Thesameistrueofaloadedgun。Fromthedialecticalstandpoint，thepossibilityofexpressingmotioninitsopposite，inrest，presentsabsolutelynodifficulty。Fromthedialecticalstandpointthewholeantithesis，aswehaveseen，isonlyrelative;thereisnosuchthingasabsoluterest，unconditionalequilibrium。Eachseparatemovementstrivestowardsequilibrium，andthemotionasawholeputsanendagaintotheequilibrium。Whenthereforerestandequilibriumoccurtheyaretheresultoflimitedmotion，anditisself-evidentthatthismotionismeasurablebyitsresult，canbeexpressedinit，andcanberestoredoutofitagaininoneformoranother。ButHerrDühringcannotallowhimselftobesatisfiedwithsuchasimplepresentationofthematter。Asagoodmetaphysicianhefirsttearsopen，betweenmotionandequilibrium，ayawninggulfwhichdoesnotexistinrealityandisthensurprisedthathecannotfindanybridgeacrossthisself-fabricatedgulf。HemightjustaswellmounthismetaphysicalRosinanteandchasetheKantian“thing-in-itself“;foritisthatandnothingelsewhichinthelastanalysisishidingbehindthisundiscoverablebridge。
Butwhataboutthemechanicaltheoryofheatandthetied-uporlatentheatwhich“hasremainedastumbling-block“forthistheory？
If，undernormalatmosphericpressure，apoundoficeatthetemperatureofthefreezingpointistransformedbyheatintoapoundofwaterofthesametemperature，aquantityofheatdisappearswhichwouldbesufficienttowarmthesamepoundofwaterfrom0°to79。4°C，ortoraisethetemperatureof79。4poundsofwaterbyonedegree。Ifthispoundofwaterisheatedtoboilingpoint，thatis，to100°C，andisthentransformedintosteamof100°C，theamountofheatthatdisappears，bythetimethelastofthewaterhaschangedintosteam，isalmostseventimesgreater，sufficienttoraisethetemperatureof537。2poundsofwaterbyonedegree。
Theheatthatdisappearsiscalledtied-up。If，bycooling，thesteamisagaintransformedintowater，andthewater，initsturn，intoice，thesamequantityofheataswaspreviouslytiedupisnowagainsetfree，i。e。，canbefeltandmeasuredasheat。Thissettingfreeofheatonthecondensationofsteamandthefreezingofwateristhereasonwhysteam，whencooledto100°，isonlygraduallytransformedintowater，andwhyamassofwateroffreezingpointtemperatureisonlyverygraduallytransformedintoice。Thesearethefacts。Thequestionis，whathappenstotheheatwhileitistiedup？
Themechanicaltheoryofheat，accordingtowhichheatconsistsinagreaterorlesservibration，dependingonthetemperatureandstateofaggregation，ofthesmallestphysicallyactiveparticlesmolecules
ofabody——avibrationwhichundercertainconditionscanchangeintoanyotherformofmotion——explainsthattheheatthathasdisappearedhasdonework，hasbeentransformedintowork。Whenicemelts，thecloseandfirmconnectionbetweentheindividualmoleculesisbroken，andtransformedintoaloosejuxtaposition;whenwateratboilingpointbecomessteamastateisreachedinwhichtheindividualmoleculesnolongerhaveanynoticeableinfluenceononeanother，andundertheinfluenceofheatevenflyapartinalldirections。Itisclearthatthesinglemoleculesofabodyareendowedwithfargreaterenergyinthegaseousstatethantheyareinthefluidstate，andinthefluidstateagainmorethaninthesolidstate。
Thetied-upheat，therefore，hasnotdisappeared;ithasmerelybeentransformed，andhasassumedtheformofmoleculartension。Assoonastheconditionunderwhichtheseparatemoleculesareabletomaintaintheirabsoluteorrelativefreedominregardtooneanotherceasestoexist——thatis，assoonasthetemperaturefallsbelowtheminimumof100°or0°，asthecasemaybe，thistensionrelaxes，themoleculesagainpresstowardseachotherwiththesameforcewithwhichtheyhadpreviouslyflownapart;
andthisforcedisappears，butonlytoreappearasheat，andaspreciselythesamequantityofheatashadpreviouslybeentiedup。Thisexplanationisofcourseahypothesis，asisthewholemechanicaltheoryofheat，inasmuchasnoonehasuptonoweverseenamolecule，nottomentiononeinvibration。
Justforthisreasonitiscertaintobefullofdefectsasthisstillveryyoungtheoryisasawhole，butitcanatleastexplainwhathappenswithoutinanywaycomingintoconflictwiththeindestructibilityanduncreatabilityofmotion，anditisevenabletoaccountforthewhereaboutsofheatduringitstransformations。Latent，ortied-up，heatisthereforeinnowayastumbling-blockforthemechanicaltheoryofheat。Onthecontrary，thistheoryprovidesthefirstrationalexplanationofwhattakesplace，anditinvolvesnostumbling-blockexceptinsofarasphysicistscontinuetodescribeheatwhichhasbeentransformedintoanotherformofmolecularenergybymeansoftheterm“tied-up“，whichhasbecomeobsoleteandunsuitable。
Theself-equalstatesandconditionsofrestinthesolid，intheliquidandinthegaseousstateofaggregationthereforerepresent，tobesure，mechanicalwork，insofarasmechanicalworkisthemeasureofheat。Boththesolidcrustoftheearthandthewateroftheocean，intheirpresentaggregatestates，representadefinitequantityofheatsetfree，towhichofcoursecorrespondsanequallydefinitequantityofmechanicalforce。Inthetransitionofthegaseousball，fromwhichtheearthhasdeveloped，intotheliquidandsubsequentlyintothelargelysolidaggregatestate，adefinitequantityofmolecularenergywasradiatedasheatintospace。ThedifficultyaboutwhichHerrDühringmumblesinhismysteriousmannerthereforedoesnotexist，andthougheveninapplyingthetheorycosmicallywemaycomeupagainstdefectsandgaps——whichmustbeattributedtoourimperfectmeansofknowledge——wenowherecomeupagainsttheoreticallyinsuperableobstacles。Thebridgefromthestatictothedynamicishere，too，theexternalimpulse——thecoolingorheatingbroughtaboutbyotherbodiesactingonanobjectwhichisinastateofequilibrium。ThefurtherweexplorethisnaturalphilosophyofDühring’s，themoreimpossibleappearallattemptstoexplainmotionoutofimmobilityortofindthebridgeoverwhichthepurelystatic，theresting，canbyitselfpasstothedynamic，tomotion。
Withthiswehavefortunatelyridourselvesforatimeoftheself-equalprimordialstate。HerrDühringpassesontochemistry，andtakestheopportunitytorevealtousthreelawsofnature’sinertnesswhichhavesofarbeendiscoveredbyhisphilosophyofreality，viz。:
1thequantityofallmatteringeneral，2thatofthesimplechemical
elements，and3thatofmechanicalforceareconstant{D。Ph。97}
Hence:theuncreatabilityandindestructibilityofmatter，andalsoofitssimplecomponentparts，insofarasitismadeupofsuch，aswellastheuncreatabilityandindestructibilityofmotion——theseoldfactsknowntheworldoverandexpressedmostinadequately——istheonlypositivethingwhichHerrDühringcanprovideuswithasaresultofhisnaturalphilosophyoftheinorganicworld。Weknewallthislongago。Butwhatwedidnotknowwasthattheywere“lawsofinertness“andassuch“schematicpropertiesofthesystemofthings“。WearewitnessingarepetitionofwhathappenedabovetoKant:HerrDühringpicksupsomeoldfamiliarquip，sticksaDühringlabelonit，andcallstheresult:
“fromthegrounduporiginalconclusionsandviews……system-creatingideas{525}deep-rootedscience“{200，219;D。C。555-56}。
Buttheneednotbyanymeansdespaironthisaccount。Whateverdefectseventhemostdeep-rootedscienceandthebest-orderedsocietymayhave，HerrDühringcanatanyrateassertonethingwithconfidence:
“Theamountofgoldexistingintheuniversemustatalltimeshavebeenthesame，anditcanhaveincreasedordiminishedjustaslittleascanmatteringeneral“{D。Ph。96}。
UnfortunatelyHerrDühringdoesnottelluswhatwecanbuywiththis“existinggold“。
VII。
PHILOSOPHYOFNATURE。
THEORGANICWORLD“Asingleanduniformladderofintermediatestepsleadsfromthemechanicsofpressureandimpacttothelinkingtogetherofsensationsandideas“{D。Ph。104}。
WiththisassuranceHerrDühringsaveshimselfthetroubleofsayinganythingfurtherabouttheoriginoflife，althoughitmightreasonablyhavebeenexpectedthatathinkerwhohadtracedtheevolutionoftheworldbacktoitsself-equalstate，andissomuchathomeonothercelestialbodies，wouldhaveknownexactlywhat’swhatalsoonthispoint。Fortherest，however，theassurancehegivesusisonlyhalfrightunlessitiscompletedbytheHegeliannodallineofmeasurerelationswhichhasalreadybeenmentioned。Inspiteofallgradualness，thetransitionfromoneformofmotiontoanotheralwaysremainsaleap，adecisivechange。Thisistrueofthetransitionfromthemechanicsofcelestialbodiestothatofsmallermassesonaparticularcelestialbody;itisequallytrueofthetransitionfromthemechanicsofmassestothemechanicsofmolecules——
includingtheformsofmotioninvestigatedinphysicsproper:heat，light，electricity，magnetism。Inthesameway，thetransitionfromthephysicsofmoleculestothephysicsofatoms——chemistry——inturninvolvesadecidedleap;andthisisevenmoreclearlythecaseinthetransitionfromordinarychemicalactiontothechemismofalbumenwhichwecalllife。[39]Thenwithinthesphereoflifetheleapsbecomeevermoreinfrequentandimperceptible——Onceagain，therefore，itisHegelwhohastocorrectHerrDühring。
TheconceptofpurposeprovidesHerrDühringwithaconceptualtransitiontotheorganicworld。Onceagain，thisisborrowedfromHegel，whoinhisLogic——theDoctrineoftheNotion——makesthetransitionfromchemismtolifebymeansofteleology，orthescienceofpurpose。
WhereverwelookinHerrDühringwerunintoaHegelian“crudity“，whichhequiteunblushinglydishesouttousashisowndeep-rootedscience。
Itwouldtakeustoofarafieldtoinvestigateheretheextenttowhichitislegitimateandappropriatetoapplytheideasofmeansandendtotheorganicworld。Inanycase，eventheapplicationoftheHegelian“innerpurpose“——i。e。，apurposewhichisnotimportedintonaturebysomethirdpartyactingpurposively，suchasthewisdomofprovidence，butliesinthenecessityofthethingitself——constantlyleadspeoplewhoarenotwellversedinphilosophytothoughtlesslyascribingtonatureconsciousandpurposiveactivity。ThatsameHerrDühringwhoisfilledwithboundlessmoralindignationattheslightest“spiritistic“tendencyinotherpeopleassuresus“withcertaintythattheinstinctivesensationswereprimarilycreatedforthesakeofthesatisfactioninvolvedintheiractivity“{D。Ph。158}。
Hetellsusthatpoornature“isobligedincessantlytomaintainorderintheworldofobjects“
{159}andindoingsoshehastosettlemorethanonebusiness“whichrequiresmoresubtletyonthepartofnaturethanisusuallycreditedtoher“{165}。
Butnaturenotonlyknowswhyshedoesonethingoranother;shehasnotonlytoperformthedutiesofahousemaid，shenotonlypossessessubtlety，initselfaprettygoodaccomplishmentinsubjectiveconsciousthought;shehasalsoawill。Forwhattheinstinctsdoinaddition，incidentallyfulfillingrealnaturalfunctionssuchasnutritionpropagation，etc。，“weshouldnotregardasdirectlybutonlyindirectlywilled{169}。
Sowehavearrivedataconsciouslythinkingandactingnature，andarethusalreadystandingonthe“bridge“——notindeedfromthestatictothedynamic，butfrompantheismtodeism。OrisHerrDühringperhapsjustforonceindulgingalittlein“natural-philosophicalsemi-poetry“？
Impossible！Allthatourphilosopherofrealitycantellusoforganicnatureisrestrictedtothefightagainstthisnatural-philosophicalsemi-poetry，against“charlatanismwithitsfrivoloussuperficialitiesandpseudo-scientificmystifications“，againstthe“poetisingfeatures“
{109}ofDarwinism。
ThemainreproachlevelledagainstDarwinisthathetransferredtheMalthusianpopulationtheoryfrompoliticaleconomytonaturalscience，thathewasheldcaptivebytheideasofananimalbreeder，thatinhistheoryofthestruggleforexistencehepursuedunscientificsemi-poetry，andthatthewholeofDarwinism，afterdeductingwhathadbeenborrowedfromLamarck，isapieceofbrutalitydirectedagainsthumanity。
Darwinbroughtbackfromhisscientifictravelstheviewthatplantandanimalspeciesarenotconstantbutsubjecttovariation。Inordertofollowupthisideaafterhisreturnhometherewasnobetterfieldavailablethanthatofthebreedingofanimalsandplants。ItispreciselyinthisfieldthatEnglandistheclassicalcountry;theachievementsofothercountries，forexampleGermany，fallfarshortofwhatEnglandhasachievedinthisconnection。Moreover，mostofthesesuccesseshavebeenwonduringthelasthundredyears，sothatthereisverylittledifficultyinestablishingthefacts。Darwinfoundthatthisbreedingproducedartificially，amonganimalsandplantsofthesamespecies，differencesgreaterthanthosefoundinwhataregenerallyrecognisedasdifferentspecies。Thuswasestablishedontheonehandthevariabilityofspeciesuptoacertainpoint，andontheotherthepossibilityofacommonancestryfororganismswithdifferentspecificcharacteristics。Darwintheninvestigatedwhethertherewerenotpossiblycausesinnaturewhich——withouttheconsciousintentionofthebreeder——wouldneverthelessinthelongrunproduceinlivingorganismschangessimilartothoseproducedbyartificialselection。
Hediscoveredthesecausesinthedisproportionbetweentheimmensenumberofgermscreatedbynatureandtheinsignificantnumberoforganismswhichactuallyattainmaturity。Butaseachgermstrivestodevelop，therenecessarilyarisesastruggleforexistencewhichmanifestsitselfnotmerelyasdirectbodilycombatordevouring，butalsoasastruggleforspaceandlight，eveninthecaseofplants。Anditisevidentthatinthisstrugglethoseindividualswhichhavesomeindividualpeculiarity，howeverinsignificant，thatgivesthemanadvantageinthestruggleforexistencewillhavethebestprospectofreachingmaturityandpropagatingthemselves。Theseindividualpeculiaritieshavethusthetendencytodescendbyheredity，andwhentheyoccuramongmanyindividualsofthesamespecies，tobecomemorepronouncedthroughaccumulatedheredityinthedirectiononcetaken;whilethoseindividualswhichdonotpossessthesepeculiaritiessuccumbmoreeasilyinthestruggleforexistenceandgraduallydisappear。Inthiswayaspeciesisalteredthroughnaturalselection，throughthesurvivalofthefittest。
AgainstthisDarwiniantheoryHerrDühringnowsaysthattheoriginoftheideaofthestruggleforexistence，as，heclaims，Darwinhimselfadmitted，hastobesoughtinageneralisationoftheviewsoftheeconomistandtheoreticianofpopulation，Malthus，andthattheideathereforesuffersfromallthedefectsinherentinthepriestlyMalthusianideasofover-population{D。Ph。101}——NowDarwinwouldnotdreamofsayingthattheoriginoftheideaofthestruggleforexistenceistobefoundinMalthus。HeonlysaysthathistheoryofthestruggleforexistenceisthetheoryofMalthusappliedtotheanimalandplantworldasawhole。HowevergreattheblundermadebyDarwininacceptingtheMalthusiantheorysonaivelyanduncritically，neverthelessanyonecanseeatthefirstglancethatnoMalthusianspectaclesarerequiredtoperceivethestruggleforexistenceinnature——thecontradictionbetweenthecountlesshostofgermswhichnaturesolavishlyproducesandthesmallnumberofthosewhicheverreachmaturity，acontradictionwhichinfactforthemostpartfindsitssolutioninastruggleforexistence——oftenofextremecruelty。AndjustasthelawofwageshasmaintaineditsvalidityevenaftertheMalthusianargumentsonwhichRicardobasedithavelongbeenconsignedtooblivion，solikewisethestruggleforexistencecantakeplaceinnature，evenwithoutanyMalthusianinterpretation。Forthatmatter，theorganismsofnaturealsohavetheirlawsofpopulation，whichhavebeenleftpracticallyuninvestigated，althoughtheirestablishmentwouldbeofdecisiveimportanceforthetheoryoftheevolutionofspecies。
Butwhowasitthatlentdecisiveimpetustoworkinthisdirectiontoo？
NootherthanDarwin。
HerrDühringcarefullyavoidsanexaminationofthispositivesideofthequestion。Instead，thestruggleforexistenceisarraignedagainandagain。Itisobvious，accordingtohim，thattherecanbenotalkofastruggleforexistenceamongunconsciousplantsandgood-naturedplant-eaters:
“inthepreciseanddefinitesensethestruggleforexistenceisfoundintherealmofbrutalitytotheextentthatanimalsliveonpreyanditsdevourment“{118}。
Andafterhehasreducedtheideaofthestruggleforexistencetothesenarrowlimitshecangivefullventtohisindignationatthebrutalityofthisidea，whichhehimselfhasrestrictedtobrutality。ButthismoralindignationonlyreboundsuponHerrDühringhimself，whoisindeedtheonlyauthorofthestruggleforexistenceinthislimitedconceptionandisthereforesolelyresponsibleforit。ItisconsequentlynotDarwinwho“soughtthelawsandunderstandingofallnature’sactionsinthekingdomofthebrutes“{117}，——Darwinhadinfactexpresslyincludedthewholeoforganicnatureinthestruggle——butanimaginarybugbeardressedupbyHerrDühringhimself。
Thename:thestruggleforexistence，canforthatmatterbewillinglysacrificedtoHerrDühring’shighlymoralindignation。Thatthefactexistsalsoamongplantscanbedemonstratedtohimbyeverymeadow，everycornfield，everywood;andthequestionatissueisnotwhatitistobecalled，whether“struggleforexistence“or“lackofconditionsoflifeandmechanicaleffects“{118}，buthowthisfactinfluencesthepreservationorvariationofspecies。OnthispointHerrDühringmaintainsanobstinateandself-equalsilence。Thereforeforthetimebeingeverythingmayremainasitwasinnaturalselection。
ButDarwinism“producesitstransformationsanddifferencesoutofnothing“{114}。
ItistruethatDarwin，whenconsideringnaturalselection，leavesoutofaccountthecauseswhichhaveproducedthealterationsinseparateindividuals，anddealsinthefirstplacewiththewayinwhichsuchindividualdeviationsgraduallybecomethecharacteristicsofarace，varietyorspecies。
ToDarwinitwasoflessimmediateimportancetodiscoverthesecauses——whichuptothepresentareinpartabsolutelyunknown，andinpartcanonlybestatedinquitegeneralterms——thantofindarationalforminwhichtheireffectsbecomefixed，acquirepermanentsignificance。ItistruethatindoingthisDarwinattributedtohisdiscoverytoowideafieldofaction，madeitthesoleagentinthealterationofspeciesandneglectedthecausesoftherepeatedindividualvariations，concentratingratherontheforminwhichthesevariationsbecomegeneral;butthisisamistakewhichheshareswithmostotherpeoplewhomakeanyrealadvance。
Moreover，ifDarwinproduceshisindividualtransformationsoutofnothing，andinsodoingappliesexclusively“thewisdomofthebreeder“{125}，thebreeder，too，mustproduceoutofnothinghistransformationsinanimalandplantformswhicharenotmerelyimaginarybutreal。Butonceagain，themanwhogavetheimpetustoinvestigatehowexactlythesetransformationsanddifferencesariseisnootherthanDarwin。
Inrecenttimestheideaofnaturalselectionwasextended，particularlybyHaeckel，andthevariationofspeciesconceivedasaresultofthemutualinteractionofadaptationandheredity，inwhichprocessadaptationistakenasthefactorwhichproducesvariations，andheredityasthepreservingfactor。ThisisalsonotregardedassatisfactorybyHerrDühring。
“Realadaptationtoconditionsoflifewhichareofferedorwithheldbynaturepresupposesimpulsesandactionsdeterminedbyideas。Otherwisetheadaptationisonlyapparent，andthecausalityoperativethereupondoesnotriseabovethelowgradesofthephysical，chemicalandplant-physiological“
{D。Ph。115}。
OnceagainitisthenamewhichmakesHerrDühringangry。Butwhatevernamehemaygivetotheprocess，thequestionhereiswhethervariationsinthespeciesoforganismsareproducedthroughsuchprocessesornot。
AndagainHerrDühringgivesnoanswer。
“If，ingrowing，aplanttakesthepathalongwhichitwillreceivemostlight，thiseffectofthestimulusisnothingbutacombinationofphysicalforcesandchemicalagents，andanyattempttodescribeitasadaptation——notmetaphorically，butinthestrictsenseoftheword——
mustintroduceaspiritisticconfusionintotheconcepts“{115}。
Suchistheseveritymetedouttoothersbytheverymanwhoknowsexactlybywhosewillnaturedoesonethingoranother，whospeaksofnature’ssubtletyandevenofherwill！Spiritisticconfusion，yes——butwhere，inHaeckelorinHerrDühring？
Andnotonlyspiritistic，butalsologicalconfusion。WesawthatHerrDühringinsistswithmightandmainonestablishingthevalidityinnatureoftheconceptofpurpose:
“Therelationbetweenmeansandenddoesnotintheleastpresupposeaconsciousintention“{102}。
What，then，isadaptationwithoutconsciousintention，withoutthemediationofideas，whichhesozealouslyopposes，ifnotsuchunconsciouspurposiveactivity？
Ifthereforetree-frogsandleaf-eatinginsectsaregreen，desertanimalssandy-yellow，andanimalsofthepolarregionsmainlysnow-whiteincolour，theyhavecertainlynotadoptedthesecoloursonpurposeorinconformitywithanyideas;onthecontrary，thecolourscanonlybeexplainedonthebasisofphysicalforcesandchemicalagents。Andyetitcannotbedeniedthattheseanimals，becauseofthosecolours，arepurposivelyadaptedtotheenvironmentinwhichtheylive，inthattheyhavebecomefarlessvisibletotheirenemies。Injustthesamewaytheorganswithwhichcertainplantsseizeanddevourinsectsalightingonthemareadaptedtothisaction，andevenpurposivelyadapted。Consequently，ifHerrDühringinsiststhatthisadaptationmustbeeffectedthroughideas，heasmuchassays，onlyinotherwords，thatpurposiveactivitymustalsobebroughtaboutthroughideas，mustbeconsciousandintentional。
Andthisbringsus，asisusuallythecaseinhisphilosophyofreality，toapurposivecreator，toGod。
“Anexplanationofthiskindusedtobecalleddeism，andwasnotthoughtmuchof“——HerrDühringtellsus——“butonthismatter，too，viewsnowseemtohavebeenreversed“{111}。
Fromadaptationwenowpassontoheredity。Herelikewise，accordingtoHerrDühring，Darwinismiscompletelyonthewrongtrack。Thewholeorganicworld，Darwinissaidtohaveasserted，descendedfromoneprimordialbeing，issotospeaktheprogenyofonesinglebeing。Dühringstatesthat，inDarwin’sview，thereisnosuchthingastheindependentparallellinesofhomogeneousproductsofnatureunlessmediatedbycommondescent;
andthatthereforeDarwinandhisretrospectivelydirectedviewshadperforcetocometoanendatthepointwherethethreadofbegetting，orotherformofpropagation，breaksoff{111}。
TheassertionthatDarwintracedallexistingorganismsbacktooneprimordialbeingis，toputitpolitely，aproductofHerrDühring’s“ownfreecreationandimagination“{43}。DarwinexpresslysaysonthelastpagebutoneofhisOriginofspecies，sixthedition，thatheregards“allbeingsnotasspecialcreations，butasthelinealdescendantsofsomefewbeings“。
AndHaeckelevengoesconsiderablyfurther，assuming“aquiteindependentstockforthevegetablekingdom，andasecondfortheanimalkingdom“，andbetweenthetwo“anumberofindependentstocksofProtista，eachofwhich，quiteindependentlyoftheformer，hasdevelopedoutofonespecialarchegoneofthemonerontype“[40]Schöpfungsgeschichte，p。397
ThisprimordialbeingwasonlyinventedbyDühringinordertobringitintoasgreatdisreputeaspossiblebydrawingaparallelwiththeprimordialJew{D。Ph。110}Adam，andinthishe——thatistosay，HerrDühring——suffersthemisfortuneofnothavingthefaintestideathatthisprimordialJewhadbeenshownbySmith’sAssyriandiscoveries[41]tohavebeenaprimordialSemite，andthatthewholebiblicalhistoryofcreationandthefloodturnsouttobeapartoftheoldheathenreligiousmythswhichtheJewhaveincommonwiththeBabylonians，ChaldeansandAssyrians。
ItiscertainlyabitterreproachagainstDarwin，andoneforwhichhehasnodefence，thathecomestoanendatonceatthepointwherethethreadofdescentbreaksoff。Unfortunatelyitisareproachwhichhasbeenearnedbythewholeofournaturalscience。Wherethethreadofdescentbreaksoffforit，it“ends“。Ithasnotyetsucceededinproducingorganicbeingswithoutdescentfromothers;indeed，ithasnotyetsucceededeveninproducingsimpleprotoplasmorotheralbuminousbodiesoutofchemicalelements。Withregardtotheoriginoflife，therefore，uptothepresent，naturalscienceisonlyabletosaywithcertaintythatitmusthavebeentheresultofchemicalaction。However，perhapsthephilosophyofrealityisinapositiontogivesomehelponthispointasithasatitsdisposalindependentparallellinesofproductsofnaturenotmediatedbycommondescent。Howcanthesehavecomeintoexistence？Byspontaneousgeneration？
Butuptonoweventhemostaudaciousadvocatesofspontaneousgenerationhavenotclaimedthatthisproducedanythingbutbacteria，embryonicfungiandotherveryprimitiveorganisms——noinsects，fishes，birdsormammals。
Butifthesehomogeneousproductsofnature——organic，ofcourse，ashereweareonlydealingwiththese——arenotconnectedbydescent，theyoreachoftheirancestorsmust，atthepoint“wherethethreadofdescentbreaksoff“，havebeenputintotheworldbyaseparateactofcreation。
Sowearriveonceagainatacreatorandatwhatiscalleddeism。
HerrDühringfurtherdeclaresthatitwasverysuperficialonDarwin’spart“tomakethemereactofthesexualcompositionofpropertiesthefundamentalprincipleoftheoriginoftheseproperties“{116}。
Thisisanotherfreecreationandimaginationofourdeep-rootedphilosopher。
Darwindefinitelystatestheopposite:theexpressionnaturalselectiononlyimpliesthepreservationofvariations，nottheiroriginp。
63。ThisnewimputationtoDarwinofthingsheneversaidneverthelesshelpsustograspthefollowingdepthofDühringianmentality:
“Ifsomeprincipleofindependentvariationhadbeenfoundintheinnerschematismofgeneration，thisideawouldhavebeenquiterational;foritisanaturalideatocombinetheprincipleofuniversalgenesiswiththatofsexualpropagationintoaunity，andtoregardso-calledspontaneousgeneration，fromahigherstandpoint，notastheabsoluteantithesisofreproductionbutjustasaproduction“{116}。
AndthemanwhocanwritesuchrubbishisnotashamedtoreproachHegelforhis“jargon“{D。K。G。491}！
Butenoughofthepeevish，contradictorygrumblingandnaggingthroughwhichHerrDühringgivesventtohisangeratthecolossalimpetuswhichnaturalscienceowestothedrivingforceoftheDarwiniantheory。NeitherDarwinnorhisfollowersamongnaturalistseverthinkofbelittlinginanywaythegreatservicesrenderedbyLamarck;infact，theyaretheverypeoplewhofirstputhimupagainonhispedestal。ButwemustnotoverlookthefactthatinLamarck’stimesciencewasasyetfarfrombeinginpossessionofsufficientmaterialtohaveenabledittoanswerthequestionoftheoriginofspeciesexceptinananticipatoryway，prophetically，asitwere。Inadditiontotheenormousmassofmaterial，bothofdescriptiveandanatomicalbotanyandzoology，whichhasaccumulatedintheinterveningperiod，twocompletelynewscienceshavearisensinceLamarck’stime，andtheseareofdecisiveimportanceonthisquestion:
researchintothedevelopmentofplantandanimalgermsembryologyandresearchintotheorganicremainspreservedinthevariousstrataoftheearth’ssurfacepalaeontology。Thereisinfactapeculiarcorrespondencebetweenthegradualdevelopmentoforganicgermsintomatureorganismsandthesuccessionofplantsandanimalsfollowingeachotherinthehistoryoftheearth。Anditispreciselythiscorrespondencewhichhasgiventhetheoryofevolutionitsmostsecurebasis。Thetheoryofevolutionitselfishoweverstillinaveryearlystage，anditthereforecannotbedoubtedthatfurtherresearchwillgreatlymodifyourpresentconceptions，includingstrictlyDarwinianones，oftheprocessoftheevolutionofspecies。
What，ofapositivecharacter，hasthephilosophyofrealitytotellusconcerningtheevolutionoforganiclife？
“The……variabilityofspeciesisapresuppositionwhichcanbeaccepted“
{D。Ph。115}。Butalongsideitthereholdalso“theindependentparallellinesofhomogeneousproductsofnature，notmediatedbycommondescent“
{111}。
Fromthisweareapparentlytoinferthattheheterogeneousproductsofnature，i。e。，thespecieswhichshowvariations，descend。fromeachotherbutnotsothehomogeneousproducts。Butthisisnotaltogethercorrecteither;forevenwithspecieswhichshowvariations，“mediationbycommondescentisonthecontraryquiteasecondaryactofnature“{114}。
Sowegetcommondescentafterall，butonly“secondclass“。WemustrejoicethatafterHerrDühringhasattributedsomuchtoitthatisevilandobscure，weneverthelessfinditintheendreadmittedbythebackdoor。
Itisthesamewithnaturalselection，forafterallhismoralindignationoverthestruggleforexistencethroughwhichnaturalselectionoperateswesuddenlyread:
“Thedeeperbasisoftheconstitutionoforganismsisthustobesoughtintheconditionsoflifeandcosmicrelations，whilethenaturalselectionemphasisedbyDarwincanonlycomeinasasecondaryfactor“{115}。
Sowegetnaturalselectionafterall，thoughonlysecondclass;andalongwithnaturalselectionalsothestruggleforexistence，andwiththatalsothepriestlyMalthusianoverpopulation！Thatisall，andfortherestHerrDühringrefersustoLamarck。
Inconclusionhewarnsusagainstthemisuseoftheterms:metamorphosisanddevelopment。Metamorphosis，hemaintains，is！anunclearconcept{112}，andtheconceptofdevelopmentispermissibleonlyinsofaraslawsofdevelopmentcanbereallyestablished{126}。Inplaceofboththesetermsweshouldusetheterm“composition“{114}，andtheneverythingwouldbeallright。Itisthesameoldstoryoveragain:thingsremainastheywere，andHerrDühringisquitesatisfiedassoonaswejustalterthenames。
Whenwespeakofthedevelopmentofthechickenintheeggwearecreatingconfusion，forweareabletoprovethelawsof;developmentonlyinanincompleteway。Butifwespeakofits’“composition“everythingbecomesclear。Weshallthereforenolongersay:Thischildisdevelopingfinelybut:Itiscomposingitselfmagnificently。WecancongratulateHerrDühringonbeingaworthypeeroftheauthoroftheNibelungenringnotonlyinhisnobleself-esteembutalsoinhiscapacityofcomposerofthefuture。[42]
VIII。
PHILOSOPHYOFNATURE。
THEORGANICWORLD
Conclusion“Ponder……whatpositiveknowledgeisrequiredtoequipoursectiononnaturalphilosophywithallitsscientificpremises。
Itsbasisisprovidedfirstlybyallthefundamentalachievementsofmathematics，andthentheprincipalpropositionsestablishedbyexactscienceinmechanics，physicsandchemistry，aswellasthegeneralconclusionsofnaturalscienceinphysiology，zoologyandsimilarbranchesofinquiry“{D。Ph。517}。
SuchistheconfidenceandassurancewithwhichHerrDühringspeaksofthemathematicalandnaturalisticeruditionofHerrDühring。Itisimpossibletodetectfromthemeagresectionconcerned，andstilllessfromitsevenmorepaltryconclusions，whatdeep-rootedpositiveknowledgeliesbehindthem。Inanycase，inordertocreatetheDühringoracleonphysicsandchemistry，itisnotnecessarytoknowanymoreofphysicsthantheequationwhichexpressesthemechanicalequivalentofheat，oranymoreofchemistrythanthatallbodiescanbedividedintoelementsandcombinationsofelements。Moreover，apersonwhocantalkof“gravitatingatoms“{81}，asHerrDühringdoesp。131{D。Ph。}，onlyprovesthatheiscompletely“inthedark“astothedifferencebetweenatomsandmolecules。
Asiswellknown，itisonlychemicalaction，andnotgravitationorothermechanicalorphysicalformsofmotion，thatisexplainedbyatoms。Andifanyoneshouldreadasfarasthechapteronorganicnature，withitsvacuous，self-contradictoryand，atthedecisivepoint，oracularlysenselessmeanderingverbiage，anditsabsolutelyfutilefinalconclusion，hewillnotbeabletoavoidformingtheopinion，fromtheverystart，thatHerrDühringisherespeakingofthingsofwhichheknowsremarkablylittle。
Thisopinionbecomesabsolutecertaintywhenthereaderreacheshissuggestionthatinthescienceoforganicbeingsbiologythetermcompositionshouldbeusedinsteadofdevelopment{114}。Thepersonwhocanputforwardsuchasuggestionshowsthathehasnotthefaintestsuspicionoftheformationoforganicbodies。
Allorganicbodies，excepttheverylowest，consistofcells，smallgranulesofalbumenwhichareonlyvisiblewhenconsiderablymagnified，withanucleusinside。Asarulethecellsalsodevelopanoutermembraneandthecontentsarethenmoreorlessfluid。Thelowestcellularbodiesconsistofasinglecell;theimmensemajorityoforganicbeingsaremulti-cellular，congruouscomplexesofmanycellswhichinlowerorganismsremainofahomogeneoustype，butinhigherorganismsdevelopmoreandmorevariedforms，groupingsandfunctions。Inthehumanbody，forexample，bones，muscles，nerves，tendons，ligaments，cartilages，skin，inaword，alltissuesareeithercomposedofcellsororiginatedfromthem。Butinallorganiccellularstructure，fromtheamoeba，whichisasimpleandmostofthetimeskinlessalbuminousparticlewithanucleusinside，uptoman，andfromthetiniestunicellulardesmidsuptothemosthighlydevelopedplant，themannerinwhichthecellsmultiplyisthesame:byfission。Thecellnucleusfirstbecomesconstrictedinthemiddle，theconstrictionseparatingthetwohalvesofthenucleusgetsmoreandmorepronounced，andatlasttheyseparatefromeachotherandformtwocellnuclei。Thesameprocesstakesplaceinthecellitself;eachofthetwonucleibecomesthecentreofanaccumulationofcellularsubstance，linkedtotheotherbyastripwhichissteadilygrowingnarrower，untilatlastthetwoseparatefromeachotherandcontinuetoexistasindependentcells。Throughsuchrepeatedcellfissionthewholeanimalisgraduallydevelopedinfulloutoftheembryonalvesicleoftheanimalegg，afterithasbeenfertilised，andthereplacementofused-uptissuesiseffectedinthesamewayintheadultanimal。Tocallsuchaprocesscomposition，andtosaythattodescribeitasdevelopmentis“pureimagination“{D。Ph。126}，certainlyindicatesapersonwho——howeverdifficultthismaybetobelieveatthepresentday——knowsabsolutelynothingofthisprocess;hereitispreciselyandexclusivelydevelopmentthatisgoingon，andindeeddevelopmentinthemostliteralsense，andcompositionhasabsolutelynothingtodowithit！
LateronweshallhavesomethingmoretosayaboutwhatHerrDühringunderstandsingeneralbylife。Inparticularhisconceptionoflifeisasfollows:
“Theinorganicworldtooisasystemofself-executingimpulses;butitisonlyatthepointwheretherebeginsrealdifferentiation，withthecirculationofsubstancesthroughspecialchannelsfromoneinternalpointandaccordingtoagerm-schemetransmissibletoasmallerstructure，thatwemayventuretospeakofreallifeinthenarrowerandstrictersense“
{141}。
Thissentenceis，inthenarrowerandstrictersense，asystemofself-executingimpulseswhatevertheymaybeofnonsense，evenapartfromitshopelesslyconfusedgrammar。Iflifefirstbeginswhererealdifferentiationcommences，wemustdeclarethatthewholeHaeckeliankingdomofProtistaandperhapsmuchelsearedead，dependingonthemeaningweattachtotheideaofdifferentiation。
Iflifefirstbeginswhenthisdifferentiationcanbetransmittedthroughasmallergerm-scheme，thenatleastallorganismsuptoandincludingunicellularonescannotberegardedasliving。Ifthecirculationofsubstancesthroughspecialchannelsisthehallmarkoflife，then，inadditiontotheforegoing，wemustalsostrikefromtheranksofthelivingthewholeofthehigherclassoftheCoelenterataexceptinghowevertheMedusae，thatis，allpolypsandotherzoophytes。[43]Ifthecirculationofsubstancesthroughspecialchannelsfromoneinternalpointistheessentialhallmarkoflife，thenwemustdeclarethatallthoseanimalswhichhavenoheartandthosewhichhavemorethanoneheartaredead。Underthisheadingwouldfall，inadditiontothosealreadyenumerated，allworms，starfishandrotifersAnnuloidaandAnnulosa，Huxley’sclassification[44]，asectionoftheCrustacealobsters，andfinallyevenavertebrateanimal，thelancelettheAmphioxus。Andmoreoverallplants。
Inundertaking，therefore，todefinereallifeinthenarrowerandstrictersense，HerrDühringgivesusfourcharacteristicsoflifewhichtotallycontradictoneanother，oneofwhichcondemnstoeternaldeathnotonlythewholevegetablekingdombutalsoabouthalftheanimalkingdom。Reallynoonecansaythathemisleduswhenhepromisedus“fromthegrounduporiginalconclusionsandviews“{525}！
Anotherpassageruns:
“Innature，too，onesimpletypeisthebasisofallorganisms，fromthelowesttothehighest“，andthistypeis“fullyandcompletelypresentinitsgeneralessenceeveninthemostsubordinateimpulseofthemostundevelopedplant“{305}。
Thisstatementisagain“fullandcomplete“nonsense。Themostsimpletypefoundinthewholeoforganicnatureisthecell，anditcertainlyisthebasisofthehigherorganisms。Ontheotherhand，amongthelowestorganismstherearemanywhicharefarbelowthecell——theprotamoeba，asimplealbuminousparticlewithoutanydifferentiationwhatever，andawholeseriesofothermoneraandallbladderseaweedsSiphoneae。Allofthesearelinkedwiththehigherorganismsonlybythefactthattheiressentialcomponentisalbumenandthattheyconsequentlyperformfunctionsofalbumen，i。e。，liveanddie。
HerrDühringfurthertellsus:
“Physiologically，sensationisboundupwiththepresenceofsomekindofnerveapparatus，howeversimple。Itisthereforecharacteristicofallanimalstructuresthattheyarecapableofsensation，i。e。，ofasubjectivelyconsciousawarenessoftheirstates。Thesharpboundarylinebetweenplantandanimalliesatthepointwheretheleaptosensationtakesplace。Farfrombeingobliteratedbytheknowntransitionalstructures，thatlinebecomesalogicalnecessitypreciselythroughtheseexternallyundecidedorundecidableforms“{D。Ph。141-42}。
Andagain:
“Ontheotherhand，plantsarecompletelyandforalltimedevoidoftheslightesttraceofsensation，andevenlackanycapacityforit“{140}。
Inthefirstplace，HegelsaysNaturphilosophie，§351，Addendumthat“sensationisthedifferentiaspecifica[“specificdifference“]，theabsolutedistinguishingcharacteristicoftheanimal“。
SoonceagainwefindaHegelian“crudity“{D。K。G。235}，whichthroughthesimpleprocessofappropriationbyHerrDühringisraisedtothehonourablepositionofafinalandultimatetruth。
Inthesecondplace，wehearforthefirsttimehereoftransitionalstructures，externallyundecidedorundecidableformsfinegibberish！
betweenplantandanimal。Thattheseintermediateformsexist;thatthereareorganismsofwhichwecannotsayflatlywhethertheyareplantsoranimals;thatthereforewearewhollyunabletodrawasharpdividinglinebetweenplantandanimal——preciselythisfactmakesitalogicalnecessityforHerrDühringtoestablishacriterionofdifferentiationwhichinthesamebreathheadmitswillnotholdwater！Butwehaveabsolutelynoneedtogobacktothedoubtfulterritorybetweenplantsandanimals;
arethesensitiveplantswhichattheslightesttouchfoldtheirleavesorclosetheirflowers，aretheinsect-eatingplantsdevoidoftheslightesttraceofsensationanddotheyevenlackanycapacityforit？ThiscannotbemaintainedevenbyHerrDühringwithout“unscientificsemi-poetry“
{D。Ph。56，142}。
Inthethirdplace，itisonceagainafreecreationandimaginationonHerrDühring’spartwhenheassertsthatsensationisphysiologicallyboundupwiththepresenceofsomekindofnerveapparatus，howeversimple。
Notonlyallprimitiveanimals，butalsothezoophytes，oratanyratethegreatmajorityofthem，shownotraceofanerveapparatus。Itisonlyfromthewormsonthatsuchanapparatusisregularlyfound，andHerrDühringisthefirstpersontomaketheassertionthatthoseanimalshavenosensationbecausetheyhavenonerves。Sensationisnotnecessarilyassociatedwithnerves，butundoubtedlywithcertainalbuminousbodieswhichuptonowhavenotbeenmorepreciselydetermined。
Atanyrate，HerrDühring’sbiologicalknowledgeissufficientlycharacterisedbythequestionwhichhedoesnothesitatetoputtoDarwin:
“Isittobesupposedthatanimalshavedevelopedoutofplants？”{110}。
Suchaquestioncouldonlybeputbyapersonwhohasnottheslightestknowledgeofeitheranimalsorplants。
OflifeingeneralHerrDühringisonlyabletotellus:
“Themetabolismwhichiscarriedoutthroughaplasticallycreatingschematisation“whatintheworldcanthatbe？“remainsalwaysadistinguishingcharacteristicofthereallifeprocess“{141}。
Thatisallwelearnaboutlife，whileinthe“plasticallycreatingschematisation“
weareleftknee-deepinthemeaninglessgibberishofthepurestDühringjargon。Ifthereforewewanttoknowwhatlifeis，weshallevidentlyhavetolookalittlemorecloselyatitourselves。
Thatorganicexchangeofmatteristhemostgeneralandmostcharacteristicphenomenonoflifehasbeensaidtimesoutofnumberduringthelastthirtyyearsbyphysiologicalchemistsandchemicalphysiologists，anditisheremerelytranslatedbyHerrDühringintohisownelegantandclearlanguage。
Buttodefinelifeasorganicmetabolismistodefinelifeas——life;
fororganicexchangeofmatterormetabolismwithplasticallycreatingschematisationisinfactaphrasewhichitselfneedsexplanationthroughlife，explanationthroughthedistinctionbetweentheorganicandtheinorganic，thatis，thatwhichlivesandthatwhichdoesnotlive。Thisexplanationthereforedoesnotgetusanyfurther。
Exchangeofmatterassuchtakesplaceevenwithoutlife。Thereisawholeseriesofprocessesinchemistrywhich，givenanadequatesupplyofrawmaterial，constantlyreproducetheirownconditions，anddosoinsuchawaythatadefinitebodyisthecarrieroftheprocess。Thisisthecaseinthemanufactureofsulphuricacidbytheburningofsulphur。
Inthisprocesssulphurdioxide，SO2，isproduced，andwhensteamandnitricacidareadded，thesulphurdioxideabsorbshydrogenandoxygenandisconvertedintosulphuricacid，H2SO4。Thenitricacidgivesoffoxygenandisreducedtonitricoxide;thisnitricoxideimmediatelyabsorbsnewoxygenfromtheairandistransformedintothehigheroxidesofnitrogen，butonlytotransferthisoxygenimmediatelytosulphurdioxideandtogothroughthesameprocessagain;sothattheoreticallyaninfinitelysmallquantityofnitricacidshouldsufficetochangeanunlimitedquantityofsulphurdioxide，oxygenandwaterintosulphuricacid——Exchangeofmatteralsotakesplaceinthepassageoffluidsthroughdeadorganicandeveninorganicmembranes，asinTraube’sartificialcells。[45]Heretooitisclearthatwecannotgetanyfurtherbymeansofexchangeofmatter;forthepeculiarexchangeofmatterwhichistoexplainlifeneedsitselftobeexplainedthroughlife。Wemustthereforetrysomeotherway。
Lifeisthemodeofexistenceofalbuminousbodies，andthismodeofexistenceessentiallyconsistsintheconstantself-renewalofthechemicalconstituentsofthesebodies。
Thetermalbuminousbodyisusedhereinthesenseinwhichitisemployedinmodernchemistry，whichincludesunderthisnameallbodiesconstitutedsimilarlytoordinarywhiteofegg，otherwisealsoknownasproteinsubstances。Thenameisanunhappyone，becauseordinarywhiteofeggplaysthemostlifelessandpassiveroleofallthesubstancesrelatedtoit，since，togetherwiththeyolk，itismerelyfoodforthedevelopingembryo。Butwhilesolittleisyetknownofthechemicalcompositionofalbuminousbodies，thisnameisbetterthananyotherbecauseitismoregeneral。
Whereverwefindlifewefinditassociatedwithanalbuminousbody，andwhereverwefindanalbuminousbodynotinprocessofdissolution，therealsowithoutexceptionwefindphenomenaoflife。Undoubtedly，thepresenceofotherchemicalcombinationsisalsonecessaryinalivingbodyinordertoinduceparticulardifferentiationsofthesephenomenaoflife;
buttheyarenotrequisitefornakedlife，exceptinsofarastheyenterthebodyasfoodandaretransformedintoalbumen。Thelowestlivingbeingsknowntousareinfactnothingbutsimpleparticlesofalbumen，andtheyalreadyexhibitalltheessentialphenomenaoflife。
Butwhataretheseuniversalphenomenaoflifewhichareequallypresentamongalllivingorganisms？Aboveallthefactthatanalbuminousbodyabsorbsotherappropriatesubstancesfromitsenvironmentandassimilatesthem，whileother，olderpartsofthebodydisintegrateandareexcreted。
Othernon-living，bodiesalsochange，disintegrateorenterintocombinationsinthenaturalcourseofevents;butindoingthistheyceasetobewhattheywere。Aweather-wornrockisnolongerarock，metalwhichoxidisesturnsintorust。Butwhatwithnon-livingbodiesisthecauseofdestruction，withalbumenisthefundamentalconditionofexistence。Fromthemomentwhenthisuninterruptedmetamorphosisofitsconstituents，thisconstantalternationofnutritionandexcretion，nolongertakesplaceinanalbuminousbody，thealbuminousbodyitselfcomestoanend，itdecomposes，thatis，dies。Life，themodeofexistenceofanalbuminousbody，thereforeconsistsprimarilyinthefactthateverymomentitisitselfandatthesametimesomethingelse;andthisdoesnottakeplaceastheresultofaprocesstowhichitissubjectedfromwithout，asisthewayinwhichthiscanoccuralsointhecaseofinanimatebodies。Onthecontrary，life，themetabolismwhichtakesplacethroughnutritionandexcretion，isaself-implementingprocesswhichisinherentin，nativeto，itsbearer，albumen，withoutwhichthelattercannotexist。Andhenceitfollowsthatifchemistryeversucceedsinproducingalbumenartificially，thisalbumenmustshowthephenomenaoflife，howeverweakthesemaybe。Itiscertainlyopentoquestionwhetherchemistrywillatthesametimealsodiscovertherightfoodforthisalbumen。
Fromthemetabolismwhichtakesplacethroughnutritionandexcretion，astheessentialfunctionofalbumen，andfromitspeculiarplasticityproceedalsoalltheothermostsimplefactorsoflife:irritability，whichisalreadyincludedinthemutualinteractionbetweenthealbumenanditsfood;contractibility，whichisshown，evenataverylowstage，intheconsumptionoffood;thepossibilityofgrowth，whichinthelowestformsincludespropagationbyfission;internalmovement，withoutwhichneithertheconsumptionnortheassimilationoffoodispossible。
Ourdefinitionoflifeisnaturallyveryinadequate，inasmuchas，farfromincludingallthephenomenaoflife，ithastobelimitedtothosewhicharethemostcommonandthesimplest。Fromascientificstandpointalldefinitionsareoflittlevalue。Inordertogainanexhaustiveknowledgeofwhatlifeis，weshouldhavetogothroughalltheformsinwhichitappears，fromthelowesttothehighest。Butforordinaryusagesuchdefinitionsareveryconvenientandinplacescannotwellbedispensedwith;moreover，theycandonoharm，providedtheirinevitabledeficienciesarenotforgotten。
ButbacktoHerrDühring。Whenthingsarefaringbadlywithhiminthesphereofearthlybiology，heknowswheretofindconsolation;
hetakesrefugeinhisstarryheaven。
“Itisnotmerelythespecialapparatusofanorganofsensation，butthewholeobjectiveworld，whichisadaptedtotheproductionofpleasureandpain。Forthisreasonwetakeitforgrantedthattheantithesisbetweenpleasureandpain，andmoreoverexactly，intheformwithwhichwearefamiliar，isauniversalantithesis，andmustberepresentedinthevariousworldsoftheuniversebyessentiallyhomogeneousfeelings……
Thisconformity，however，isofnolittlesignificance，foritisthekeytotheuniverseofsensations……Hencethesubjectivecosmicworldistousnotmuchmoreunfamiliarthantheobjective。Theconstitutionofbothspheresmustbeconceivedaccordingtooneconcordanttype，andinthiswehavethebeginningsofascienceofconsciousnesswhoserangeiswiderthanmerelyterrestrial“{D。Ph。139-40}。
Whatdoafewgrossblundersinterrestrialnaturalsciencemattertothemanwhocarriesinhispocketthekeytotheuniverseofsensations？Allonsdonc！[“Well，really！“]
IX。
MORALITYANDLAW。
ETERNALTRUTHSWerefrainfromgivingsamplesofthemish-mashofplatitudesandoracularsayings，inaword，ofthesimplebalderdashwithwhichHerrDühringregaleshisreadersforfiftyfullpagesasthedeep-rootedscienceoftheelementsofconsciousness。Wewillciteonlythis:
“Hewhocanthinkonlybymeansoflanguagehasneveryetlearntwhatismeantbyabstractandpurethought“{D。Ph。189}。
Onthisbasisanimalsarethemostabstractandpurestthinkers，becausetheirthoughtisneverobscuredbytheofficiousintrusionoflanguage。
InanycaseonecanseefromtheDühringianthoughtsandthelanguageinwhichtheyarecouchedhowlittlesuitedthesethoughtsaretoanylanguage，andhowlittlesuitedtheGermanlanguageistothesethoughts。
Atlastthefourthsectionbringsusdeliverance;apartfromtheliquefyingpapofrhetoric，itdoesatleastofferus，hereandthere，somethingtangibleonthesubjectofmoralityandlaw。Rightattheoutset，onthisoccasion，weareinvitedtotakeatriptotheothercelestialbodies:
theelementsofmorals“mustoccurinconcordantfashionamongallextra-humanbeingswhoseactivereasonhastodealwiththeconsciousorderingoflifeimpulsesintheformofinstincts……Andyetourinterestinsuchdeductionswillbesmall……Neverthelessitisanideawhichbeneficentlyextendsourrangeofvision，whenwethinkthatonothercelestialbodiesindividualandcommunallifemustbebasedonaschemewhich……
isunabletoabrogateorescapefromthegeneralfundamentalconstitutionofarationallyactingbeing“{192-93}。
Inthiscase，bywayofexception，thevalidityoftheDühringiantruthsalsoforallotherpossibleworldsisputatthebeginninginsteadoftheendofthechapterconcerned;andforasufficientreason。IfthevalidityoftheDühringianconceptionsofmoralityandjusticeisfirstestablishedforallworlds，itisallthemoreeasybeneficentlytoextendtheirvaliditytoalltimes。Butonceagainwhatisinvolvedisnothinglessthanfinalandultimatetruth{2}。
Theworldofmorals，“justasmuchastheworldofgeneralknowledge“，has“itspermanentprinciplesandsimpleelements“。Themoralprinciplesstand“abovehistoryandalsoabovethepresentdifferencesinnationalcharacteristics……Thespecialtruthsoutofwhich，inthecourseofevolution，amorecompletemoralconsciousnessand，sotospeak，consciencearebuiltup，may，insofarastheirultimatebasisisunderstood，claimavalidityandrangesimilartotheinsightsandapplicationsofmathematics，Genuinetruthsareabsolutelyimmutable……sothatitisaltogetherstupidtothinkthatthecorrectnessofknowledgeissomethingthatcanbeaffectedbytimeandchangesinreality“{196}。Hencethecertitudeofstrictknowledgeandtheadequacyofcommoncognitionleavenoroom，whenweareinpossessionofoursenses，fordoubtingtheabsolutevalidityoftheprinciplesofknowledge。“Evenpersistentdoubtisitselfadiseasedconditionofweaknessandonlytheexpressionofhopelessconfusion，whichsometimesseekstocontrivetheappearanceofsomethingstableinthesystematicconsciousnessofitsnothingness。Inthesphereofethics，thedenialofgeneralprinciplesclutchesatthegeographicalandhistoricalvarietyofcustomsandprinciples，andoncetheinevitablenecessityofmoralwickednessandevilisconceded，itbelievesitselfsomuchthemoretobeabovetherecognitionofthegreatimportanceandactualefficacyofconcordantmoralimpulses。
Thismordantscepticism，whichisnotdirectedagainstparticularfalsedoctrinesbutagainstmankind’sverycapacitytodevelopconsciousmorality，resolvesitselfultimatelyintoarealNothing，infactintosomethingthatisworsethanpurenihilism{194}……Itflattersitselfthatitcaneasilydominatewithinitsutterchaosofdisintegratedethicalideasandopenthegatestounprincipledarbitrariness。Butitisgreatlymistaken:formerereferencetotheinevitablefateofreasoninerrorandtruthsufficestoshowbythisanalogyalonethatnaturalfallibilitydoesnotnecessarilyexcludetheattainmentofaccuracy“{195}。
UptonowwehavecalmlyputupwithallthesepompousphrasesofHerrDühring’saboutfinalandultimatetruths，thesovereigntyofthought，absolutecertaintyofknowledge，andsoforth，becauseitisonlyatthepointwhichwehavenowreachedthatthemattercanbesettled。Uptothispointithasbeenenoughtoenquirehowfartheseparateassertionsofthephilosophyofrealityhad“sovereignvalidity“and“anunconditionalclaimtotruth“{2};nowwecometothequestionwhetherany，andifsowhich，productsofhumanknowledgeevercanhavesovereignvalidityandanunconditionalclaimtotruth。WhenIsay“ofhumanknowledge“
Idonotusethephrasewiththeintentionofinsultingtheinhabitantsofothercelestialbodies，whomIhavenothadthehonourofknowing，butonlyforthereasonthatanimalsalsohaveknowledge，thoughitisinnowaysovereign。AdogacknowledgeshismastertobehisGod，thoughthismastermaybethebiggestscoundrelonearth。
Ishumanthoughtsovereign？Beforewecanansweryesornowemustfirstenquire:whatishumanthought？Isitthethoughtoftheindividualman？No。Butitexistsonlyastheindividualthoughtofmanymilliardsofpast，presentandfuturemen。If，then，Isaythatthetotalthoughtofallthesehumanbeings，includingthefutureones，whichisembracedinmyidea，issovereign，abletoknowtheworldasitexists，ifonlymankindlastslongenoughandinsofarasnolimitsareimposedonitsknowledgebyitsperceptiveorgansortheobjectstobeknown，thenIamsayingsomethingwhichisprettybanaland，inaddition，prettybarren。
Forthemostvaluableresultfromitwouldbethatitshouldmakeusextremelydistrustfulofourpresentknowledge，inasmuchasinallprobabilitywearejustaboutatthebeginningofhumanhistory，andthegenerationswhichwillputusrightarelikelytobefarmorenumerousthanthosewhoseknowledgewe——oftenenoughwithaconsiderabledegreeofcontempt——havetheopportunitytocorrect。
HerrDühringhimselfproclaimsittobeanecessitythatconsciousness，andthereforealsothoughtandknowledge，canbecomemanifestonlyinaseriesofindividualbeings。Wecanonlyascribesovereigntytothethoughtofeachoftheseindividualsinsofaraswearenotawareofanypowerwhichwouldbeabletoimposeanyideaforciblyonhim，whenheisofsoundmindandwideawake。Butasforthesovereignvalidityoftheknowledgeobtainedbyeachindividualthought，weallknowthattherecanbenotalkofsuchathing，andthatallpreviousexperienceshowsthatwithoutexceptionsuchknowledgealwayscontainsmuchmorethatis-capableofbeingimproveduponthanthatwhichcannotbeimprovedupon，oriscorrect。
Inotherwords，thesovereigntyofthoughtisrealisedinaseriesofextremelyunsovereignly-thinkinghumanbeings;theknowledgewhichhasanunconditionalclaimtotruthisrealisedinaseriesofrelativeerrors;
neithertheonenortheothercanbefullyrealisedexceptthroughanunendingdurationofhumanexistence。
Hereonceagainwefindthesamecontradictionaswefoundabove，betweenthecharacterofhumanthought，necessarilyconceivedasabsolute，anditsrealityinindividualhumanbeingsallofwhomthinkonlylimitedly。
Thisisacontradictionwhichcanberesolvedonlyinthecourseofinfiniteprogress，inwhatis——atleastpracticallyforus——anendlesssuccessionofgenerationsofmankind。Inthissensehumanthoughtisjustasmuchsovereignasnotsovereign，anditscapacityforknowledgejustasmuchunlimitedaslimited。Itissovereignandunlimitedinitsdisposition，itsvocation，itspossibilitiesanditshistoricalultimategoal;itisnotsovereignanditislimitedinitsindividualrealisationandinrealityatanyparticularmoment。
Itisjustthesamewitheternaltruths。Ifmankindeverreachedthestageatwhichitshouldworkonlywitheternaltruths，withresultsofthoughtwhichpossesssovereignvalidityandanunconditionalclaimtotruth，itwouldthenhavereachedthepointwheretheinfinityoftheintellectualworldbothinitsactualityandinitspotentialityhadbeenexhausted，andthusthefamousmiracleofthecounteduncountablewouldhavebeenperformed。
Butarethereanytruthswhicharesosecurelybasedthatanydoubtofthemseemstoustobetantamounttoinsanity？Thattwicetwomakesfour，thatthethreeanglesofatriangleareequaltotworightangles，thatParisisinFrance，thatamanwhogetsnofooddiesofhunger，andsoforth？Aretherethenneverthelesseternaltruths，finalandultimatetruths{D。Ph。2}？
Certainlythereare。Wecandividethewholerealmofknowledgeinthetraditionalwayintothreegreatdepartments。Thefirstincludesallsciencesthatdealwithinanimatenatureandaretoagreaterorlesserdegreesusceptibleofmathematicaltreatment:mathematics，astronomy，mechanics，physics，chemistry。Ifitgivesanyoneanypleasuretousemightywordsforverysimplethings，itcanbeassertedthatcertainresultsobtainedbythesesciencesareeternaltruths，finalandultimatetruths;
forwhichreasonthesesciencesareknownastheexactsciences。
Butveryfarfromalltheirresultshavethisvalidity。Withtheintroductionofvariablemagnitudesandtheextensionoftheirvariabilitytotheinfinitelysmallandinfinitelylarge，mathematics，usuallysostrictlyethical，fellfromgrace;itateofthetreeofknowledge，whichopeneduptoitacareerofmostcolossalachievements，butatthesametimeapathoferror。Thevirginstateofabsolutevalidityandirrefutableproofofeverythingmathematicalwasgoneforever;therealmofcontroversywasinaugurated，andwehavereachedthepointwheremostpeopledifferentiateandintegratenotbecausetheyunderstandwhattheyaredoingbutfrompurefaith，becauseuptonowithasalwayscomeoutright。Thingsareevenworsewithastronomyandmechanics，andinphysicsandchemistryweareswampedbyhypothesesasifattackedbyaswarmofbees。Anditmustofnecessitybeso。Inphysicswearedealingwiththemotionofmolecules，inchemistrywiththeformationofmoleculesoutofatoms，andiftheinterferenceoflightwavesisnotamyth，wehaveabsolutelynoprospectofeverseeingtheseinterestingobjectswithourowneyes。Astimegoeson，finalandultimatetruthsbecomeremarkablyrareinthisfield。
Weareevenworseoffingeologywhich，byitsnature，hastodealchieflywithprocesseswhichtookplacenotonlyinourabsencebutintheabsenceofanyhumanbeingwhatever。Thegleaninghereoffinalandultimatetruthsisthereforeaverytroublesomebusiness，andthecropisextremelyscanty。
Theseconddepartmentofscienceistheonewhichcoverstheinvestigationoflivingorganisms。Inthisfieldthereissuchamultiplicityofinterrelationshipsandcausalitiesthatnotonlydoesthesolutionofeachquestiongiverisetoahostofotherquestions，buteachseparateproblemcaninmostcasesonlybesolvedpiecemeal，throughaseriesofinvestigationswhichoftenrequirecenturies;andbesides，theneedforasystematicpresentationofinterconnectionsmakesitnecessaryagainandagaintosurroundthefinalandultimatetruthswithaluxuriantgrowthofhypotheses。WhatalongseriesofintermediariesfromGalentoMalpighiwasnecessaryforcorrectlyestablishingsuchasimplematterasthecirculationofthebloodinmammals，howslightisourknowledgeoftheoriginofbloodcorpuscles，andhownumerousarethemissinglinkseventoday，forexample，tobeabletobringthesymptomsofadiseaseintosomerationalrelationshipwithitscause！Andoftenenoughdiscoveries，suchasthatofthecell，aremadewhichcompelustorevisecompletelyallformerlyestablishedfinalandultimatetruthsintherealmofbiology，andtoputwholepilesofthemonthescrap-heaponceandforall。Anyonewhowantstoestablishreallygenuineandimmutabletruthsherewillthereforehavetobecontentwithsuchplatitudesas:allmenaremortal，allfemalemammalshavelactealglands，andthelike;hewillnotevenbeabletoassertthatthehigheranimalsdigestwiththeirstomachsandintestinesandnotwiththeirheads，forthenervousactivity，whichiscentralisedinthehead，isindispensabletodigestion。
Buteternaltruthsareinanevenworseplightinthethird，thehistorical，groupofsciences，whichstudyintheirhistoricalsequenceandintheirpresentresultantstatetheconditionsofhumanlife，socialrelationships，formsoflawandgovernment，withtheiridealsuperstructureintheshapeofphilosophy，religion，art，etc。Inorganicnatureweareatleastdealingwithasuccessionofprocesseswhich，sofarasourimmediateobservationisconcerned，recurwithfairregularitywithinverywidelimits。
OrganicspecieshaveonthewholeremainedunchangedsincethetimeofAristotle。Insocialhistory，however，therepetitionofconditionsistheexceptionandnottherule，oncewepassbeyondtheprimitivestateofman，theso-calledStoneAge;andwhensuchrepetitionsoccur，theyneverariseunderexactlysimilarcircumstances。Such，forexample，istheexistenceofanoriginalcommonownershipofthelandamongallcivilisedpeoples，orthewayitwasdissolved。Inthesphereofhumanhistoryourknowledgeisthereforeevenmorebackwardthanintherealmofbiology。
Furthermore，whenbywayofexceptiontheinnerconnectionbetweenthesocialandpoliticalformsofexistenceinanyepochcomestobeknown，thisasaruleoccursonlywhentheseformshavealreadybyhalfoutlivedthemselvesandarenearingextinction。Therefore，knowledgeishereessentiallyrelative，inasmuchasitislimitedtotheinvestigationofinterconnectionsandconsequencesofcertainsocialandstateformswhichexistonlyinaparticularepochandamongparticularpeoplesandarebytheirverynaturetransitory。Anyonethereforewhoheresetsouttohuntdownfinalandultimatetruths，genuine，absolutelyimmutabletruths，willbringhomebutlittle，apartfromplatitudesandcommonplacesofthesorriestkind——forexample，that，generallyspeaking，mencannotliveexceptbylabour;thatuptothepresenttheyforthemostparthavebeendividedintorulersandruled;
thatNapoleondiedonMay5，1821，andsoon。
Nowitisaremarkablethingthatitispreciselyinthisspherethatwemostfrequentlyencountertruthswhichclaimtobeeternal，finalandultimateandalltherestofit。Thattwicetwomakesfour，thatbirdshavebeaks，andsimilarstatements，areproclaimedaseternaltruthsonlybythosewhoaimatdeducing，fromtheexistenceofeternaltruthsingeneral，theconclusionthattherearealsoeternaltruthsinthesphereofhumanhistory——eternalmorality，eternaljustice，andsoon——whichclaimavalidityandscopesimilartothoseoftheinsightsandapplicationsofmathematics。Andthenwecanconfidentlyrelyonthissamefriendofhumanitytakingthefirstopportunitytoassureusthatallpreviousfabricatorsofeternaltruthshavebeentoagreaterorlesserextentassesandcharlatans，thattheyallfellintoerrorandmademistakes;butthattheirerrorandtheirfallibilityareinaccordancewithnature’slaws，andprovetheexistenceoftruthandaccuracypreciselyinhiscase;
andthathe，theprophetwhohasnowarisen，hasinhisbag，allready-made，finalandultimatetruth，eternalmoralityandeternaljustice。Thishasallhappenedsomanyhundredsandthousandsoftimesthatwecanonlyfeelastonishedthatthereshouldstillbepeoplecredulousenoughtobelievethis，notofothers，ohno！butofthemselves。Neverthelesswehaveherebeforeusatleastonemoresuchprophet，whoalso，quiteintheaccustomedway，fliesintohighlymoralindignationwhenotherpeopledenythatanyindividualwhatsoeverisinapositiontodeliverthefinalandultimatetruth。Suchadenial，orindeedmeredoubtofit，isweakness，hopelessconfusion，nothingness，mordantscepticism，worsethanpurenihilism，utterchaosandothersuchpleasantries。Aswithallprophets，insteadofcriticalandscientificexaminationandjudgmentoneencountersmoralcondemnationoutofhand。
Wemighthavemadementionabovealsoofthescienceswhichinvestigatethelawsofhumanthought，i。e。，logicanddialectics。Inthese，however，eternaltruthsdonotfareanybetter。HerrDühringdeclaresthatdialecticsproperispurenonsense;andthemanybookswhichhavebeenandarestillbeingwrittenonlogicprovideabundantproofthathere，too，finalandultimatetruthsaremuchmoresparselysownthansomepeoplebelieve。