therewasnoquestionofcrookednessintheotherofficesintheState，andtheycouldbehandledintheordinarymanner。LegalproceedingswereundertakenagainsthiscolleagueintheSenate，andoneofhiscolleaguesinthelowerhouse，andtheformerwasconvictedandsentencedtothepenitentiary。
InanumberofinstancesthelegalityofexecutiveactsofmyAdministrationwasbroughtbeforethecourts。Theywereuniformlysustained。Forexample，priorto1907statutesrelatingtothedispositionofcoallandshadbeenconstruedasfixingtheflatpriceat$10to$20peracre。Theresultwasthatvaluablecoallandsweresoldforwhollyinadequateprices，chieflytobigcorporations。ByexecutiveorderthecoallandswerewithdrawnandnotopenedforentryuntilproperclassificationwasplacedthereonbyGovernmentagents。
TherewasagreatclamorthatIwasusurpinglegislativepower；buttheactswerenotassailedincourtuntilwebroughtsuitstosetasideentriesmadebypersonsandassociationstoobtainlargerareasthanthestatutesauthorized。Thispositionwasopposedonthegroundthattherestrictionsimposedwereillegal；thattheexecutiveorderswereillegal。TheSupremeCourtsustainedtheGovernment。Inthesamewayourattitudeinthewaterpowerquestionwassustained，theSupremeCourtholdingthattheFederalGovernmenthadtherightsweclaimedoverstreamsthatareormaybedeclarednavigablebyCongress。Again，whenOklahomabecameaStatewewereobligedtousetheexecutivepowertoprotectIndianrightsandproperty，fortherehadbeenanenormousamountoffraudintheobtainingofIndianlandsbywhitemen。HereweweredenouncedasusurpingpoweroveraStateaswellasusurpingpowerthatdidnotbelongtotheexecutive。TheSupremeCourtsustainedouraction。
InconnectionwiththeIndians，bytheway，itwasagainandagainnecessarytoassertthepositionofthePresidentasstewardofthewholepeople。IhadacapitalIndianCommissioner，FrancisE。Leupp。I
foundthatIcouldrelyonhisjudgmentnottogetmeintofightsthatwereunnecessary，andthereforeIalwaysbackedhimtothelimitwhenhetoldmethatafightwasnecessary。Ononeoccasion，forexample，CongresspassedabilltoselltosettlersabouthalfamillionacresofIndianlandinOklahomaatoneandahalfdollarsanacre。I
refusedtosignit，andturnedthematterovertoLeupp。Thebillwasaccordinglywithdrawn，amendedsoastosafeguardthewelfareoftheIndians，andtheminimumpriceraisedtofivedollarsanacre。ThenI
signedthebill。Wesoldthatlandundersealedbids，andrealizedfortheKiowa，Comanche，andApacheIndiansmorethanfourmilliondollars——threemillionsandaquartermorethantheywouldhaveobtainedifI
hadsignedthebillinitsoriginalform。Inanothercase，wheretherehadbeenadivisionamongtheSacandFoxIndians，partofthetriberemovingtoIowa，theIowadelegationinCongress，backedbytwoIowanswhoweremembersofmyCabinet，passedabillawardingasumofnearlyahalfmilliondollarstotheIowaseceders。TheyhadnotconsultedtheIndianBureau。Leuppprotestedagainstthebill，andI
vetoedit。AsubsequentbillwaspassedonthelineslaiddownbytheIndianBureau，referringthewholecontroversytothecourts，andtheSupremeCourtintheendjustifiedourpositionbydecidingagainsttheIowasecedersandawardingthemoneytotheOklahomastay-at-
homes。
Astoallactionofthiskindtherehavelongbeentwoschoolsofpoliticalthought，upheldwithequalsincerity。Thedivisionhasnotnormallybeenalongpolitical，buttemperamental，lines。ThecourseI
followed，ofregardingtheexecutiveassubjectonlytothepeople，and，undertheConstitution，boundtoservethepeopleaffirmativelyincaseswheretheConstitutiondoesnotexplicitlyforbidhimtorendertheservice，wassubstantiallythecoursefollowedbybothAndrewJacksonandAbrahamLincoln。Otherhonorableandwell-meaningPresidents，suchasJamesBuchanan，tooktheoppositeand，asitseemstome，narrowlylegalisticviewthatthePresidentistheservantofCongressratherthanofthepeople，andcandonothing，nomatterhownecessaryitbetoact，unlesstheConstitutionexplicitlycommandstheaction。Mostablelawyerswhoarepastmiddleagetakethisview，andsodolargenumbersofwell-meaning，respectablecitizens。Mysuccessorinofficetookthis，theBuchanan，viewofthePresident’spowersandduties。
Forexample，undermyAdministrationwefoundthatoneofthefavoritemethodsadoptedbythemendesirousofstealingthepublicdomainwastocarrythedecisionoftheSecretaryoftheInteriorintocourt。Byvigorouslyopposingsuchaction，andonlybysodoing，wewereabletocarryoutthepolicyofproperlyprotectingthepublicdomain。Mysuccessornotonlytooktheoppositeview，butrecommendedtoCongressthepassageofabillwhichwouldhavegiventhecourtsdirectappellatepowerovertheSecretaryoftheInteriorintheselandmatters。ThisbillwasreportedfavorablybyMr。Mondell，ChairmanoftheHouseCommitteeonpubliclands，aCongressmanwhotooktheleadineverymeasuretopreventtheconservationofournaturalresourcesandthepreservationoftheNationaldomainfortheuseofhome-
seekers。Fortunately，Congressdeclinedtopassthebill。Itspassagewouldhavebeenaveritablecalamity。
IactedonthetheorythatthePresidentcouldatanytimeinhisdiscretionwithdrawfromentryanyofthepubliclandsoftheUnitedStatesandreservethesameforforestry，forwater-powersites，forirrigation，andotherpublicpurposes。Withoutsuchactionitwouldhavebeenimpossibletostoptheactivityofthelandthieves。Nooneventuredtotestitslegalitybylawsuit。Mysuccessor，however，himselfquestionedit，andreferredthemattertoCongress。AgainCongressshoweditswisdombypassingalawwhichgavethePresidentthepowerwhichhehadlongexercised，andofwhichmysuccessorhadshornhimself。
PerhapsthesharpdifferencebetweenwhatmaybecalledtheLincoln-
JacksonandtheBuchanan-Taftschools，intheirviewsofthepoweranddutiesofthePresident，maybebestillustratedbycomparingtheattitudeofmysuccessortowardhisSecretaryoftheInterior，Mr。
Ballinger，whenthelatterwasaccusedofgrossmisconductinoffice，withmyattitudetowardsmychiefsofdepartmentandothersubordinateofficers。MorethanoncewhileIwasPresidentmyofficialswereattackedbyCongress，generallybecausetheseofficialsdidtheirdutywellandfearlessly。IneverysuchcaseIstoodbytheofficialandrefusedtorecognizetherightofCongresstointerferewithmeexceptingbyimpeachmentorinotherConstitutionalmanner。Ontheotherhand，whereverIfoundtheofficerunfitforhispositionI
promptlyremovedhim，evenalthoughthemostinfluentialmeninCongressfoughtforhisretention。TheJackson-LincolnviewisthataPresidentwhoisfittodogoodworkshouldbeabletoformhisownjudgmentastohisownsubordinates，and，aboveall，ofthesubordinatesstandinghighestandinclosestandmostintimatetouchwithhim。Mysecretariesandtheirsubordinateswereresponsibletome，andIacceptedtheresponsibilityforalltheirdeeds。AslongastheyweresatisfactorytomeIstoodbythemagainsteverycriticorassailant，withinorwithoutCongress；andasforgettingCongresstomakeupmymindformeaboutthem，thethoughtwouldhavebeeninconceivabletome。Mysuccessortooktheopposite，orBuchanan，viewwhenhepermittedandrequestedCongresstopassjudgmentonthechargesmadeagainstMr。Ballingerasanexecutiveofficer。ThesechargesweremadetothePresident；thePresidenthadthefactsbeforehimandcouldgetatthematanytime，andhealonehadpowertoactifthechargesweretrue。However，hepermittedandrequestedCongresstoinvestigateMr。Ballinger。Thepartyminorityofthecommitteethatinvestigatedhim，andonememberofthemajority，declaredthatthechargeswerewellfoundedandthatMr。Ballingershouldberemoved。
Theothermembersofthemajoritydeclaredthechargesillfounded。
ThePresidentabodebytheviewofthemajority。OfcoursebelieversintheJackson-LincolntheoryofthePresidencywouldnotbecontentwiththistownmeetingmajorityandminoritymethodofdeterminingbyanotherbranchoftheGovernmentwhatitseemstheespecialdutyofthePresidenthimselftodetermineforhimselfindealingwithhisownsubordinateinhisowndepartment。
TherearemanyworthypeoplewhoreprobatetheBuchananmethodasamatterofhistory，butwhoinactuallifereprobatestillmorestronglytheJackson-Lincolnmethodwhenitisputintopractice。
ThesepersonsconscientiouslybelievethatthePresidentshouldsolveeverydoubtinfavorofinactionasagainstaction，thatheshouldconstruestrictlyandnarrowlytheConstitutionalgrantofpowersbothtotheNationalGovernment，andtothePresidentwithintheNationalGovernment。Inaddition，however，tothemenwhoconscientiouslybelieveinthiscoursefromhigh，althoughasIholdmisguided，motives，therearemanymenwhoaffecttobelieveinitmerelybecauseitenablesthemtoattackandtotrytohamper，forpartisanorpersonalreasons，anexecutivewhomtheydislike。Thereareothermeninwhom，especiallywhentheyarethemselvesinoffice，practicaladherencetotheBuchananprinciplerepresentsnotwell-thought-outdevotiontoanunwisecourse，butsimpleweaknessofcharacteranddesiretoavoidtroubleandresponsibility。Unfortunately，inpracticeitmakeslittledifferencewhichclassofideasactuatesthePresident，whobyhisactionsetsacrampingprecedent。Whetherheishighmindedandwrongheadedormerelyinfirmofpurpose，whetherhemeanswellfeeblyorisboundbyamischievousmisconceptionofthepowersanddutiesoftheNationalGovernmentandofthePresident，theeffectofhisactionsisthesame。ThePresident’sdutyistoactsothathehimselfandhissubordinatesshallbeabletodoefficientworkforthepeople，andthisefficientworkheandtheycannotdoifCongressispermittedtoundertakethetaskofmakinguphismindforhimastohowheshallperformwhatisclearlyhissoleduty。
OneofthewaysinwhichbyindependentactionoftheexecutivewewereabletoaccomplishanimmenseamountofworkforthepublicwasthroughvolunteerunpaidcommissionsappointedbythePresident。Itwaspossibletogettheworkdonebythesevolunteercommissionsonlybecauseoftheenthusiasmforthepublicservicewhich，startinginthehigherofficesatWashington，madeitselffeltthroughouttheGovernmentdepartments——asIhavesaid，IneverknewharderandmoredisinterestedworkdonebyanypeoplethanwasdonebythemenandwomenofallranksintheGovernmentservice。ThecontrastwasreallyextraordinarybetweentheirliveinterestintheirworkandthetraditionalclericalapathywhichhassooftenbeenthedistinguishingnoteofgovernmentalworkinWashington。Mostofthepublicserviceperformedbythesevolunteercommissions，carriedonwithoutacentofpaytothementhemselves，andwhollywithoutcosttotheGovernment，wasdonebymenthegreatmajorityofwhomwerealreadyintheGovernmentserviceandalreadychargedwithresponsibilitiesamountingeachtoafullman’sjob。
ThefirstoftheseCommissionswastheCommissionontheOrganizationofGovernmentScientificWork，whoseChairmanwasCharlesD。Walcott。
AppointedMarch13，1903，itsdutywastoreportdirectlytothePresident“upontheorganization，presentcondition，andneedsoftheExecutiveGovernmentworkwhollyorpartlyscientificincharacter，anduponthestepswhichshouldbetaken，ifany，topreventtheduplicationofsuchwork，toco-ordinateitsvariousbranches，toincreaseitsefficiencyandeconomy，andtopromoteitsusefulnesstotheNationatlarge。”ThisCommissionspentfourmonthsinanexaminationwhichcoveredtheworkofaboutthirtyofthelargerscientificandexecutivebureausoftheGovernment，andpreparedareportwhichfurnishedthebasisfornumerousimprovementsintheGovernmentservice。
AnotherCommission，appointedJune2，1905，wasthatonDepartmentMethods——CharlesH。Keep，Chairman——whosetaskwasto“findoutwhatchangesareneededtoplacetheconductoftheexecutivebusinessoftheGovernmentinallitsbranchesonthemosteconomicalandeffectivebasisinthelightofthebestmodernbusinesspractice。”
TheletterappointingthisCommissionlaiddownnineprinciplesofeffectiveGovernmentalwork，themoststrikingofwhichwas：“Theexistenceofanymethod，standard，custom，orpracticeisnoreasonforitscontinuancewhenabetterisoffered。”ThisCommission，composedlikethatjustdescribed，ofmenalreadychargedwithimportantwork，performeditsfunctionswhollywithoutcosttotheGovernment。ItwasassistedbyabodyofaboutseventyexpertsintheGovernmentdepartmentschosenfortheirspecialqualificationstocarryforwardastudyofthebestmethodsinbusiness，andorganizedintoassistantcommitteesundertheleadershipofOvertonW。Price，SecretaryoftheCommission。Theseassistantcommittees，allofwhosememberswerestillcarryingontheirregularwork，madetheirreportsduringthelasthalfof1906。TheCommitteeinformeditselffullyregardingthebusinessmethodsofpracticallyeveryindividualbranchofthebusinessoftheGovernment，andeffectedamarkedimprovementingeneralefficiencythroughouttheservice。TheconductoftheroutinebusinessoftheGovernmenthadneverbeenthoroughlyoverhauledbefore，andthisexaminationofitresultedinthepromulgationofasetofworkingprinciplesforthetransactionofpublicbusinesswhichareassoundto-dayastheywerewhentheCommitteefinisheditswork。ThesomewhatelaborateandcostlyinvestigationsofGovernmentbusinessmethodssincemadehaveservedmerelytoconfirmthefindingsoftheCommitteeonDepartmentalMethods，whichwereachievedwithoutcostingtheGovernmentadollar。
TheactualsavingintheconductofthebusinessoftheGovernmentthroughthebettermethodsthusintroducedamountedyearlytomanyhundredsofthousandsofdollars；butafarmoreimportantgainwasduetotheremarkablesuccessoftheCommissioninestablishinganewpointofviewinpublicservantstowardtheirwork。