Wemaynowtakeuptheevolutionofmedicalscienceoutofthemedievalviewanditsmodernsurvivals。AllthroughtheMiddleAges，aswehaveseen，somefewlaymenandecclesiasticshereandthere，bravingtheedictsoftheChurchandpopularsuperstition，persistedinmedicalstudyandpractice：thiswasespeciallyseenatthegreateruniversities，whichhadbecomesomewhatemancipatedfromecclesiasticalcontrol。InthethirteenthcenturytheUniversityofParisgaveastrongimpulsetotheteachingofmedicine，andinthatandthefollowingcenturywebegintofindthefirstintelligiblereportsofmedicalcasessincethecominginofChristianity。
Inthethirteenthcenturyalsothearch-enemyofthepapacy，theEmperorFrederickII，showedhisfree-thinkingtendenciesbygranting，fromtimetotime，permissionstodissectthehumansubject。Inthecenturiesfollowing，sundryothermonarchstimidlyfollowedhisexample：thusJohnofAragon，in1391，gavetotheUniversityofLeridatheprivilegeofdissectingonedeadcriminaleverythreeyears。[319]
[319]Forthepromotionofmedicalscienceandpractice，especiallyinthethirteenthcentury，bytheuniversities，seeBaas，pp。222-224。
Duringthefifteenthcenturyandtheearlieryearsofthesixteenththerevivaloflearning，theinventionofprinting，andthegreatvoyagesofdiscoverygaveanewimpulsetothought，andinthismedicalscienceshared：theoldtheologicalwayofthinkingwasgreatlyquestioned，andgaveplaceinmanyquarterstoadifferentwayoflookingattheuniverse。
InthesixteenthcenturyParacelsusappears——agreatgenius，doingmuchtodevelopmedicinebeyondthereachofsacredandscholastictradition，thoughstillfetteredbymanysuperstitions。Moreandmore，inspiteoftheologicaldogmas，camearenewalofanatomicalstudiesbydissectionofthehumansubject。ThepracticeoftheoldAlexandrianSchoolwasthusresumed。Mundinus，ProfessorofMedicineatBolognaearlyinthefourteenthcentury，daredusethehumansubjectoccasionallyinhislectures；butfinallycameafargreaterchampionofscientifictruth，AndreasVesalius，founderofthemodernscienceofanatomy。Thebattlewagedbythismanisoneofthegloriesofourrace。
FromtheoutsetVesaliusprovedhimselfamaster。Inthesearchforrealknowledgeheriskedthemostterribledangers，andespeciallythechargeofsacrilege，foundedupontheteachingsoftheChurchforages。Aswehaveseen，evensuchmenintheearlyChurchasTertullianandSt。Augustineheldanatomyinabhorrence，andthedecretalofPopeBonifaceVIIIwasuniversallyconstruedasforbiddingalldissection，andasthreateningexcommunicationagainstthosepractisingit。ThroughthissacredconventionalismVesaliusbrokewithoutfear；despiteecclesiasticalcensure，greatoppositioninhisownprofession，andpopularfury，hestudiedhissciencebytheonlymethodthatcouldgiveusefulresults。Noperildauntedhim。Tosecurematerialforhisinvestigations，hehauntedgibbetsandcharnel-houses，bravingthefiresoftheInquisitionandthevirusoftheplague。Firstofallmenhebegantoplacethescienceofhumananatomyonitssolidmodernfoundations——oncarefulexaminationandobservationofthehumanbody：thiswashisfirstgreatsin，anditwassoonaggravatedbyoneconsideredevengreater。
PerhapsthemostunfortunatethingthathaseverbeendoneforChristianityisthetyingittoformsofsciencewhicharedoomedandgraduallysinking。Justas，inthetimeofRogerBacon，excellentmendevotedalltheirenergiestobindingChristianitytoAristotle；justas，inthetimeofReuchlinandErasmus，theyinsistedonbindingChristianitytoThomasAquinas；so，inthetimeofVesalius，suchmenmadeeveryefforttolinkChristianitytoGalen。Thecryhasbeenthesameinallages；itisthesamewhichwehearinthisageforcurbingscientificstudies：thecryforwhatiscalled“soundlearning。”WhetherstandingforAristotleagainstBacon，orforAquinasagainstErasmus，orforGalenagainstVesalius，thecryisalwaysfor“soundlearning“：
theideaalwayshasbeenthattheolderstudiesare“SAFE。”
Attwenty-eightyearsofageVesaliusgavetotheworldhisgreatworkonhumananatomy。Withitendedtheoldandbeganthenew；
itsresearches，bytheirthoroughness，wereatriumphofscience；
itsillustrations，bytheirfidelity，wereatriumphofart。
Toshieldhimself，asfaraspossible，inthebattlewhichheforesawmustcome，VesaliusdedicatedtheworktotheEmperorCharlesV，andinhisprefacehearguesforhismethod，andagainsttheparrotrepetitionsofthemediaevaltext-books；healsocondemnsthewretchedanatomicalpreparationsandspecimensmadebyphysicianswhoutterlyrefusedtoadvancebeyondtheancientmaster。Theparrot-likerepeatersofGalengavebattleatonce。Afterthemanneroftheirtimetheirfirstmissileswereepithets；and，thevastarsenalofthesehavingbeenexhausted，theybegantousesharperweapons——weaponstheologic。
Inthiscasetherewereespecialreasonswhythetheologicalauthoritiesfeltcalledupontointervene。First，therewastheoldideaprevailingintheChurchthatthedissectionofthehumanbodyisforbiddentoChristians：thiswasusedwithgreatforceagainstVesalius，butheatfirstgainedatemporaryvictory；for，aconferenceofdivineshavingbeenaskedtodecidewhetherdissectionofthehumanbodyissacrilege，gaveadecisioninthenegative。
Thereasonwassimple：thegreatEmperorCharlesVhadmadeVesaliushisphysicianandcouldnotsparehim；but，ontheaccessionofPhilipIItothethroneofSpainandtheNetherlands，thewholescenechanged。VesaliusnowcomplainedthatinSpainhecouldnotobtainevenahumanskullforhisanatomicalinvestigations：themedicalandtheologicalreactionistshadtheirway，andtoallappearancetheyhave，asarule，haditinSpaineversince。AslateasthelastyearsoftheeighteenthcenturyanobservantEnglishtravellerfoundthattherewerenodissectionsbeforemedicalclassesintheSpanishuniversities，andthatthedoctrineofthecirculationofthebloodwasstilldenied，morethanacenturyandahalfafterSarpiandHarveyhadprovedit。
AnothertheologicalideabarredthepathofVesalius。ThroughouttheMiddleAgesitwasbelievedthatthereexistsinmanaboneimponderable，incorruptible，incombustible——thenecessarynucleusoftheresurrectionbody。Beliefinaresurrectionofthephysicalbody，despiteSt。Paul’sEpistletotheCorinthians，hadbeenincorporatedintotheformulaevolvedduringtheearlyChristiancenturiesandknownastheApostles’Creed，andwasheldthroughoutChristendom，“always，everywhere，andbyall。”
Thishypotheticalbonewasthereforeheldingreatveneration，andmanyanatomistssoughttodiscoverit；butVesalius，revealingsomuchelse，didnotfindit。Hecontentedhimselfwithsayingthatheleftthequestionregardingtheexistenceofsuchabonetothetheologians。Hecouldnotlie；hedidnotwishtofighttheInquisition；andthushefellundersuspicion。
ThestrengthofthistheologicalpointmaybejudgedfromthefactthatnolesseminentasurgeonthanRiolanconsultedtheexecutionertofindoutwhether，whenheburnedacriminal，allthepartswereconsumed；andonlythenwastheanswerreceivedwhichfatallyunderminedthissuperstition。Yet，in1689wefinditstilllingeringinFrance，stimulatingoppositionintheChurchtodissection。Evenaslateastheeighteenthcentury，Bernouillihavingshownthatthelivinghumanbodyconstantlyundergoesaseriesofchanges，sothatallitsparticlesarerenewedinagivennumberofyears，somuchillfeelingwasdrawnuponhim，fromtheologians，whosawinthisstatementdangertothedoctrineoftheresurrectionofthebody，thatforthesakeofpeacehestruckouthisargumentonthissubjectfromhiscollectedworks。[320]
[320]Forpermissionstodissectthehumansubject，givenhereandthereduringtheMiddleAges，seeRoth’sAndreasVesalius，Berlin，1892，pp。3，13etseq。ForreligiousantipathiesasafactorinthepersecutionofVesalius，seethebiographiesbyBoerhaaveandAlbinos，1725；Burggraeve’sEtudes，1841；alsoHaeser，Kingsley，andthelatestandmostthoroughofall，Roth，asabove。EvenGoethals，despitethetimiditynaturaltoacitylibrarianinatownlikeBrussels，inwhichclericalpowerisstrongandrelentless，feelsobligedtoconfessthattherewasacertainadmixtureofreligioushatredinthetreatmentofVesalius。SeehisNoticeBiographiquesurAndreVesale。Fortheresurrectionbones，seeRoth，asabove，pp。154，155，andnotes。
ForVesalius，seeespeciallyPortal，Hist。del’AnatomieetdelaChirurgie，Paris，1770，tomei，p。407。ForneglectofdissectionandoppositiontoHarvey’sdiscoveryinSpain，seeTownsend’sTravels，editionof1792，citedinBuckle，HistoryofCivilizationinEngland，vol。ii，pp。74，75。AlsoHenryMorley，inhisClementMarot，andOtherEssays。ForBernouilliandhistroublewiththetheologians，seeWolf，BiographienzurCulturgeschichtederSchweiz，vol。ii，p。95。HowdifferentMundinus’spracticeofdissectionwasfromthatofVesaliusmaybeseenbyCuvier’scarefulstatementthattheentirenumberofdissectionsbytheformerwasthree；theusualstatementisthattherewerebuttwo。SeeCuvier，Hist。desSci。Nat。，tomeii，p。
7；alsoSprengel，Fredault，Hallam，andLittre。AlsoWhewell，Hist。oftheInductiveSciences，vol。iii，p。328；also，foraveryfullstatementregardingtheagencyofMundinusintheprogressofAnatomy，seePortal，vol。i，pp。209-216。
Stillotherencroachmentsuponthetheologicalviewweremadebythenewschoolofanatomists，andespeciallybyVesalius。DuringtheMiddleAgestherehadbeendevelopedvarioustheologicaldoctrinesregardingthehumanbody；thesewerebaseduponargumentsshowingwhatthebodyOUGHTTOBE，andnaturally，whenanatomicalscienceshowedwhatitIS，thesedoctrinesfell。
Anexampleofsuchpopulartheologicalreasoningisseeninawidespreadbeliefofthetwelfthcentury，that，duringtheyearinwhichthecrossofChristwascapturedbySaladin，children，insteadofhavingthirtyorthirty-twoteethasbefore，hadtwentyortwenty-two。So，too，inVesalius’stimeanotherdoctrineofthissortwasdominant：ithadlongbeenheldthatEve，havingbeenmadebytheAlmightyfromaribtakenoutofAdam’sside，theremustbeoneribfewerononesideofeverymanthanontheother。ThiscreationofEvewasafavouritesubjectwithsculptorsandpainters，fromGiotto，whocarvedituponhisbeautifulCampanileatFlorence，totheilluminatorsofmissals，andeventothosewhoillustratedBiblesandreligiousbooksinthefirstyearsaftertheinventionofprinting；butVesaliusandtheanatomistswhofollowedhimputanendamongthoughtfulmentothisbeliefinthemissingrib，andindoingthisdealtablowatmuchelseinthesacredtheory。Naturally，alltheseconsiderationsbroughttheforcesofecclesiasticismagainsttheinnovatorsinanatomy。[321]
[321]Astothesupposedchangeinthenumberofteeth，seetheGestaPhilippiAugustiFrancorumRegis，……descriptaamagistroRigardo，1219，editedbyFatherFrancoisDuchesne，inHistoriesFrancorumScriptores，tom。v，Paris，1649，p。24。ForrepresentationsofAdamcreatedbytheAlmightyoutofapileofdust，andofEvecreatedfromaribofAdam，seetheearlierillustrationsintheNurembergChronicle。AstotherelationofanatomytotheologyasregardstoAdam’srib，seeRoth，pp。154，155。
Anewweaponwasnowforged：Vesaliuswaschargedwithdissectingalivingman，and，eitherfromdirectpersecution，asthegreatmajorityofauthorsassert，orfromindirectinfluences，astherecentapologistsforPhilipIIadmit，hebecameawanderer：onapilgrimagetotheHolyLand，apparentlyundertakentoatoneforhissin，hewasshipwrecked，andintheprimeofhislifeandstrengthhewaslosttotheworld。
Andyetnotlost。Inthiscenturyagreatpainterhasagaingivenhimtous。BythemagicofHamann’spencilVesaliusagainstandsonearth，andwelookoncemoreintohiscell。Itswindowsanddoors，boltedandbarredwithin，betokenthestormofbigotrywhichrageswithout；thecrucifix，towardwhichheturnshiseyes，symbolizesthespiritinwhichhelabours；thecorpseoftheplague-strickenbeneathhishandceasestoberepulsive；
hisverysoulseemstosendforthraysfromthecanvas，whichstrengthenusforthegoodfightinthisage。[322]
[322]TheoriginalpaintingofVesaliusatworkinhiscell，byHamann，isnowatCornellUniversity。
Hisdeathwashastened，ifnotcaused，bymenwhoconscientiouslysupposedthathewasinjuringreligion：hispoor，blindfoesaidedindestroyingoneofreligion’sgreatestapostles。Whatwashisinfluenceonreligion？Hesubstituted，fortherepetitionofworn-outtheories，aconscientiousandreverentsearchintotheworksofthegreatPowergivinglifetotheuniverse；hesubstituted，forrepresentationsofthehumanstructurepitifulandunreal，representationsrevealingtruthsmosthelpfultothewholehumanrace。
Thedeathofthischampionseemstohavevirtuallyendedthecontest。Licensestodissectsoonbegantobegivenbysundrypopestouniversities，andwererenewedatintervalsoffromthreetofouryears，untiltheReformationsetinmotiontrainsofthoughtwhichdidmuchtoreleasesciencefromthisyoke。[323]
[323]ForacuriousexampleofweaponsdrawnfromGalenandusedagainstVesalius，seeLewes，LifeofGoethe，p。343，note。ForproofsthatIhavenotoverestimatedVesalius，seePortal，ubisupra。Portalspeaksofhimas“legenieleplusdroitqu’eutl’Europe“；andagain，“Vesalemeparaitundesplusgrandshommesquiaitexiste。”Forthechargethatanatomistsdissectedlivingmen——againstmenofsciencebeforeVesalius’stime——seeLittre’schapteronAnatomy。FortheincreasedlibertygivenanatomybytheReformation，seeRoth’sVesalius，p。33。