Later，Cobbettsawthattherewereotherinterests，theinterestsoflandowners
andoftithe-holders，whichtheStatewouldhavetosubordinatetonational
claimsifthelabourerwastobesaved。Inthatconflict，too，thelabourer
wasbeaten。HewasunrepresentedinParliament，whereastheopposinginterests
weremassedthere。CobbettwantedParliamentaryReform，notlikethetraditional
Radicalsasaphilosophyofrights，butasanavalancheofsocialpower。
ParliamentaryReformwasneveranendtohim，northemeanstoanythingshort
oftheemancipationofthelabourer。Inthis，hismainmission，Cobbettfailed。
Theupperclasseswincedunderhisruthlessmanners，andtheytrembledbefore
hisBerserkerrage，butitisthesadtruthofEnglishhistorythatthey
beathim。Nowif，insteadofthrowinghimselfagainstthisworldofprivilege
andvestedinterestsinthehopesofwringingapittanceofjusticefora
sinkingclass，ithadbeenhistasktomaintainapositionalreadyheld，
hewouldhavefoughtunderverydifferentconditions。If，whenpricesbegan
tofall，therehadbeenacustomarywageinmostEnglishvillages，thequestion
wouldnothavebeenwhethertherulingclasswastomaintainitsprivileges
andsurplusprofitsbylettingthelabourersinkdeeperintothemorass，
butwhetheritwastomaintaintheseprivilegesandprofitsbytakingsomething
openlyfromhim。Itiseasiertopreventadogfromstealingabonethan
totaketheboneoutofhismouth。Cobbettwasnotstrongenoughtobreak
thepowerofthegoverningclass，buthemighthavebeenstrongenoughto
defendthecustomaryrightsofthelabouringclass。Asitwas，thegoverning
classwasonthedefensiveateverypoint。Therentreceivers，thetithe
owners，themortgagers，thelenderstotheGovernmentandthecontractors
allclungtotheirgains，andthefoodallowanceofthelabourerslowlyand
steadilydeclined。
TherewasthisgreatdifferencebetweentheSpeenhamlandsystemanda
fixedstandardofwages。TheSpeenhamlandsystemafter1812wasnotapplied
soastomaintainanequilibriumbetweentheincomeandexpenditureofthe
labourer：itwasappliedtomaintainanequilibriumbetweensocialforces。
Thescalefellnotwiththefallofpricestothelabourer，butwiththe
fallofprofitstothepossessingclasses。Theminimumwasnottheminimum
onwhichthelabourercouldlive，buttheminimumbelowwhichrebellionwas
certain。Thiswasthewayinwhichwagesfoundtheirownlevel。Theygravitated
lowerandlowerwiththegrowingweaknessofthewage-earner。IfCobbett
hadbeenattheheadofamovementforpreservingtothelaboureraright
bestowedonhimbyActofParliament，eitherhewouldhavesucceeded，or
thediseasewouldhavecometoacrisisin1816，insteadoftakingtheform
ofalingeringandwastingillness。Either，thatis，otherclasseswould
havehadtomaketheeconomiesnecessarytokeepthelabourers’wagesat
thecustomarypoint，orthelabourerswouldhavemadetheirlastthrowbefore
theyhadbeendesolatedandweakenedbyanotherfifteenyearsoffamine。
Thereisanotherrespectinwhichtheminimumwagepolicywouldhaveprofoundly
alteredthecharacterofvillagesociety。Itwouldhavegiventhevillage
labourersabondofunionbeforetheyhadlostthememoriesandthehabits
oftheirmoreindependentlife；itwouldhavemadethemanorganisedforce，
somethingliketheorganisedforcesthathavebuiltupastandardoflife
forindustrialworkmen。AnimportantpassageinFielding’sTomJonesshowsthattherewasmaterialforsuchcombinationinthecommonersofthe
oldvillage。Fieldingistalkingofhisborrowingsfromtheclassicsand
hedefendshimselfwiththisanalogy；’Theancientsmaybeconsideredas
arichcommon，whereeverypersonwhohaththesmallesttenementinParnassus
hathafreerighttobattenhismuse：or，toplaceitinaclearerlight，
wemodernsaretotheancientswhatthepooraretotherich。Bythepoor
hereImeanthatlargeandvenerablebodywhichinEnglishwecallthemob。
Nowwhoeverhathhadthehonourtobeadmittedtoanydegreeofintimacy
withthismobmustwellknow，thatitisoneoftheirestablishedmaimsto
plunderandpillagetheirrichneighbourswithoutanyreluctance：andthat
thisisheldtobeneithersinnorcrimeamongthem。Andsoconstantlydo
theyabideandactbythismaxim，thatineveryparishalmostinthekingdom
thereisakindofconfederacyevercarryingonagainstacertainperson
ofopulencecalledthesquirewhosepropertyisconsideredasfreebooty
byallhispoorneighbours；who，astheyconcludethatthereisnomanner
ofguiltinsuchdepredations，lookuponitasapointofhonourandmoral
obligationtoconcealandtopreserveeachotherfrompunishmentonallsuch
occasions。InlikemanneraretheancientssuchasHomer，Virgil，Horace，
Ciceroandtheresttobeesteemedamonguswritersassomanywealthysquires
fromwhomwe，thepoorofParnassus，claimanimmemorialcustomoftaking
whateverwecancomeat。’22*
Itwouldnothavebeenpossibletocreateagreatlabourers’unionbefore
theCombinationLawswererepealedin1824，butifthelabourershadbeen
organisedtodefendtheirstandardwage，theywouldhaveestablishedatradition
ofpermanentassociationineachvillage。Thewantofthiswastheirfatal
weakness。Allthecircumstancesmakethespiritofcombinationfalterin
thecountry。Intownsmenarefacetofacewiththebrutalrealitiesoftheir
lives，unsoftenedbyanyoftheassuaginginfluencesofbrookandgladeand
valley。Menandwomenwhoworkinthefieldsbreathesomethingoftheresignation
andpeaceofNature；theybeartroubleandwrongwithadangerouspatience。
Discontentmoves，butitmovesslowly，andwhereasstormsblowupinthe
towns，theybeatupinthecountry。Thatisonereasonwhythehistoryof
theanguishoftheEnglishagriculturallabourersorarelybreaksintoviolence。
Castlereagh’sSelectCommitteein1817rejoicedinthediscoverythat’notwithstanding
thealarmingprogresswhichhasbeenmadeinextendingdisaffection，its
successhasbeenconfinedtotheprincipalmanufacturingdistricts，andthat
scarcelyanyoftheagriculturalpopulationhavelentthemselvestothese
violentprojects。’ThereisaRussiansayingthatthepeasantmust’beboiled
inthefactorypot’beforearevolutioncansucceed。Andifitisdifficult
inthenatureofthingstomakerurallabourersasformidabletotheirmasters
asindustrialworkers，thereisanotherreasonwhytheEnglishlabourerrebelled
soreluctantlyandsotardilyagainstwhatSirSpencerWalpolecalled，in
thetruespiritofaclassicalpolitician，’hisinevitableandhereditary
lot。’Villagesocietywasconstantlylosingitsbestandbravestblood。Bamford’s
descriptionofthepoacherwhonearlykilledagamekeeper’sunderstrapper
inaquarrelinapublic-house，andthenhearingfromDr。Healeythathis
manwasonlystunned，promisedthedoctorthatiftherewasbutonesingle
hareonLordSuffield’sestates，thathareshouldbeinthedoctor’sstew-pot
nextSunday，remindsusofthelossavillagesufferedwhenitspoachers
weresnappedupbyagame-preservingbench，andtossedtotheotherside
oftheworld。DuringtheyearsbetweenWaterlooandtheReformBillthegoverning
classwasdecimatingthevillagepopulationsontheprincipleoftheGreek
tyrantwhoflickedofftheheadsofthetallestbladesinhisfield；the
GameLaws，summaryjurisdiction，specialcommissions，drovemenofspirit
andenterprise，thenaturalleadersoftheirfellows，fromthevillageswhere
theymighthavetroubledthepeaceoftheirmasters。ThevillageHampdens
ofthatgenerationsleepbytheshoresofBotanyBay。Thosewhoblamethe
supinecharacteroftheEnglishlabourerforgetthathisrace，beforeit
hadquitelostthememoriesandthehabitsofthedaysofitsindependence
anditsshareinthecommons，waspassedthroughthissieve。Thesceneswe
shalldescribeinthenextchaptershowthatthelabourerswerecapableof
greatmutualfidelitywhenoncetheyweredrivenintorebellion。Ifthey
hadhadarighttodefendandacomradeshiptofosterfromthefirst，Cobbett，
whospenthissuperbstrengthinamagnificentonslaughtonthegoverning
class，mighthavemadeoftheracewhosewrongshepitiedashisown，an
armynolessresoluteanddisciplinedthanthearmyO’Connellmadeofthe
brokenpeasantsoftheWest。
TheLastLabourers’RevoltWherenototherwisestatedtheauthoritiesforthetwofollowingchapters
aretheHomeOfficePapersforthetimeMunicipalandProvincial，Criminal，
disturbances，domestic，etc。，theTimesandlocalpapers。
I
AtravellerwhowishedtocomparetheconditionoftheEnglishandthe
Frenchruralpopulationsin1830wouldhavehadlittleelsetodothanto
invertallthathadbeenwrittenonthesubjectbytravellersacenturyearlier。
AtthebeginningoftheeighteenthcenturyEnglandhadtheprosperousand
Francethemiserablepeasantry。Butbythebeginningofthenineteenthcentury
theFrenchpeasanthadbeensetfreefromtheimpoverishinganddegrading
serviceswhichhadmadehislotsointolerableintheeyesofforeignobservers；
hecultivatedhisownland，andlivedalife，spare，arduous，andexacting
butindependent。TheworkoftheRevolutionhadbeendonesothoroughlyin
thisrespectthattheBourbons，whenWellingtonandthealliesliftedthem
backontotheirthrone，couldnotundoit。Itistruethatthefutureof
theFrenchpeasantswasasubjectofsomeanxietytoEnglishobservers，and
thatM’Cullochcommittedhimselftothepredictionthatinhalfacentury，
owingtohermassofsmallowners，Francewouldbethegreatestpauper-warren
inEurope。IfanyFrenchpeasantwasdisturbedbythisnightmareofthepolitical
economyofthetime，hehadthegrimsatisfactionofknowingthathisposition
couldhardybecomeworsethanthepositionthattheEnglishlaboureralready
occupied。Hewouldhavebasedhisconclusion，notonthewildlanguageof
revolutionaries，butontheconsideredstatementofthosewhoweresofar
frommeditatingrevolutionthattheyshrankevenfromamoderatereformof
Parliament。LordCarnarvonsaidinoneHouseofParliamentthattheEnglish
labourerhadbeenreducedtoaplightmoreabjectthanthatofanyracein
Europe；Englishlandlordsreproducedintheotherthatveryparallelbetween
theEnglishlabourerandtheWestIndiannegrowhichhadfiguredsoconspicuously
inThelwall’slectures。Thelwall，asCanningremindedhiminasavageparody
ontheBenedicite，gotpeltedforhispains。Sincethedaysofthoselectures
allEuropehadbeenoverrunbywar，andEnglandalonehadescapedwhatPitt
hadcalledtheliquidfireofJacobinism。TherehadfollowedforEngland
fifteenyearsofhealingpeace。Yetattheendofallthistimetheconquerors
ofNapoleonfoundthemselvesinapositionwhichtheywouldhavedonewell
toexchangewiththepositionofhisvictims。TheGermanpeasanthadbeen
rescuedfromserfdom；Spainanditalyhadatleastknownabriefspellof
lessunequalgovernment。TheEnglishlaboureralonewasthepoorer；poorer
inmoney，poorerinhappiness，poorerinsympathy，andinfinitelypoorer
inhorizonandinhope。Therichesthathehadbeenpromisedbythechampions
ofenclosurehadfadedintosomethinglessthanamaintenance。Thewages
hereceivedwithoutlandhadalowerpurchasingpowerthanthewageshehad
receivedinthedayswhenhiswagesweresupplementedbycommonrights。The
standardoflivingwhichwasprescribedforhimbythegoverningclasswas
nowmuchlowerthanithadbeenin1795。
Thiswasnotpartofageneraldecline。Otherclassesforwhomtherulers
ofEnglandprescribedthestandardhadadvancedduringtheyearsinwhich
thelabourershadlostground。TheKing’sCivilListhadbeenrevisedwhen
provisionsrose。Thesalariesofthejudgeshadbeenraisedbythreeseveral
ActsofParliament，asimilarcoursehadbeentaken
inthecaseofofficials。Thosewhohaveatasteforthefinishedandunconscious