetheThird—Estateadoublevote。Theclergyandthenoblesaredetested，andtheirsupremacyisayoke。\"LastJuly，\"hesays，\"theoldStates—Generalwouldhavebeenreceivedwithpleasureandtherewouldhavebeenfewobstaclestoitsformation。
Duringthepastfivemonthsmindshavebecomeenlightened；respectiveinterestshavebeendiscussed，andleaguesformed。YouhavebeenkeptinignoranceofthefermentationwhichisatitsheightamongallclassesoftheThird—Estate，andasparkwillkindletheconflagration。Iftheking’sdecisionshouldbefavorabletothefirsttwoordersageneralinsurrectionwilloccurthroughouttheprovinces，600，000meninarmsandthehorrorsoftheJacquerie。\"Thewordisspokenandtherealityiscoming。Aninsurrectionarymultituderejectingitsnaturalleadersmustelectorsubmittoothers。Itislikeanarmywhich，enteringonacampaign，findingitselfwithoutofficers；thevacanciesarefortheboldest，mostviolent，thosemostoppressedbythepreviousrule，andwho，leadingtheadvance，shouting\"forward\"andthusformtheleadinggroups。In1789，thebandsareready；for，belowthesufferingpeoplethereisyetanotherpeoplewhichsuffersyetmore，whoseinsurrectionispermanent，andwhich，repressed，persecuted，andobscure，onlyawaitsanopportunitytocomeoutofitshiding—placeandopenlygivetheirpassionsfreevent。
IV。
Insurrectionaryleadersandrecruits。—Poachers。—Smugglersanddealersincontrabandsalt。—Bandits。—Beggarsandvagabonds。—
Adventofbrigands。—ThepeopleofParis。
Vagrants，recalcitrantsofallkinds，fugitivesofthelaworthepolice，beggars，cripples，foul，filthy，haggardandsavage，theyarebredbythesocialinjusticeofthesystem，andaroundeveryoneofthesocialwoundstheseswarmlikevermin。—Fourhundredcaptainciesprotectsvastquantitiesofgamefeedingonthecropsundertheeyesofownersoftheland，transformingtheseintothousandsofpoachers，themoredangeroussincetheyarearmed，anddefythemostterriblelaws。Alreadyin1752[21]areseenaroundParis\"gatheringsoffiftyorsixty，allfullyarmedandactingasifonregularforagingcampaigns，withtheinfantryatthecenterandthecavalryonthewings……Theyliveintheforestswheretheyhavecreatedafortifiedandguardedareaandpayingexactlyforwhattheytaketoliveon。\"In1777[22]，atSensinBurgundy，thepublicattorney，M。Terray，huntingonhisownpropertywithtwoofficers，meetsagangofpoacherswhofireonthegameundertheireyes，andsoonafterwardsfireonthem。Terrayiswoundedandoneoftheofficershashiscoatpierced；guardsarrive，butthepoachersstandfirmandrepelthem；dragoonsaresentforandthepoacherskillofthese，alongwiththreehorses，andareattackedwithsabers；fourofthemarebroughttothegroundandsevenarecaptured。—ReportsoftheStates—Generalshowthateveryyear，ineachextensiveforest，murdersoccur，sometimesatthehandsofapoacher，andagain，andthemostfrequently，bytheshotofagamekeeper。—Itisacontinuouswarfareathome；everyvastdomainthusharborsitsrebels，providedwithpowderandballandknowinghowtousethem。
Otherrecruitsforriotingarefoundamongsmugglersandindealersincontrabandsalt[23]。Atax，assoonasitbecomesexorbitant，invitesfraud，andraisesupapopulationofdelinquentsagainstitsarmyofclerks。Thenumberofsuchdefraudersmaybeseenwhenweconsiderthenumberofcustomofficers:twelvehundredleaguesofinteriorcustomdistrictsareguardedby50，000men，ofwhich23，000aresoldiersinciviliandress[24]。\"Intheprincipalprovincesofthesalt—taxandintheprovincesofthefivegreattaxleasingadministrations（fermes），forfourleagues（tenmiles）oneithersideoftheprohibitedline，\"cultivationisabandoned；everybodyiseitheracustomsofficialorasmuggler[25]。Themoreexcessivethetaxthehigherthepremiumofferedtotheviolatorsofthelaw；ateveryplaceontheboundariesofBrittanywithNormandy，MaineandAnjou，fourpenceperpoundaddedtothesalt—taxmultipliesbeyondanyconceptionthealreadyenormousnumberofcontrabanddealers。\"Numerousbandsofmen，[26]armedwithfrettes，orlongstickspointedwithiron，andoftenwithpistolsorguns，attempttoforceapassage。\"Amultitudeofwomenandofchildren，quiteyoung，crossthebrigadesboundariesor，ontheotherside，troopsofdogsarebroughtthere，keptclosedupforacertaintimewithoutfoodordrink，thenloadedwithsaltandnowturnedloosesothatthey，drivenbyhunger，immediatelybringtheircargobacktotheirmasters。\"—Vagabonds，outlaws，thefamished，sniffthislucrativeoccupationfromafarandruntoitlikesomanypacksofhounds。\"TheoutskirtsofBrittanyarefilledwithapopulationofemigrants，mostlyoutcastfromtheirowndistricts，who，afterayear’sregisteredstay，mayenjoytheprivilegesoftheBretons:theiroccupationislimitedtocollectingpilesofsalttore—selltothecontrabanddealers。\"Wemightimaginethem，asinaflashoflightening，asalonglineofrestlessnomads，nocturnalandpursued，anentiretribe，maleandfemale，ofunsociableprowlers，familiarwithtounderhandtricks，toughenedbyhardweather，ragged，\"nearlyallinfectedbypersistentscabies，\"andIfindsimilarbodiesinthevicinityofMorlaix，Lorient，andotherportsonthefrontiersofotherprovincesandonthefrontiersofthekingdom。From1783to1787，inQuercy，twoalliedbandsofsmugglers，sixtyandeightyeach，defraudtherevenueof40，000oftobacco，killtwocustomsofficers，and，withtheirguns，defendtheirstoresinthemountains；tosuppressthemsoldiersareneeded，whichtheirmilitarycommanderwillnotfurnish。In1789，[27]alargetroopofsmugglerscarryonoperationspermanentlyonthefrontiersofMaineandAnjou；themilitarycommanderwritesthat\"theirchiefisanintelligentandformidablebandit，whoalreadyhasunderhimfifty—fivemen，hewill，duetomiseryandrebellionsoonhaveacorps；\"itwould，asweareunabletotakehimbyforce，bebest，ifsomeofhismencouldbeturnedandmadetohandhimovertous。Thesearethemeansresortedtoinregionswherebrigandageisendemic。—Here，indeed，asinCalabria，thepeopleareonthesideofthebrigandsagainstthegendarmes。TheexploitsofMandrinin1754，[28]mayberemembered:hiscompanyofsixtymenwhobringincontrabandgoodsandransomonlytheclerks，hisexpedition，lastingnearlyayear，acrossFranche—Comté，Lyonnais，Bourbonnais，AuvergneandBurgundy，thetwenty—seventownsheentersmakingnoresistance，deliveringprisonersandmakingsaleofhismerchandise。ToovercomehimacamphadtobeformedatValanceand2，000mensentagainsthim；hewastakenthroughtreachery，andstillatthepresentdaycertainfamiliesareproudoftheirrelationshiptohim，declaringhimaliberator。—Nosymptomismorealarming:ontheenemiesofthelawbeingpreferredbythepeopletoitsdefenders，societydisintegratesandthewormsbegintowork。—
Addtothesetheveritablebrigands，assassinsandrobbers。\"In1782，[29]theprovost’scourtofMontargisisengagedonthetrialofHulinandtwohundredofhisaccompliceswho，fortenyears，bymeansofjointenterprises，havedesolatedaportionofthekingdom。\"—
MercierenumeratesinFrance\"anarmyofmorethan10，000brigandsandvagabonds\"againstwhichthepolice，composedof3，756men，isalwaysonthemarch。\"Complaintsaredailymade，\"saystheprovincialassemblyofHaute—Guyenne，\"thatthereisnopoliceinthecountry。\"
Theabsenteeseigniorpaysnoattentiontothismatter；hisjudgesandofficialstakegoodcarenottooperategratuitouslyagainstaninsolventcriminal，theresultisthat\"hisestatesbecometherefugeofalltherascalsofthearea。\"[30]—Everyabusethuscarrieswithitarisk，bothduetomisplacedcarelessnessaswellasexcessiverigor，torelaxedfeudalismaswellastoharshmonarchy。Alltheinstitutionsappeartoworktogethertobreedandortoleratethetroublemakers，preparing，outsidethesocialdefenses，themenofactionwhowillcarryitbystorm。
Butthetotaleffectofallthisisyetmoredamaging，for，outofthevastnumbersofworkersitruinsitformsbeggarsunwillingtowork，dangeroussluggardsgoingaboutbeggingandextortingbreadfrompeasantswhohavenottoomuchforthemselves。\"Thevagabondsaboutthecountry，\"saysLetrosne，[31]\"areaterriblepest；theyarelikeanenemy’sforcewhich，distributedovertheterritory，obtainsalivingasitpleases，levyingveritablecontributions……Theyareconstantlyrovingaroundthecountry，examiningtheapproachestohouses，andinformingthemselvesabouttheirinmatesandoftheirhabits。—Woetothosesupposedtohavemoney！……Whatnumbersofhighwayrobberiesandwhatburglaries！Whatnumbersoftravelersassassinated，andhousesanddoorsbrokeninto！Whatassassinationsofcurates，farmersandwidows，tormentedtodiscovermoneyandafterwardskilled！Twenty—fiveyearsanterior（page384/284）totheRevolutionitwasnotinfrequenttoseefifteenortwentyofthese\"invadeafarm—housetosleepthere，intimidatingthefarmersandexactingwhatevertheypleased。\"In1764，thegovernmenttakesmeasuresagainstthemwhichindicatethemagnitudeoftheevil[32]。
\"Areheldtobevagabondsandvagrants，andcondemnedassuch，thosewho，foraprecedingtermofsixmonths，shallhaveexercisednotradeorprofession，andwho，havingnooccupationormeansofsubsistence，canprocurenopersonsworthyofconfidencetoattestandverifytheirhabitsandmodeoflife……TheintentofHisMajestyisnotmerelytoarrestvagabondstraversingthecountrybut，again，allmendicantswhatsoeverwho，withoutoccupations，mayberegardedassuspectedofvagabondage。\"
Thepenaltyforable—bodiedmenisthreeyearsinthegalleys；incaseofasecondconviction，nineyears；andforathird，imprisonmentforlife。Undertheageofsixteen，theyareputinaninstitution。\"A
mendicantwhohasmadehimselfliabletoarrestbythepolice，\"saysthecircular，\"isnottobereleasedexceptunderthemostpositiveassurancethathewillnolongerbeg；thiscoursewillbefollowedonlyincaseofpersonsworthyofconfidenceandsolventguaranteeingthemendicant，andengagingtoprovidehimwithemploymentortosupporthim，andtheyshallindicatethemeansbywhichtheyaretopreventhimfrombegging。\"Thisbeingfurnished，thespecialauthorizationoftheintendantmustbeobtainedinaddition。Byvirtueofthislaw，50，000beggarsaresaidtohavebeenarrestedatonce，and，astheordinaryhospitalsandprisonswerenotlargeenoughtocontainthem，jailshadtobeconstructed。Uptotheendoftheancientrégimethismeasureiscarriedoutwithoccasionalintermissions:inLanguedoc，in1768，arrestswerestillmadeof433
insixmonths，and，in1785，205infourmonths[33]。Alittlebeforethistime300wereconfinedinthedepotofBesan？on，500inthatofRennesand650inthatofSaintDenis。Itcostthekingamillionayeartosupportthem，andGodknowshowtheywerebeddedandfed！
Water，straw，bread，andtwoouncesofsaltedgrease，thewholeatanexpenseoffivesousaday；and，asthepriceofprovisionsfortwentyyearsbackhadincreasedmorethanathird，thekeeperwhohadtheminchargewasobligedtomakethemfastorruinhimself。—Withrespecttothemodeoffillingthedepots，thepoliceareTurksintheirtreatmentofthelowerclass；theystrikeintotheheap，theirbroombruisingasmanyastheysweepout。Accordingtotheordinanceof1778，writesanintendant，[34]
\"thepolicemustarrestnotonlybeggarsandvagabondswhomtheyencounterbut，again，thosedenouncedassuchorassuspectedpersons。
Thecitizen，themostirreproachableinhisconductandtheleastopentosuspicionofvagabondage，isnotsureofnotbeingshutupinthedepot，ashisfreedomdependsonapolicemanwhoisconstantlyliabletobedeceivedbyafalsedenunciationorcorruptedbyabribe。IhaveseeninthedepotatRennesseveralhusbandsarrestedsolelythroughthedenunciationoftheirwives，andasmanywomenthroughthatoftheirhusbands；severalchildrenbythefirstwifeatthesolicitationoftheirstep—mothers；manyfemaledomesticspregnantbythemasterstheyserved，shutupattheirinstigation，andgirlsinthesamesituationattheinstanceoftheirseducers；childrendenouncedbytheirfathers，andfathersdenouncedbytheirchildren；allwithouttheslightestevidenceofvagabondageormendicity……Nodecisionoftheprovost’scourtexistsrestoringtheincarceratedtotheirliberty，notwithstandingtheinfinitenumberarrestedunjustly。\"
Supposethatahumanintendant，likethisone，setsthematliberty:theretheyareinthestreets，withoutapenny，beggarsthroughtheactionofalawwhichproscribesmendicityandwhichaddstothewretcheditprosecutesthewretcheditcreates，stillmoreembitteredandcorruptinbodyandinsoul。
\"Itnearlyalwayshappens，\"saysthesameintendant，\"thattheprisoners，arrestedtwenty—fiveorthirtyleaguesfromthedepot，arenotconfinedthereuntilthreeorfourmonthsaftertheirarrest，andsometimeslonger。Meanwhile，theyaretransferredfrombrigadetobrigade，intheprisonsfoundalongtheroad，wheretheyremainuntilthenumberincreasessufficientlytoformaconvoy。Menandwomenareconfinedinthesameprison，theresultofwhichis，thefemalesnotpregnantonenteringitarealwayssoontheirarrivalatthedepot。
Theprisonsaregenerallyunhealthy；frequently，themajorityoftheprisonersaresickonleavingit；\"
andmanybecomerascalsoncomingincontactwithrascals。—Moralcontagionandphysicalcontagion，theulcerthusincreasingthroughtheremedy，centersofrepressionbecomingcentersofcorruption。
Andyetwithallitsrigorsthelawdoesnotattainitsends。
\"Ourtowns，\"saystheparliamentofBrittany，[35]\"aresofilledwithbeggarsitseemsasifthemeasurestakentosuppressmendicityonlyincreaseit。\"—\"Theprincipalhighways，\"writestheintendant，\"areinfestedwithdangerousvagabondsandvagrants，actualbeggars，whichthepolicedonotarrest，eitherthroughnegligenceorbecausetheirinterferenceisnotprovokedbyspecialsolicitations。\"
Whatwouldbedonewiththemiftheywerearrested？Theyaretoomany，andthereisnoplacetoputthem。And，moreover，howpreventpeoplewholiveonalmsfromdemandingalms？Theeffect，undoubtedly，islamentablebutinevitable。Poverty，toacertainextent，isaslowgangreneinwhichthemorbidpartsconsumethehealthyparts，themanscarcelyabletosubsistbeingeatenupalivebythemanwhohasnothingtoliveon。
\"Thepeasantisruined，perishing，thevictimofoppressionbythemultitudeofthepoorthatlaywastethecountryandtakerefugeinthetowns。Hencethemobssoprejudicialtopublicsafety，thatcrowdofsmugglersandvagrants，thatlargebodyofmenwhohavebecomerobbersandassassins，solelybecausetheylackbread。ThisgivesbutafaintideaofthedisordersIhaveseenwithmyowneyes[36]。Thepovertyoftheruraldistricts，excessiveinitself，becomesyetmoresothroughthedisturbancesitengenders；wehavenottoseekelsewhereforfrightfulsourcesofmendicityandforallthevices。\"[37]
Ofwhatavailarepalliativesorviolentproceedingsagainstanevilwhichisintheblood，andwhichbelongstotheveryconstitutionofthesocialorganism？Whatpoliceforcecouldeffectanythinginaparishinwhichone—quarterorone—thirdofitsinhabitantshavenothingtoeatbutthatwhichtheybegfromdoortodoor？AtArgentré，[38]inBrittany，\"atownwithouttradeorindustry，outof2，300inhabitants，morethanone—halfareanythingelsebutwell—off，andover500arereducedtobeggary。\"AtDainville，inArtois，\"outof130housessixtyareonthepoor—list。\"[39]InNormandy，accordingtostatementsmadebythecurates，\"of900parishionersinSaint—Malo，three—quarterscanbarelyliveandtherestareinpoverty。\"\"Of1，500
inhabitantsinSaint—Patrice，400liveonalms。\"Of500inhabitantsinSaint—Laurentthree—quartersliveonalms。\"AtMarboef，saysareport，\"of500personsinhabitingourparish，100arereducedtomendicity，andbesidesthese，thirtyorfortyadaycometousfromneighboringparishes。\"[40]AtBolboneinLanguedoc[41]dailyattheconventgateis\"generalalmsgivingto300or400poorpeople，independentofthatfortheagedandthesick，whichismorenumerouslyattended。\"AtLyons，in1787，\"30，000workmendependonpubliccharityforsubsistence；\"atRennes，in1788，afteraninundation，\"two—thirdsoftheinhabitantsareinastateofdestitution；\"[42]atParis，outof650，000inhabitants，thecensusof1791counts118，784asindigent。[43]—Letfrostorhailcome，asin1788，letacropfail，letbreadcostfoursousapound，andletaworkmaninthecharity—
workshopsearnonlytwelvesousaday，[44]canoneimaginethatpeoplewillresignthemselvestodeathbystarvation？AroundRouen，duringthewinterof1788，theforestsarepillagedinopenday，thewoodsatBaguèresarewhollycutaway，thefallentreesarepubliclysoldbythemarauders[45]。Boththefamishedandthemaraudersgotogether，necessitymakingitselftheaccompliceofcrime。Fromprovincetoprovincewecanfollowuptheirtracks:fourmonthslater，inthevicinityofEtampes，fifteenbrigandsbreakintofourfarmhousesduringthenight，whilethefarmers，threatenedbyincendiaries，areobligedtogive，onethreehundredfrancs，anotherfivehundred，allthemoney，probably，theyhaveintheircoffers[46]。
\"Robbers，convicts，theworthlessofeveryspecies，\"aretoformtheadvanceguardofinsurrectionsandleadthepeasantrytotheextremeofviolence[47]。AfterthesackoftheReveillonhouseinParisitisremarkedthat\"ofthefortyringleadersarrested，therewasscarcelyonewhowasnotanoldoffender，andeitherfloggedorbranded。\"[48]
Ineveryrevolutionthedregsofsocietycometothesurface。Neverhadthesebeenvisiblebefore；likebadgersinthewoods，orratsinthesewers，theyhadremainedintheirburrowsorintheirholes。Theyissuefromtheseinswarms，andsuddenly，inParis，whatfigures！[49]
\"Neverhadanylikethembeenseenindaylight……Wheredotheycomefrom？Whohasbroughtthemoutoftheirobscurehidingplaces？……
strangersfromeverywhere，armedwithclubs，ragged，……somealmostnaked，othersoddlydressed\"inincongruouspatchesand\"frightfultolookat，\"constitutetheriotouschiefsortheirsubordinates，atsixfrancsperhead，behindwhichthepeoplearetomarch。
\"AtParis，\"saysMercier，[50]\"thepeopleareweak，pallid，diminutive，stunted，\"maltreated，\"and，apparently，aclassapartfromotherclassesinthecountry。Therichandthegreatwhopossessequipages，enjoytheprivilegeofcrushingthemorofmutilatingtheminthestreets……Thereisnoconvenienceforpedestrians，noside—
walks。Hundredvictimsdieannuallyunderthecarriagewheels。\"\"I
saw，\"saysArthurYoung，\"apoorchildrunoverandprobablykilled，andhavebeenmyselfseveraltimesbeencoveredfromheadtotoewiththewaterfromthegutter。Shouldyoung（English）noblemendrivealongLondonstreetswithoutsidewalks，inthesamemannerastheirequalsinParis，theywouldspeedilyandjustlygetverywellthrashedandrolledinthegutter。\"
Merciergrowsuneasyinthefaceoftheimmensepopulace:
\"InParisthereare，probably，200，000personswithnopropertyintrinsicallyworthfiftycrowns，andyetthecitysubsists！\"
Order，consequently，ismaintainedonlythroughfearandbyforce，owingtothesoldieryofthewatchwhoarecalledtristes—à—pattebythecrowd。\"Thisnicknameenragesthisspeciesofmilitia，whothendealheavierblowsaroundthem，woundingindiscriminatelyalltheyencounter。Thelowclassisalwaysreadytomakewaronthembecauseithasneverbeenfairlytreatedbythem。\"Infact，\"asquadoftheguardoftenscatters，withnotrouble，crowdsoffiveorsixhundredmen，atfirstgreatlyexcited，butmeltingawayinthetwinklingofaneye，afterthesoldieryhavedistributedafewblowsandhandcuffedtwoorthreeoftheringleaders。\"—Nevertheless，\"werethepeopleofParisabandonedtotheirtrueinclinations，didtheynotfeelthehorseandfootguardsbehindthem，thecommissaryandpoliceman，therewouldbenolimitstotheirdisorder。Thepopulace，deliveredfromitscustomaryrestraint，wouldgiveitselfuptoviolenceofsocruelastampasnottoknowwhentostop……Aslongaswhitebreadlasts，[51]thecommotionwillnotprovegeneral；theflourmarket[52]
mustinterestitselfinthematter，ifthewomenaretoremaintranquil……Shouldwhitebreadbewantingfortwomarketdaysinsuccession，theuprisingwouldbeuniversal，anditisimpossibletoforeseethelengthsthismultitudeatbaywillgotoinordertoescapefamine，theyandtheirchildren。\"—In1789whitebreadprovestobewantingthroughoutFrance。
Notes:
[1]ThérondeMontaugé，102，113。IntheToulousaintenparishesoutoffiftyhaveschools。—InGascony，saystheass。prov。ofAuch（p。24），\"mostoftheruraldistrictsarewithoutschoolmastersorparsonages。\"—In1778，thepostbetweenParisandToulouserunsonlythreetimesaweek；thatofToulousebywayofAlby，Rodez，etc。，twiceaweek；forBeaumont，Saint—Girons，etc。，onceaweek。\"Inthecountry，\"saysThérondeMontaugé，\"onemaybesaidtoliveinsolitudeandexile。\"In1789theParispostreachesBesan？onthreetimesaweek。（ArthurYoung，I。257）。
[2]OneoftheMarquisdeMirabeau’sexpressions。
[3]Archivesnationales，G。300，letterofanexcisedirectoratCoulommiers，Aug。13，1781。
[4]D’Argenson，VI。425（June16，1751）。
[5]DeMontlosier，I。102，146。
[6]ThérondeMontaugé，102。
[7]MonsieurNicolas，I。448。
[8]\"TableauxdelaRévolution，\"bySchmidt，II。7（reportbytheagentPerrierewholivedinAuvergne。）
[9]GouverneurMorris，II。69，April29，1789。
[10]Mercier，\"TableaudeParis，\"XII。83。
[11]DeVaublanc，209。
[12]Mandrin，（Louis）（Saintétienne—de—Saint—Geoirs，Isère，1724
—Valence，1755）。Frenchsmugglerwho，after1750，wasactiveoveranenormousterritorywiththesupportofthepopulation；hunteddownbythearmy，caught，condemnedtodeathtobebrokenaliveonthewheel。
（SR。）
[13]ArthurYoung，I。283（Aug。13，1789）；I。289（Aug。19，1789）。
[14]Archivesnationales，H，274。LettersrespectivelyofM。deCaraman（March18andApril12，1789）；M。d’EymardeMontmegran（April2）；M。delaTour（March30）。\"Thesovereign’sgreatestbenefitisinterpretedinthestrangestmannerbyanignorantpopulace。\"
[15]Doniol，\"Hist。Desclassesrurales，\"495。（LetterofAug。3，1789，toM。deClermont—Tonnerre）。
[16]Archivesnationales，H。1453。（LetterofAug。3，1789，toM。
deClermont—Tonnere）。
[17]Procès—verbauxdel’ass。Prov。D’Orléanais，\"p。296。\"Distrustsstillprevailsthroughouttheruraldistricts……Yourfirstordersfordepartmentalassembliesonlyawakenedsuspicionincertainquarters。\"
[18]\"TableaudeParis，\"XII。186。
[19]Mme。Vigée—Lebrun，I。158，（1788）；I。183（1789）。
[20]Archivesnationals，H。723。（LetterofM。deCaumartin，intendantatBesan？on，Dec。5，1788）。
[21]D’Argenson，March13，1752。
[22]\"Corresp。，\"ofMétra，V，179（November22，1777）。
[23]Beugnot，I。142。\"NoinhabitantofthebaronyofChoiseulmingledwithanyofthebandscomposedofthepatriotsofMontigny，smugglersandoutcastsoftheneighborhood。\"—See，onthepoachersoftheday，\"LesdeuxamisdeBourbonne，\"byDiderot。
[24]DeCalonne，\"Mémoirespresentésàl’ass。desnotables，\"No。8。
—Necker，\"Del’AdministrationdesFinances，\"I。195。
[25]Letrosne，\"Del’AdministrationdesFinances，\"59。
[26]Archivesnationales，H。426。（Mémoiresofthefarmers—general，Jan。13，1781，Sept。15，1782）。H，614。（LetterofM。deCoetlosquet，April25，1777）。H，1431。Reportbythefarmers—general，March9，1787。
[27]Archivesnationales，H，1453。LetteroftheBarondeBezenval，June19，1789。
[28]\"Mandrin，\"byPaulSimian，passim。—\"HistoiredeBeaume，\"
byRossignol，p。453。—\"Mandrin，\"byCh。Jarrin（1875）。MajorFisher，whoattacksanddispersesthegang，writesthattheaffairisurgentsince，\"highertotheNorthnearForez，onecanfindtwoorthreehundredvagrantswhoonlywaitforachancetounitewiththem。\"
（p。47。）
[29]Mercier，XI。116。
[30]Seeabove，bookI。p。55。
[31]Letrosne，ibid。（1779），p。539。
[32]Archivesnationales，F16，965，andH，892。（OrdinanceofAugust41764；acircularofinstructionsofJuly20，1767；aletterofapolicelieutenantofToulouse，September21，1787）。
[33]Archivesnationales，H，724；H，554；F42397；F16965。—
LettersofthejailersofCarcassonne（June22，1789）；ofBéziers（July19，1786）；ofNimes（July1，1786）；oftheintendant，M。d’Aine（March19，1786）。
[34]Archivesnationales，H，554。（LetterofM。deBertrand，intendantofRennes，August7，1785）。
[35]Archivesnationales，H，426。（Remonstrances，Feb。1783）。—H，554。（LetterofM。deBertrand，Aug。17，1785）。
[36]Archivesnationales，H，614（MémoirebyRenédeHauteville，parliamentaryadvocate，Saint—Brieuc，Dec。25，1776。）
[37]\"Process—verbauxdel’ass。Prov。deSoissonnais\"（1787）p。
457。
[38]Archivesnationales，H，616（AletterofM。DeBoves，intendantofRennes，April23，1774）。
[39]Périn，\"LaJeunessedeRobespierre，\"301。（Doléancesdesparroissesruralesen1789）。
[40]Hippeau，\"LeGouvern。deNormandie，\"VII。147—177（1789）。—
Boivin—Champeaux，\"Noticehist。surlaRévolutiondansledépartementdel’Eure，\"p。83（1789）。
[41]ThérondeMontaugé，p。87。（Letteroftheprioroftheconvent，March，1789）。
[42]\"Procès—verbauxdel’Ass。prov。deLyonnais，\"p。57。—
Archivesnationales，F4，2073。MemorandumofJan。24，1788。
\"Charitableassistanceisverylimited，theprovincialauthoritiesprovidingnoresourcesforsuchaccidents。\"
[43]Levasseur，\"LaFranceindustrielle，\"119。—In1862，thepopulationbeingalmosttriple（1696000）therearebut90000
paupers。
[44]AlbertBabeau，\"Hist。deTroyes，\"I。91。（LetterofthemayorHuez，July30，1788）。
[45]Floquet，VII，506。
[46]Archivesnationales，H，1453。（LetterofM。deSainte—Suzanne，April29，1789）。
[47]ArthurYoung，I。256。
[48]\"Correspond。secrètinédite，\"from1777to1792，publishedbyM。deLescure，II。351（May8，1789）。Cf。C。Desmoulins，\"LaLanterne，\"of100riotersarrestedatLyons96werebranded。
[49]DeBezenval，II。344，350。—Dussault，\"LaPrisedelaBastille，\"352。—Marmontel，II，ch。XIV，249。——Mme。Vigée—Lebrun，I。
177，188。
[50]Mercier，I。32；VI。15；X。179；XI。59；XII。83。—ArthurYoung，I。122。
[51]Intheoriginal，paindeGonesse，—bread，madeinavillageofthisnamenearParis，andrenownedforitswhiteness。—TR。
[52]\"Dialoguessurlecommercedesblés，\"byGaliani（1770）。\"Ifthestrongofthemarketsarecontent，nomisfortunewillhappentotheadministration。Thegreatconspireandrebel；thebourgeoismurmursandlivesacelibate；peasantsandartisansdespairandgoaway；portersgetupriots。\"
CHAPTERIV。TheArmedForces。
I。
Militaryforcedeclines。—Howthearmyisrecruited。—Howthesoldieristreated。
Againstuniversalseditionwhereisforce？—Themeasuresanddispositionswhichgovernthe150，000menwhomaintainorderarethesameasthoserulingthe26millionspeoplesubjecttoit。Wefindherethesameabuses，disaffection，andothercausesforthedissolutionofthenationwhich，intheirturn，willdissolvethearmy。
Ofthe90millionsofpay[1]whichthearmyannuallycoststhetreasury，46millionsareforofficersandonly44millionsforsoldiers，andwearealreadyawarethatanewordinancereservesranksofallkindsforverifiednobles。Innodirectionisthisinequality，againstwhichpublicopinionrebelssovigorously，moreapparent。Ontheonehand，authority，honors，money，leisure，good—living，socialenjoyments，andplaysinprivate，fortheminority。Ontheotherhand，forthemajority，subjection，dejection，fatigue，aforcedorbetrayedenlistment，nohopeofpromotion，payatsixsousaday，[2]anarrowcotfortwo，breadfitfordogs，and，forseveralyears，kickslikethosebestowedonadog。[3]Ontheonehand，anobilityofhighestate，and，ontheother，thelowestofthepopulace。Onemightsaythatthiswasspeciallydesignedforcontrastandtointensifyirritation。\"Theinsignificantpayofthesoldier，\"saysaneconomist，\"thewayinwhichheisdressed，lodgedandfed，hisutterdependence，wouldrenderitcrueltytotakeanyotherthanamanofthelowerclass。\"[4]Indeed，heissoughtforonlyinthelowestlayersofsociety。Notonlyarenoblesandthebourgeoisieexemptfromconscription，butagaintheemployeesoftheadministration，ofthefermesandofpublicworks，\"allgamekeepersandforest—rangers，thehireddomesticsandvaletsofecclesiastics，ofcommunities，ofreligiousestablishments，ofthegentryandofnobles，\"[5]andevenofthebourgeoisielivingingrandstyle，andstillbetter，thesonsofcultivatorsineasycircumstances，and，ingeneral，allpossessinginfluenceoranyspeciesofprotector。Thereremains，accordingly，forthemilitianonebutthepoorestclass，andtheydonotwillinglyenterit。Onthecontrary，theserviceishatefultothem；theyconcealthemselvesintheforestswheretheyhavetobepursuedbyarmedmen:inacertaincantonwhich，threeyearslater，furnishesinonedayfromfiftytoonehundredvolunteers，theyoungmencutofftheirthumbstoescapethedraft。[6]Tothisscumofsocietyisaddedthesweepingsofthedepotsandofthejails。Amongthevagabondsthatfillthese，afterwinnowingoutthoseabletomaketheirfamiliesknownortoobtainsponsors，\"therearenoneleft，\"saysanintendant，\"butthosewhoareentirelyunknownordangerous，outofwhichthoseregardedastheleastviciousareselectedandeffortsaremadetoplacetheseinthearmy。\"[7]—Thelastofitsaffluentsisthehalf—forced，half—voluntaryenlistmentbywhichtheranksareforthemostpartfilled，thehumanwasteoflargetowns，likeadventurers，dischargedapprentices，youngreprobatesturnedoutofdoors，andpeoplewithouthomesorsteadyoccupation。Therecruitingagentwhoispaidsomuchaheadforhisrecruitsandsomuchaninchontheirstatureabovefivefeet，\"holdshiscourtinatavern，treatingeveryone\"promotinghismerchandise:
\"Come，boys，soup，fish，meatandsaladiswhatyougettoeatintheregiment；\"nothingelse，\"Idon’tdeceiveyou—pieandArboiswinearetheextras。\"[8]
Hepoursthewine，paysthebilland，ifneedbe，yieldshismistress。\"Afterafewdaysdebauchery，theyounglibertine，withnomoneytopayhisdebts，isobligedtosellhimself，whilethelaborer，transformedintosoldier，beginstodrillunderthelash。\"—Strangerecruitsthese，fortheprotectionofsociety，allselectedfromtheclasswhichwillattackit，down—troddenpeasants，imprisonedvagabonds，socialoutcasts，poorfellowsindebt，disheartened，excitedandeasilytempted，who，accordingtocircumstances，becomeatonetimerioters，andatanothersoldiers。—Whichlotispreferable？
Thebreadthesoldiereatsisnotmoreabundantthanthatoftheprisoner，whilepoorerinquality；forthebranistakenoutofthebreadwhichthelocked—upvagabondeats，andleftinthebreadwhichiseatenbythesoldierwholockshimup[9]。Inthisstateofthingsthesoldieroughtnottomediateonhislot，andyetthisisjustwhathisofficersincitehimtodo。Theyalsohavebecomepoliticiansandfault—finders。SomeyearsbeforetheRevolution[10]\"disputesoccurred\"inthearmy，\"discussionsandcomplaints，and，thenewideasfermentingintheirheads，acorrespondencewasestablishedbetweentworegiments。WritteninformationwasobtainedfromParis，authorizedbytheMinisterofWar，whichcost，Ibelieve，twelvelouisperannum。
Itsoontookaphilosophicturn，embracingdissertations，criticismsoftheministry，andofthegovernment，desirablechangesand，therefore，themorediffused。\"SergeantslikeHoche，andfencing—
masterslikeAugereau，certainlyoftenreadthisnews，carelesslyleftlyingonthetables，andcommentedonitduringtheeveningintheirsoldierquarters。Discontentisofancientdate，andalready，attheendofthelatereign，grievouswordsareheard。Atabanquetgivenbyaprinceoftheblood，[11]withatablesetforahundredguestsunderanimmensetentandservedbygrenadiers，theodorthesediffusedupsettheprince’sdelicatenose。\"Theseworthyfellows，\"saidhe，alittletooloud，\"smellstrongofthestocking。\"Oneofthegrenadiersbluntlyresponded，\"Becausewehaven’tgotany，\"which\"wasfollowedbyprofoundsilence。\"Duringtheensuringyearsirritationsmoldersandaugments；thesoldiersofRochambeauhavefoughtsidebysidewiththefreemilitiaofAmerica，andtheykeepthisinmind。In1788，[12]
MarshaldeVaux，previoustotheinsurrectioninDauphiny，writestoministerthat\"itisimpossibletorelyonthetroops，\"whilefourmonthsaftertheopeningoftheStates—General16，000desertersroamingaroundParisleadstherevoltsinsteadofsuppressingthem。[13]
II。
Thesocialorganizationisdissolved。—Nocentralrallyingpoint。—Inertiaoftheprovinces。—AscendancyofParis。
Oncethisbarrierhasdisappeared，nootherembankmentremainsandtheinundationspreadsalloverFrancelikeoveranimmenseplain。
Withothernationsinlikecircumstances，someobstacleshavebeenencountered；elevationshaveexisted，centersofrefuge，oldconstructionsinwhich，intheuniversalfright，aportionofthepopulationcouldfindshelter。Here，thefirstcrisissweepsawayallthatremains，eachindividualofthetwenty—sixscatteredmillionsstandingalonebyhimself。TheadministrationsofRichelieuandLouisXIV。hadbeenalongtimeatworkinsensiblydestroyingthenaturalgroupingswhich，whensuddenlydissolved，uniteandformoveragainoftheirownaccord。ExceptinVendée，Ifindnoplace，noranyclass，inwhichagoodmanymen，havingconfidenceinafewmen，areable，inthehourofdanger，torallyaroundtheseandformacompactbody。
Neitherprovincialnormunicipalpatriotismanylongerexists。Theinferiorclergyarehostiletotheprelates，thegentryoftheprovincetothenobilityofthecourt，thevassaltotheseignior，thepeasanttothetownsman，theurbanpopulationtothemunicipaloligarchy，corporationtocorporation，parishtoparish，neighbortoneighbor。Allareseparatedbytheirprivilegesandtheirjealousies，bytheconsciousnessofhavingbeenimposedon，orfrustrated，fortheadvantageofanother。Thejourneymantailorisembitteredagainsthisforemanforpreventinghimfromdoingaday’sworkinprivatehouses，hairdressersagainsttheiremployersforthelikereason，thepastry—
cookagainstthebakerwhopreventshimfrombakingthepiesofhousekeepers，thevillagespinneragainstthetownspinnerswhowishtobreakhimup，theruralwine—growersagainstthebourgeoiswho，inthecircleofsevenleagues，strivestohavetheirvinespulledup，[14]thevillageagainsttheneighboringvillagewhosereductionoftaxationhasruinedit，theovertaxedpeasantagainsttheundertaxedpeasant，one—halfofaparishagainstitscollectors，who，toitsdetriment，havefavoredtheotherhalf。
\"Thenation，\"saysTurgot，mournfully，[15]\"isasocietycomposedofdifferentordersbadlyunitedandofapeoplewhosemembershavefewmutualliens，nobody，consequently，caringforanyinterestbuthisown。Nowhereisthereanysignofaninterestincommon。Townsandvillagesmaintainnomorerelationwitheachotherthanthedistrictstowhichtheyareattached；theyareevenunabletoagreetogetherwithaviewtocarryoutpublicimprovementsofgreatimportancetothem。\"
Thecentralpowerforahundredandfiftyyearsrulesthroughitsdivisionofpower。Menhavebeenkeptseparate，preventedfromactinginconcert，theworkbeingsosuccessfulthattheynolongerunderstandeachother，eachclassignoringtheotherclass，eachformingoftheotherachimericalpicture，eachbestowingontheotherthehuesofitsownimagination，onecomposinganidyll，theotherframingamelodrama，oneimaginingpeasantsassentimentalswains，theotherconvincedthatthenoblesarehorribletyrants。—Throughthismutualmisconceptionandthissecularisolation，theFrenchlosethehabit，theartandthefacultyforactinginanentirebody。Theyarenolongercapableofspontaneousagreementandcollectiveaction。
Noone，inthemomentofdanger，daresrelyonhisneighborsoronhisequals。Nooneknowswheretoturntoobtainaguide。\"Amanwillingtoberesponsibleforthesmallestdistrictcannotbefound；and，morethanthis，onemanabletoanswerforanotherman[16]。\"Utterandirremediabledisorderisathand。TheUtopiaofthetheoristshasbeenaccomplished，thesavageconditionhasrecommenced。Individualsnowstandinbythemselves；everyonerevertingbacktohisoriginalfeebleness，whilehispossessionsandhislifeareatthemercyofthefirstbandthatcomesalong。Hehasnothingwithinhimtocontrolhimbutthesheep—likehabitofbeingled，ofawaitinganimpulsion，ofturningtowardstheaccustomedcenter，towardsParis，fromwhichhisordershavealwaysarrived。ArthurYoung[17]isstruckwiththismechanicalmovement。Politicalignoranceanddocilityareeverywherecomplete。He，aforeigner，conveysthenewsofAlsaceintoBurgundy:
theinsurrectiontherehadbeenterrible，thepopulacehavingsackedthecity—hallatStrasbourg，ofwhichnotawordwasknownatDijon；
\"yetitisninedayssinceithappened；haditbeennineteenI
questioniftheywouldmorethanhavereceivedtheintelligence。\"
Therearenonewspapersinthecafés；nolocalcentersofinformation，ofresolution，ofaction。Theprovincesubmitstoeventsatthecapital；\"peopledarenotmove；theydarenotevenformanopinionbeforeParisspeaks。\"—ThisiswhatMonarchicalcentralizationleadsto。Ithasdeprivedthegroupsoftheircohesionandtheindividualofhismotivationaldrive。Onlyhumandustremains，andthis，whirlingaboutandgatheredtogetherinmassiveforce，isblindlydrivenalongbythewind。[18]
III。
Directionofthecurrent。—Thepeopleledbylawyers。—
Theoriesandpiquesthesolesurvivingforces。—SuicideoftheAncientregime。
Weareallwellawarefromwhichsidethegalecomes，and，toassureourselves，wehavemerelytoseehowthereportsoftheThird—
Estatearemadeup。Thepeasantisledbythemanofthelaw，thepettyattorneyoftheruraldistricts，theenviousadvocateandtheorist。Thisoneinsists，inthereport，onastatementbeingmadeinwritingandatlengthofhislocalandpersonalgrievances，hisprotestagainsttaxesanddeductions，hisrequesttohavehisdogfreeoftheclog，andhisdesiretoownaguntouseagainstthewolves[19]。Anotherone，whosuggestsanddirects，envelopesallthisinthelanguageoftheRightsofManandthatofthecircularofSieyès。