ConclusionofthisBook。
ButbeforeIlaunchoutintothoseimmensedepthsofphilosophy，whichliebeforeme，Ifindmyselfinclin’dtostopamomentinmypresentstation，andtoponderthatvoyage，whichIhaveundertaken，andwhichundoubtedlyrequirestheutmostartandindustrytobebroughttoahappyconclusion。MethinksIamlikeaman，whohavingstruckonmanyshoals，andhavingnarrowlyescap’dshipwreckinpassingasmallfrith，hasyetthetemeritytoputouttoseainthesameleakyweather-beatenvessel，andevencarrieshisambitionsofarastothinkofcompassingtheglobeunderthesedisadvantageouscircumstances。Mymemoryofpasterrorsandperplexities，makesmediffidentforthefuture。Thewretchedcondition，weakness，anddisorderofthefaculties，Imustemployinmyenquiries，encreasemyapprehensions。Andtheimpossibilityofamendingorcorrectingthesefaculties，reducesmealmosttodespair，andmakesmeresolvetoperishonthebarrenrock，onwhichIamatpresent，ratherthanventuremyselfuponthatboundlessocean，whichrunsoutintoimmensity。Thissuddenviewofmydangerstrikesmewithmelancholy；andas’tisusualforthatpassion，aboveallothers，toindulgeitself；Icannotforbearfeedingmydespair，withallthosedespondingreflections，whichthepresentsubjectfurnishesmewithinsuchabundance。
Iamfirstaffrightedandconfoundedwiththatforelornsolitude，inwhichIamplac’dinmyphilosophy，andfancymyselfsomestrangeuncouthmonster，whonotbeingabletomingleanduniteinsociety，hasbeenexpell’dallhumancommerce，andleftutterlyabandon’danddisconsolate。Fainwou’dIrunintothecrowdforshelterandwarmth；butcannotprevailwithmyselftomixwithsuchdeformity。Icalluponotherstojoinme，inordertomakeacompanyapart；butnoonewillhearkentome。Everyonekeepsatadistance，anddreadsthatstorm，whichbeatsuponmefromeveryside。Ihaveexpos’dmyselftotheenmityofallmetaphysicians，logicians，mathematicians，andeventheologians；andcanIwonderattheinsultsImustsuffer？Ihavedeclar’dmydisapprobationoftheirsystems；andcanIbesurpriz’d，iftheyshou’dexpressahatredofmineandofmyperson？WhenIlookabroad，Iforeseeoneveryside，dispute，contradiction，anger，calumnyanddetraction。WhenIturnmyeyeinward，Ifindnothingbutdoubtandignorance。Alltheworldconspirestoopposeandcontradictme；tho’suchismyweakness，thatIfeelallmyopinionsloosenandfallofthemselves，whenunsupportedbytheapprobationofothers。EverystepItakeiswithhesitation，andeverynewreflectionmakesmedreadanerrorandabsurdityinmyreasoning。
ForwithwhatconfidencecanIventureuponsuchboldenterprises，whenbesidethosenumberlessinfirmitiespeculiartomyself，Ifindsomanywhicharecommontohumannature？CanIbesure，thatinleavingallestablishedopinionsIamfollowingtruth；andbywhatcriterionshallIdistinguishher，eveniffortuneshou’datlastguidemeonherfoot-steps？Afterthemostaccurateandexactofmyreasonings，IcangivenoreasonwhyIshou’dassenttoit；andfeelnothingbutastrongpropensitytoconsiderobjectsstronglyinthatview，underwhichtheyappeartome。Experienceisaprinciple，whichinstructsmeintheseveralconjunctionsofobjectsforthepast。Habitisanotherprinciple，whichdeterminesmetoexpectthesameforthefuture；andbothofthemconspiringtooperateupontheimagination，makemeformcertainideasinamoreintenseandlivelymanner，thanothers，whicharenotattendedwiththesameadvantages。Withoutthisquality，bywhichthemindenlivenssomeideasbeyondotherswhichseeminglyissotrivial，andsolittlefoundedonreasonwecou’dneverassenttoanyargument，norcarryourviewbeyondthosefewobjects，whicharepresenttooursenses。Nay，eventotheseobjectswecou’dneverattributeanyexistence，butwhatwasdependentonthesenses；andmustcomprehendthementirelyinthatsuccessionofperceptions，whichconstitutesourselforperson。Nayfarther，evenwithrelationtothatsuccession，wecou’donlyadmitofthoseperceptions，whichareimmediatelypresenttoourconsciousness，norcou’dthoselivelyimages，withwhichthememorypresentsus，beeverreceiv’dastruepicturesofpastperceptions。Thememory，senses，andunderstandingare，therefore，allofthemfoundedontheimagination，orthevivacityofourideas。
Nowonderaprinciplesoinconstantandfallaciousshou’dleadusintoerrors，whenimplicitlyfollow’dasitmustbeinallitsvariations。’Tisthisprinciple，whichmakesusreasonfromcausesandeffects；and’tisthesameprinciple，whichconvincesusofthecontinu’dexistenceofexternalobjects，whenabsentfromthesenses。Buttho’thesetwooperationsbeequallynaturalandnecessaryinthehumanmind，yetinsomecircumstancestheyare47directlycontrary，norisitpossibleforustoreasonjustlyandregularlyfromcausesandeffects，andatthesametimebelievethecontinu’dexistenceofmatter。Howthenshallweadjustthoseprinciplestogether？Whichofthemshallweprefer？Orincasewepreferneitherofthem，butsuccessivelyassenttoboth，asisusualamongphilosophers，withwhatconfidencecanweafterwardsusurpthatglorioustitle，whenwethusknowinglyembraceamanifestcontradiction？
Thiscontradiction48wou’dbemoreexcusable，wereitcompensatedbyanydegreeofsolidityandsatisfactionintheotherpartsofourreasoning。Butthecaseisquitecontrary。Whenwetraceupthehumanunderstandingtoitsfirstprinciples，wefindittoleadusintosuchsentiments，asseemtoturnintoridiculeallourpastpainsandindustry，andtodiscourageusfromfutureenquiries。Nothingismorecuriouslyenquir’dafterbythemindofman，thanthecausesofeveryphenomenon；norarewecontentwithknowingtheimmediatecauses，butpushonourenquiries，tillwearriveattheoriginalandultimateprinciple。Wewou’dnotwillinglystopbeforeweareacquaintedwiththatenergyinthecause，bywhichitoperatesonitseffect；thattie，whichconnectsthemtogether；andthatefficaciousquality，onwhichthetiedepends。Thisisouraiminallourstudiesandreflections:Andhowmustwebedisappointed，whenwelearn，thatthisconnexion，tie，orenergyliesmerelyinourselves，andisnothingbutthatdeterminationofthemind，whichisacquir’dbycustom，andcausesustomakeatransitionfromanobjecttoitsusualattendant，andfromtheimpressionofonetothelivelyideaoftheother？Suchadiscoverynotonlycutsoffallhopeofeverattainingsatisfaction，butevenpreventsourverywishes；sinceitappears，thatwhenwesaywedesiretoknowtheultimateandoperatingprinciple，assomething，whichresidesintheexternalobject，weeithercontradictourselves，ortalkwithoutameaning。
Thisdeficiencyinourideasisnot，indeed，perceivedincommonlife，norarewesensible，thatinthemostusualconjunctionsofcauseandeffectweareasignorantoftheultimateprinciple，whichbindsthemtogether，asinthemostunusualandextraordinary。Butthisproceedsmerelyfromanillusionoftheimagination；andthequestionis，howfarweoughttoyieldtotheseillusions。Thisquestionisverydifficult，andreducesustoaverydangerousdilemma，whicheverwayweanswerit。Forifweassenttoeverytrivialsuggestionofthefancy；besidethatthesesuggestionsareoftencontrarytoeachother；theyleadusintosucherrors，absurdities，andobscurities，thatwemustatlastbecomeasham’dofourcredulity。Nothingismoredangeroustoreasonthantheflightsoftheimagination，andnothinghasbeentheoccasionofmoremistakesamongphilosophers。Menofbrightfanciesmayinthisrespectbecompar’dtothoseangels，whomthescripturerepresentsascoveringtheireyeswiththeirwings。Thishasalreadyappear’dinsomanyinstances，thatwemayspareourselvesthetroubleofenlarginguponitanyfarther。
Butontheotherhand，iftheconsiderationoftheseinstancesmakesustakearesolutiontorejectallthetrivialsuggestionsofthefancy，andadheretotheunderstanding，thatis，tothegeneralandmoreestablishedpropertiesoftheimagination；eventhisresolution，ifsteadilyexecuted，wou’dbedangerous，andattendedwiththemostfatalconsequences。ForIhavealreadyshewn，49thattheunderstanding，whenitactsalone，andaccordingtoitsmostgeneralprinciples，entirelysubvertsitself，andleavesnotthelowestdegreeofevidenceinanyproposition，eitherinphilosophyorcommonlife。Wesaveourselvesfromthistotalscepticismonlybymeansofthatsingularandseeminglytrivialpropertyofthefancy，bywhichweenterwithdifficultyintoremoteviewsofthings，andarenotabletoaccompanythemwithsosensibleanimpression，aswedothose，whicharemoreeasyandnatural。Shallwe，then，establishitforageneralmaxim，thatnorefin’dorelaboratereasoningisevertobereceiv’d？Considerwelltheconsequencesofsuchaprinciple。Bythismeansyoucutoffentirelyallscienceandphilosophy:Youproceedupononesingularqualityoftheimagination，andbyaparityofreasonmustembraceallofthem:Andyouexpresslycontradictyourself；sincethismaximmustbebuiltontheprecedingreasoning，whichwillbeallow’dtobesufficientlyrefin’dandmetaphysical。Whatparty，then，shallwechooseamongthesedifficulties？Ifweembracethisprinciple，andcondemnallrefin’dreasoning，werunintothemostmanifestabsurdities。Ifwerejectitinfavourofthesereasonings，wesubvertentirelythe，humanunderstanding。Wehave，therefore，nochoiceleftbutbetwixtafalsereasonandnoneatall。Formypart，knownotwhatoughttobedoneinthepresentcase。Icanonlyobservewhatiscommonlydone；whichis，thatthisdifficultyisseldomorneverthoughtof；andevenwhereithasoncebeenpresenttothemind，isquicklyforgot，andleavesbutasmallimpressionbehindit。Veryrefin’dreflectionshavelittleornoinfluenceuponus；andyetwedonot，andcannotestablishitforarule，thattheyoughtnottohaveanyinfluence；whichimpliesamanifestcontradiction。
ButwhathaveIheresaid，thatreflectionsveryrefin’dandmetaphysicalhavelittleornoinfluenceuponus？ThisopinionIcanscarceforbearretracting，andcondemningfrommypresentfeelingandexperience。Theintenseviewofthesemanifoldcontradictionsandimperfectionsinhumanreasonhassowroughtuponme，andheatedmybrain，thatIamreadytorejectallbeliefandreasoning，andcanlookuponnoopinionevenasmoreprobableorlikelythananother。WhereamI，orwhat？FromwhatcausesdoIderivemyexistence，andtowhatconditionshallIreturn？WhosefavourshallIcourt，andwhoseangermustIdread？Whatbeingssurroundme？andonwhomhave，Ianyinfluence，orwhohaveanyinfluenceonme？Iamconfoundedwithallthesequestions，andbegintofancymyselfinthemostdeplorableconditionimaginable，inviron’dwiththedeepestdarkness，andutterlydepriv’doftheuseofeverymemberandfaculty。
Mostfortunatelyithappens，thatsincereasonisincapableofdispellingtheseclouds，natureherselfsufficestothatpurpose，andcuresmeofthisphilosophicalmelancholyanddelirium，eitherbyrelaxingthisbentofmind，orbysomeavocation，andlivelyimpressionofmysenses，whichobliterateallthesechimeras。Idine，Iplayagameofbackgammon，Iconverse，andammerrywithmyfriends；andwhenafterthreeorfourhours’amusement，Iwou’dreturntothesespeculations，theyappearsocold，andstrain’d，andridiculous，thatIcannotfindinmyhearttoenterintothemanyfarther。
HerethenIfindmyselfabsolutelyandnecessarilydetermin’dtolive，andtalk，andactlikeotherpeopleinthecommonaffairsoflife。Butnotwithstandingthatmynaturalpropensity，andthecourseofmyanimalspiritsandpassionsreducemetothisindolentbeliefinthegeneralmaximsoftheworld，Istillfeelsuchremainsofmyformerdisposition，thatIamreadytothrowallmybooksandpapersintothefire，andresolvenevermoretorenouncethepleasuresoflifeforthesakeofreasoningandphilosophy。Forthosearemysentimentsinthatsplenetichumour，whichgovernsmeatpresent。Imay，nayImustyieldtothecurrentofnature，insubmittingtomysensesandunderstanding；andinthisblindsubmissionIshewmostperfectlymyscepticaldispositionandprinciples。Butdoesitfollow，thatImuststriveagainstthecurrentofnature，whichleadsmetoindolenceandpleasure；thatImustsecludemyself，insomemeasure，fromthecommerceandsocietyofmen，whichissoagreeable；andthatImusttorturemybrainswithsubtilitiesandsophistries，attheverytimethatIcannotsatisfymyselfconcerningthereasonablenessofsopainfulanapplication，norhaveanytolerableprospectofarrivingbyitsmeansattruthandcertainty。UnderwhatobligationdoIlieofmakingsuchanabuseoftime？Andtowhatendcanitserveeitherfortheserviceofmankind，orformyownprivateinterest？No:IfImustbeafool，asallthosewhoreasonorbelieveanythingcertainlyare，myfolliesshallatleastbenaturalandagreeable。WhereIstriveagainstmyinclination，Ishallhaveagoodreasonformyresistance；andwillnomorebeledawanderingintosuchdrearysolitudes，androughpassages，asIhavehithertometwith。
Thesearethesentimentsofmyspleenandindolence；，andindeedImustconfess，thatphilosophyhasnothingtoopposetothem，andexpectsavictorymorefromthereturnsofaseriousgood-humour’ddisposition，thanfromtheforceofreasonandconviction。Inalltheincidentsoflifeweoughtstilltopreserveourscepticism。Ifwebelieve，thatfirewarms，orwaterrefreshes，’tisonlybecauseitcostsustoomuchpainstothinkotherwise。Nayifwearephilosophers，itoughtonlytobeuponscepticalprinciples，andfromaninclination，whichwefeeltotheemployingourselvesafterthatmanner。Wherereasonislively，andmixesitselfwithsomepropensity，itoughttobeassentedto。Whereitdoesnot，itnevercanhaveanytitletooperateuponus。
Atthetime，therefore，thatIamtir’dwithamusementandcompany，andhaveindulg’dareverieinmychamber，orinasolitarywalkbyariver-side，Ifeelmymindallcollectedwithinitself，andamnaturallyinclin’dtocarrymyviewintoallthosesubjects，aboutwhichIhavemetwithsomanydisputesinthecourseofmyreadingandconversation。Icannotforbearhavingacuriositytobeacquaintedwiththeprinciplesofmoralgoodandevil，thenatureandfoundationofgovernment，andthecauseofthoseseveralpassionsandinclinations，whichactuateandgovernme。IamuneasytothinkIapproveofoneobject，anddisapproveofanother；callonethingbeautiful，andanotherdeform’d；decideconcerningtruthandfalshood，reasonandfolly，withoutknowinguponwhatprinciplesIproceed。Iamconcern’dfortheconditionofthelearnedworld，whichliesundersuchtdeplorableignoranceinalltheseparticulars。Ifeelanambitiontoariseinmeofcontributingtotheinstructionofmankind，andofacquiringanamebymyinventionsanddiscoveries。Thesesentimentsspringupnaturallyinmypresentdisposition；andshou’dIendeavourtobanishthem，byattachingmyselftoanyotherbusinessordiversion，IfeelIshou’dbealoserinpointofpleasure；andthisistheoriginofmyphilosophy。
Butevensupposethiscuriosityandambitionshou’dnottransportmeintospeculationswithoutthesphereofcommonlife，itwou’dnecessarilyhappen，thatfrommyveryweaknessImustbeledintosuchenquiries。’Tiscertain，thatsuperstitionismuchmoreboldinitssystemsandhypothesesthanphilosophy；andwhilethelattercontentsitselfwithassigningnewcausesandprinciplestothephaenomena，whichappearinthevisibleworld，theformeropensaworldofitsown，andpresentsuswithscenes，andbeings，andobjects，whicharealtogethernew。Sincetherefore’tisalmostimpossibleforthemindofmantorest，likethoseofbeasts，inthatnarrowcircleofobjects，whicharethesubjectofdailyconversationandaction，weoughtonlytodeliberateconcerningthechoiceofourguide，andoughttopreferthatwhichissafestandmostagreeable。AndinthisrespectImakeboldtorecommendphilosophy，andshallnotscrupletogiveitthepreferencetosuperstitionofeverykindordenomination。Forassuperstitionarisesnaturallyandeasilyfromthepopularopinionsofmankind，itseizesmorestronglyonthemind，andisoftenabletodisturbusintheconductofourlivesandactions。Philosophyonthecontrary，ifjust，canpresentusonlywithmildandmoderatesentiments；andiffalseandextravagant，itsopinionsaremerelytheobjectsofacoldandgeneralspeculation，andseldomgosofarastointerruptthecourseofournaturalpropensities。TheCYNICSareanextraordinaryinstanceofphilosophers，whofromreasoningspurelyphilosophicalranintoasgreatextravaganciesofconductasanyMonkorDervisethateverwasintheworld。Generallyspeaking，theerrorsinreligionaredangerous；thoseinphilosophyonlyridiculous。
Iamsensible，thatthesetwocasesofthestrengthandweaknessofthemindwillnotcomprehendallmankind，andthatthereareinEngland，inparticular，manyhonestgentlemen，whobeingalwaysemploy’dintheirdomesticaffairs，oramusingthemselvesincommonrecreations，havecarriedtheirthoughtsverylittlebeyondthoseobjects，whichareeverydayexpos’dtotheirsenses。Andindeed，ofsuchastheseIpretendnottomakephilosophers，nordoIexpectthemeithertobeassociatesintheseresearchesorauditorsofthesediscoveries。Theydowelltokeepthemselvesintheirpresentsituation；andinsteadofrefiningthemintophilosophers，Iwishwecou’dcommunicatetoourfoundersofsystems，ashareofthisgrossearthymixture，asaningredient，whichtheycommonlystandmuchinneedof，andwhichwou’dservetotemperthosefieryparticles，ofwhichtheyarecompos’d。Whileawarmimaginationisallow’dtoenterintophilosophy，andhypothesesembrac’dmerelyforbeingspeciousandagreeable，wecanneverhaveanysteadyprinciples，noranysentiments，whichwillsuitwithcommonpracticeandexperience。Butwerethesehypothesesonceremov’d，wemighthopetoestablishasystemorsetofopinions，whichifnottrueforthat，perhaps，istoomuchtobehop’dformightatleastbesatisfactorytothehumanmind，andmightstandthetestofthemostcriticalexamination。Norshou’dwedespairofattainingthisend，becauseofthemanychimericalsystems，whichhavesuccessivelyarisenanddecay’dawayamongmen，wou’dweconsidertheshortnessofthatperiod，whereinthesequestionshavebeenthesubjectsofenquiryandreasoning。Twothousandyearswithsuchlonginterruptions，andundersuchmightydiscouragementsareasmallspaceoftimetogiveanytolerableperfectiontothesciences；andperhapswearestillintooearlyanageoftheworldtodiscoveranyprinciples，whichwillbeartheexaminationofthelatestposterity。Formypart，myonlyhopeis，thatImaycontributealittletotheadvancementofknowledge，bygivinginsomeparticularsadifferentturntothespeculationsofphilosophers，andpointingouttothemmoredistinctlythosesubjects，wherealonetheycanexpectassuranceandconviction。HumanNatureistheonlyscienceofman；andyethasbeenhithertothemostneglected。’Twillbesufficientforme，ifIcanbringitalittlemoreintofashion；andthehopeofthisservestocomposemytemperfromthatspleen，andinvigorateitfromthatindolence，whichsometimesprevailuponme。Ifthereaderfindshimselfinthesameeasydisposition，lethimfollowmeinmyfuturespeculations。Ifnot，lethimfollowhisinclination，andwaitthereturnsofapplicationandgoodhumour。Theconductofaman，whostudiesphilosophyinthiscarelessmanner，ismoretrulyscepticalthanthatofone，whofeelinginhimselfaninclinationtoit，isyetsooverwhelmedwithdoubtsandscruples，astotallytorejectit。Atruescepticwillbediffidentofhisphilosophicaldoubts，aswellasofhisphilosophicalconviction；andwillneverrefuseanyinnocentsatisfaction，whichoffersitself，uponaccountofeitherofthem。
Norisitonlyproperweshou’dingeneralindulgeourinclinationinthemostelaboratephilosophicalresearches，notwithstandingourscepticalprinciples，butalsothatweshou’dyieldtothatpropensity，whichinclinesustobepositiveandcertaininparticularpoints，accordingtothelight，inwhichwesurveytheminanyparticularinstant。’Tiseasiertoforbearallexaminationandenquiry，thantocheckourselvesinsonaturalapropensity，andguardagainstthatassurance，whichalwaysarisesfromanexactandfullsurveyofanobject。Onsuchanoccasionweareaptnotonlytoforgetourscepticism，butevenourmodestytoo；andmakeuseofsuchtermsasthese，’tisevident，’tiscertain，’tisundeniable；whichaduedeferencetothepublicought，perhaps，toprevent。Imayhavefallenintothisfaultaftertheexampleofothers；butIhereenteracaveatagainstanyObjections，whichmaybeoffer’donthathead；anddeclarethatsuchexpressionswereextortedfrommebythepresentviewoftheobject，andimplynodogmaticalspirit，norconceitedideaofmyownjudgment，whicharesentimentsthatIamsensiblecanbecomenobody，andascepticstilllessthananyother。
NOTES:
1。Iheremakeuseoftheseterms，impressionandidea，inasensedifferentfromwhatisusual，andIhopethislibertywillbeallowedme。PerhapsIratherrestoretheword，idea，toitsoriginalsense，fromwhichMrLockehadpervertedit，inmakingitstandforallourperceptions。BythetermsofimpressionIwouldnotbeunderstoodtoexpressthemanner，inwhichourlivelyperceptionsareproducedinthesoul，butmerelytheperceptionsthemselves；forwhichthereisnoparticularnameeitherintheEnglishoranyotherlanguage，thatIknowof。
2。PartII，Sect。5。
3。Dr。Berkeley。
4。[ThefollowingnoteisinsertedfromHumesAppendixtoBookIII]
’Tisevident，thatevendifferentsimpleideasmayhaveasimilarityorresemblancetoeachother；norisitnecessary，thatthepointorcircumstanceofresemblanceshoudbedistinctorseparablefromthatinwhichtheydiffer。Blueandgreenaredifferentsimpleideas，butaremoreresemblingthanblueandscarlet；thotheirperfectsimplicityexcludesallpossibilityofseparationordistinction。’Tisthesamecasewithparticularsounds，andtastesandsmells。Theseadmitofinfiniteresemblancesuponthegeneralappearanceandcomparison，withouthavinganycommoncircumstancethesame。Andofthiswemaybecertain，evenfromtheveryabstracttermssimpleidea。Theycomprehendallsimpleideasunderthem。Theseresembleeachotherintheirsimplicity。Andyetfromtheirverynature，whichexcludesallcomposition，thiscircumstance，Inwhichtheyresemble，Isnotdistinguishablenorseparablefromtherest。’TisthesamecasewithallthedegreesInanyquality。Theyareallresemblingandyetthequality，Inanyindividual，Isnotdistinctfromthedegree。
5。Ithasbeenobjectedtome，thatinfinitedivisibilitysupposesonlyaninfinitenumberofproportionalnotofaliqiotparts，andthataninfinitenumberofproportionalpartsdoesnotformaninfiniteextension。Butthisdistinctionisentirelyfrivolous。Whetherthesepartsbecalldaliquotorproportional，theycannotbeinferiortothoseminutepartsweconceive；andthereforecannotformalessextensionbytheirconjunction。
6。Mons。Malezieu7。Mr。Locke。
8。Sect。5。
9。L’Artdepenser。
10。SeeDr。Barrow’smathematicallectures。
11。[ThefollowingnoteisinsertedfromtheappendixtoBookIII。]
Aslongasweconfineourspeculationstotheappearancesofobjectstooursenses，withoutenteringintodisquisitionsconcerningtheirrealnatureandoperations，wearesafefromalldifficulties，andcan。neverbeembarrass’dbyanyquestion。Thus，ifitbeask’d，iftheinvisibleandintangibledistance，interposedbetwixttwoobjects，besomethingornothing:’Tiseasytoanswer，thatitissomething，VIZ。apropertyoftheobjects，whichaffectthesensesaftersuchaparticularmanner。Ifitbeask’dwhethertwoobjects，havingsuchadistancebetwixtthem，touchornot:itmaybeanswer’d，thatthisdependsuponthedefinitionoftheword，touch。Ifobjectsbesaidtotouch，whenthereisnothingsensibleinterpos’dbetwixtthem，theseobjectstouch:itobjectsbesaidtotouch，whentheirimagesstrikecontiguouspartsoftheeye，andwhenthehandfeelsbothobjectssuccessively，withoutanyinterpos’dmotion，theseobjectsdonottouch。Theappearancesofobjectstooursensesareallconsistent；andnodifficultiescaneverarise，butfromtheobscurityofthetermswemakeuseof。
Ifwecarryourenquirybeyondtheappearancesofobjectstothesenses，Iamafraid，thatmostofourconclusionswillbefullofscepticismanduncertainty。Thusifitbeask’d，whetherornottheinvisibleandintangibledistancebealwaysfullofbody，orofsomethingthatbyanimprovementofourorgansmightbecomevisibleortangible，Imustacknowledge，thatIfindnoverydecisiveargumentsoneitherside；tho’Iaminclin’dtothecontraryopinion，asbeingmoresuitabletovulgarandpopularnotions。IftheNewtonianphilosophyberightlyunderstood，itwillbefoundtomeannomore。Avacuumisasserted:Thatis，bodiesaresaidtobeplac’daftersuchamanner，istoreceivebodiesbetwixtthem，withoutimpulsionorpenetration。Therealnatureofthispositionofbodiesisunknown。Weareonlyacquaintedwithitseffectsonthesenses，anditspowerofreceivingbody。Nothingismoresuitabletothatphilosophy，thanamodestscepticismtoacertaindegree，andafairconfessionofignoranceinsubjects，thatexceedallhumancapacity。
12。PartI。Sect。7。
13。PartIV，Sect。2。
14。PartI。Sect。5。
15。PartIV。Sect。5。
16。Mr。Hobbes。
17。Dr，Clarkeandothers。
18。Mr。Locke。
19。Wemayheretakeoccasiontoobserveaveryremarkableerror，whichbeingfrequentlyinculcatedintheschools，hasbecomeakindofestablishdmaxim，andisuniversallyreceivedbyalllogicians。Thiserrorconsistsinthevulgardivisionoftheactsoftheunderstanding，intoconception，judgmentandreasoning，andinthedefinitionswegiveofthem。Conceptionisdefindtobethesimplesurveyofoneormoreideas:Judgmenttobetheseparatingorunitingofdifferentideas:Reasoningtobetheseparatingorunitingofdifferentideasbytheinterpositionofothers，whichshowtherelationtheybeartoeachother。Butthesedistinctionsanddefinitionsarefaultyinveryconsiderablearticles。Forfirst，’tisfarfrombeingtrue，thatineveryjudgment，whichweform，weunitetwodifferentideas；sinceinthatproposition，Godis，orindeedanyother，whichregardsexistence，theideaofexistenceisnodistinctidea，whichweunitewiththatoftheobject，andwhichiscapableofformingacompoundideabytheunion。Secondly，Aswecanthusformaproposition，whichcontainsonlyoneidea，sowemayexertourreasonwithoutemployingmorethantwoideas，andwithouthavingrecoursetoathirdtoserveasamediumbetwixtthem。Weinferacauseimmediatelyfromitseffect；andthisinferenceisnotonlyatruespeciesofreasoning，butthestrongestofallothers，andmoreconvincingthanwhenweinterposeanotherideatoconnectthetwoextremes。Whatwemayingeneralaffirmconcerningthesethreeactsoftheunderstandingis，thattakingtheminaproperlight，theyallresolvethemselvesintothefirst，andarenothingbutparticularwaysofconceivingourobjects。Whetherweconsiderasingleobject，orseveral；whetherwedwellontheseobjects，orrunfromthemtoothers；andinwhateverformororderwesurveythem，theactofthemindexceedsnotasimpleconception；andtheonlyremarkabledifference，whichoccursonthisoccasion，is，whenwejoinbelieftotheconception，andarepersuadedofthetruthofwhatweconceive。Thisactofthemindhasneveryetbeenexplaindbyanyphilosopher；andthereforeIamatlibertytoproposemyhypothesisconcerningit；whichis，that’tisonlyastrongandsteadyconceptionofanyidea，andsuchasapproachesinsomemeasuretoanimmediateimpression。
20。[ThefollowingnoteisinsertedfromHumesAppendixtoBookNaturanenobis，inquit，datumdicam，anerrorequodam，ut，cumealocavideamus，inquibusmemoriadignosvirosacceperimusmulturnesseversatos，magismoveamur，quamsiquandoeorumipsorumautJactaaudiamus，autscriptumaliquodlegamus？velutegonuncmoveor。VenitenimmihiPlatonisinmentem:quemaccipimusprimurnhicdisputaresolitum:Cujusetiamillihortulipropinquinonmemoriamsolummihiafferunt，sedipsumvidenturinconspectumeohicponere。HicSpeusippus，hicXenocrates，hicejusauditorPolemo；cujusipsaillasessiofuit，quamvideamus。Equidemetiamcuriamnostram，hostiliamdico，nonhancnovam，quaemihiminoressevideturpostquamestmajor，solebarnintuensScipionem，Catonem，Laclium，nostrumveroinprimisavumcogitare。Tantavisadmonitionisinestinlocis；utnonsinecausaexhismemoriaeductasitdisciplina。CicerodeFinibus，lib。5。
[’ShouldI，hesaid，’attributetoinstinctortosomekindofillusionthefactthatwhenweseethoseplacesinwhichwearetoldnotablemenspentmuchoftheirtime，wearemorepowerfullyaffectedthanwhenwehearoftheexploitsofthementhemselvesorreadsomethingwritten？Thisisjustwhatishappeningtomenow；forIamremindedofPlatowho，wearetold，wasthefirsttomakeapracticeofholdingdiscussionshere。Thosegardensofhisnearbydonotmerelyputmeinmindofhim；theyseemtosetthemanhimselfbeforemyveryeyes。Speusippuswashere；sowasXenocrates；sowashispupil，Polemo，andthatveryseatwhichwemayviewwashis。
’Thenagain，whenIlookedatourSenate-houseImeantheoldbuildingofHostilius，notthisnewone；whenitwasenlarged，itdiminishedinmyestimation，IusedtothinkofScipio，Cato，Laeliusandinparticularofmyowngrandfather。
Suchisthepowerofplacestoevokeassociations；soitIswithgoodreasonthattheyareusedasabasisformemorytraining。]
21。Ingeneralwemayobserve，thatasourassenttoallprobablereasoningsisfoundedonthevivacityofideas，Itresemblesmanyofthosewhimsiesandprejudices，whicharerejectedundertheopprobriouscharacterofbeingtheoffspringoftheimagination。Bythisexpressionitappearsthattheword，imagination，iscommonlyusdintwodifferentsenses；andthonothingbemorecontrarytotruephilosophy，thanthisinaccuracy，yetinthefollowingreasoningsIhaveoftenbeenobligdtofallintoit。WhenIopposetheImaginationtothememory，Imeanthefaculty，bywhichweformourfainterideas。WhenIopposeittoreason，Imeanthesamefaculty，excludingonlyourdemonstrativeandprobablereasonings。WhenIopposeittoneither，’tisindifferentwhetheritbetakeninthelargerormorelimitedsense，oratleastthecontextwillsufficientlyexplainthemeaning。
22。PartIV。Sect。1。
23。Sect。15。
24。PartIV。Sect。1。
25。Sect。2。
26。SeeMr。Locke，chapterofpower。
27。SeeFatherMalbranche，Bookvi。Part2，chap。3。Andtheillustrationsuponit。
28。ThesameimperfectionattendsourideasoftheDeity；butthiscanhavenoeffecteitheronreligionormorals。Theorderoftheuniverseprovesanomnipotentmind；thatis，amindwhosewiliisconstantlyattendedwiththeobedienceofeverycreatureandbeing。Nothingmoreisrequisitetogiveafoundationtoallthearticlesofreligion。norisItnecessaryweshoudformadistinctideaoftheforceandenergyofthesupremeBeing。
29。Sect。6。
30。PartIV，Sect。5。
31。PartI。Sect。5。
32。Part。II。Sect。6。
33。PartII，Sect。4。
34。PartII，Sect。5。
35。PartII。Sect。5。
36。Thisreasoning，itmustbeconfest，issomewhatabstruse，anddifficulttobecomprehended；butitisremarkable，thatthisverydifficultymaybeconvertedintoaproofofthereasoning。Wemayobserve，thattherearetworelations，andbothofthemresemblances，whichcontributetoourmistakingthesuccessionofourinterruptedperceptionsforanidenticalobject。Thefirstis，theresemblanceoftheperceptions:Thesecondistheresemblance，whichtheactofthemindinsurveyingasuccessionofresemblingobjectsbearstothatinsurveyinganidenticalobject。Nowtheseresemblancesweareapttoconfoundwitheachother；and’tisnaturalweshoud，accordingtothisveryreasoning。Butletuskeepthemdistinct，andweshallfindnodifficultyinconceivingtheprecedentargument。
37。Sect。6。
38。Sect。5。
39。PartII。Sect。4。
40。Sect。2，towardstheend。
41。PartII，Sect。6。
42。SuchasthatofSect。2，formthecoherenceofourperceptions。
43。SeeBayle’sdictionary，articleofSpinoza。
44。PartIII。Sect。15。
45。AsfatherMalebrancheandotherCartesians。
46。Ifthereaderisdesiroustoseehowagreatgeniusmaybeinfluencdbytheseseeminglytrivialprinciplesoftheimagination，aswellasthemerevulgar，lethimreadmyLordShaftsburysreasoningsconcerningtheunitingprincipleoftheuniverse，andtheidentityofplantsandanimals。SeehisMoralists:or，Philosophicalrhapsody。
47。Sect。4。
48。PartIII。Sect。14。
49。Sect。1。
DavidHumeATreatiseofHumanNatureBookII
OfthePassionsPARTI
OfprideandhumilitySECT。I
DivisionofthesubjectAsalltheperceptionsofthemindmaybedividedintoimpressionsandideas，sotheimpressionsadmitofanotherdivisionintooriginalandsecondary。Thisdivisionoftheimpressionsisthesamewiththatwhich1IformerlymadeuseofwhenIdistinguish’dthemintoimpressionsofsensationandreflection。Originalimpressionsorimpressionsofsensationaresuchaswithoutanyantecedentperceptionariseinthesoul，fromtheconstitutionofthebody，fromtheanimalspirits，orfromtheapplicationofobjectstotheexternalorgans。Secondary，orreflectiveimpressionsaresuchasproceedfromsomeoftheseoriginalones，eitherimmediatelyorbytheinterpositionofitsidea。Ofthefirstkindarealltheimpressionsofthesenses，andallbodilypainsandpleasures:Ofthesecondarethepassions，andotheremotionsresemblingthem。
Tiscertain，thatthemind，initsperceptions，mustbeginsomewhere；andthatsincetheimpressionsprecedetheircorrespondentideas，theremustbesomeimpressions，whichwithoutanyintroductionmaketheirappearanceinthesoul。Asthesedependuponnaturalandphysicalcauses，theexaminationofthemwou’dleadmetoofarfrommypresentsubject，intothesciencesofanatomyandnaturalphilosophy。ForthisreasonIshallhereconfinemyselftothoseotherimpressions，whichIhavecall’dsecondaryandreflective，asarisingeitherfromtheoriginalimpressions，orfromtheirideas。Bodilypainsandpleasuresarethesourceofmanypassions，bothwhenfeltandconsider’dbythemind；butariseoriginallyinthesoul，orinthebody，whicheveryoupleasetocallit，withoutanyprecedingthoughtorperception。Afitofthegoutproducesalongtrainofpassions，asgrief，hope，fear；butisnotderiv’dimmediatelyfromanyaffectionoridea。Thereflectiveimpressionsmaybedividedintotwokinds，viz。thecalmandtheviolent。Ofthefirstkindisthesenseofbeautyanddeformityinaction，composition，andexternalobjects。Ofthesecondarethepassionsofloveandhatred，griefandjoy，prideandhumility。Thisdivisionisfarfrombeingexact。Therapturesofpoetryandmusicfrequentlyrisetothegreatestheight；whilethoseotherimpressions，properlycall’dpassions，maydecayintososoftanemotion，astobecome，inamanner，imperceptible。Butasingeneralthepassionsaremoreviolentthantheemotionsarisingfrombeautyanddeformity，theseimpressionshavebeencommonlydistinguish’dfromeachother。Thesubjectofthehumanmindbeingsocopiousandvarious，Ishallheretakeadvantageofthisvulgarandspaciousdivision，thatImayproceedwiththegreaterorder；andhavingsaidaliIthoughtnecessaryconcerningourideas，shallnowexplainthoseviolentemotionsorpassions，theirnature，origin，causes，andeffects。
Whenwetakeasurveyofthepassions，thereoccursadivisionofthemintodirectandindirect。BydirectpassionsIunderstandsuchasariseimmediatelyfromgoodorevil，frompainorpleasure。Byindirectsuchasproceedfromthesameprinciples，butbytheconjunctionofotherqualities。ThisdistinctionIcannotatpresentjustifyorexplainanyfarther。Icanonlyobserveingeneral，thatundertheindirectpassionsIcomprehendpride，humility，ambition，vanity，love，hatred，envy，pity，malice，generosity，withtheirdependants。Andunderthedirectpassions，desire，aversion，grief，joy，hope，fear，despairandsecurity。Ishallbeginwiththeformer。
SECT。II
Ofprideandhumility；theirobjectsandcausesThepassionsofPRIDEandHUMILITYbeingsimpleanduniformimpressions，`tisimpossiblewecanever，byamultitudeofwords，giveajustdefinitionofthem，orindeedofanyofthepassions。Theutmostwecanpretendtoisadescriptionofthem，byanenumerationofsuchcircumstances，asattendthem:Butasthesewords，prideandhumility，areofgeneraluse，andtheimpressionstheyrepresentthemostcommonofany，everyone，ofhimself，willbeabletoformajustideaofthem，withoutanydangerofmistake。Forwhichreason，nottolosetimeuponpreliminaries，Ishallimmediatelyenterupontheexaminationofthesepassions。
`Tisevident，thatprideandhumility，tho’directlycontrary，haveyetthesameOBJECT。Thisobjectisself，orthatsuccessionofrelatedideasandimpressions，ofwhichwehaveanintimatememoryandconsciousness。`Heretheviewalwaysfixeswhenweareactuatedbyeitherofthesepassions。Accordingasourideaofourselfismoreorlessadvantageous，wefeeleitherofthoseoppositeaffections，andareelatedbypride，ordejectedwithhumility。Whateverotherobjectsmaybecomprehendedbythemind，theyarealwaysconsider’dwithaviewtoourselves；otherwisetheywouldneverbeableeithertoexcitethesepassions，orproducethesmallestencreaseordiminutionofthem。Whenselfentersnotintotheconsideration，thereisnoroomeitherforprideorhumility。
Buttho’thatconnectedsuccessionofperceptions，whichwecallself，bealwaystheobjectofthesetwopassions，`tisimpossibleitcanbetheirCAUSE，orbesufficientalonetoexcitethem。Forasthesepassionsaredirectlycontrary，andhavethesameobjectincommon；weretheirobjectalsotheircause；itcou’dneverproduceanydegreeoftheonepassion，butatthesametimeitmustexciteanequaldegreeoftheother；whichoppositionandcontrarietymustdestroyboth。Tisimpossibleamancanatthesametimebebothproudandhumble；andwherehehasdifferentreasonsforthesepassions，asfrequentlyhappens，thepassionseithertakeplacealternately；oriftheyencounter，theoneannihilatestheother，asfarasitsstrengthgoes，andtheremainderonlyofthat，whichissuperior，continuestooperateuponthemind。Butinthepresentcaseneitherofthepassionscou’deverbecomesuperior；becausesupposingittobetheviewonlyofourself，whichexcitedthem，thatbeingperfectlyindifferenttoeither，mustproducebothintheverysameproportion；orinotherwords，canproduceneither。Toexciteanypassion，andat’thesametimeraiseanequalshareofitsantagonist，isimmediatelytoundowhatwasdone，andmustleavethemindatlastperfectlycalmandindifferent。
Wemusttherefore，makeadistinctionbetwixtthecauseandtheobjectofthesepassions；betwixtthatidea，whichexcitesthem，andthattowhichtheydirecttheirview，whenexcited。Prideandhumility，beingoncerais’d，immediatelyturnourattentiontoourself，andregardthatastheirultimateandfinalobject；butthereissomethingfartherrequisiteinordertoraisethem:Something，whichispeculiartooneofthepassions，andproducesnotbothintheverysamedegree。Thefirstidea，thatispresentedtothemind，isthatofthecauseorproductiveprinciple。Thisexcitesthepassion，connectedwithit；andthatpassion，whenexcited。turnsourviewtoanotheridea，whichisthatofself。Herethenisapassionplac’dbetwixttwoideas，ofwhichtheoneproducesit，andtheotherisproduc’dbyit。Thefirstidea，therefore，representsthecause，thesecondtheobjectofthepassion。
Tobeginwiththecausesofprideandhumility；wemayobserve，thattheirmostobviousandremarkablepropertyisthevastvarietyofsubjects，onwhichtheymaybeplac’d。Everyvaluablequalityofthemind，whetheroftheimagination，judgment，memoryordisposition；wit，good-sense，learning，courage，justice，integrity；allthesearethecauseofpride；andtheiroppositesofhumility。Norarethesepassionsconfin’dtothemindbutextendtheirviewtothebodylikewise。Amanmayheproudofhisbeauty，strength，agility，goodmein，addressindancing，riding，andofhisdexterityinanymanualbusinessormanufacture。Butthisisnotall。Thepassionslookingfarther，comprehendwhateverobjectsareintheleastally’dorrelatedtous。Ourcountry，family，children，relations，riches，houses，gardens，horses，dogs，cloaths；anyofthesemaybecomeacauseeitherofprideorofhumility。
Fromtheconsiderationofthesecauses，itappearsnecessaryweshoudmakeanewdistinctioninthecausesofthepassion，betwixtthatquality，whichoperates，andthesubject，onwhichitisplac’d。Aman，forinstance，isvainofabeautifulhouse，whichbelongstohim，orwhichhehashimselfbuiltandcontriv’d。Heretheobjectofthepassionishimself，andthecauseisthebeautifulhouse:Whichcauseagainissub-dividedintotwoparts，viz。thequality，whichoperatesuponthepassion，andthesubjectinwhichthequalityinheres。Thequalityisthebeauty，andthesubjectisthehouse，consider’dashispropertyorcontrivance。Boththesepartsareessential，noristhedistinctionvainandchimerical。Beauty，consider’dmerelyassuch，unlessplac’duponsomethingrelatedtous，neverproducesanyprideorvanity；andthestrongest。relationalone，withoutbeauty，orsomethingelseinitsplace，hasaslittleinfluenceonthatpassion。Since，therefore，thesetwoparticularsareeasilyseparatedandthereisanecessityfortheirconjunction，inordertoproducethepassion，weoughttoconsiderthemascomponentpartsofthecause；andinfixinourmindsanexactideaofthisdistinction。
SECT。IIIWhencetheseobjectsandcausesarederiv’dBeingsofaradvanc’dastoobserveadifferencebetwixttheobjectofthepassionsandtheircause，andtodistinguishinthecausethequality，whichoperatesonthepassions，fromthesubject，inwhichitinheres；wenowproceedtoexaminewhatdetermineseachofthemtobewhatitis，andassignssuchaparticularobject，andquality，andsubjecttotheseaffections。Bythismeansweshallfullyunderstandtheoriginofprideandhumility。
`Tisevidentinthefirstplace，thatthesepassionsarederermin’dtohaveselffortheirobject，notonlybyanaturalbutalsobyanoriginalproperty。Noonecandoubtbutthispropertyisnaturalfromtheconstancyandsteadinessofitsoperations。Tisalwaysself，whichistheobjectofprideandhumility；andwheneverthepassionslookbeyond，`tisstillwithaviewtoourselves，norcananypersonorobjectotherwisehaveanyinfluenceuponus。
Thatthisproceedsfromanoriginalqualityorprimaryimpulse，willlikewiseappearevident，ifweconsiderthat`tisthedistinguishingcharacteristicofthesepassionsUnlessnaturehadgivensomeoriginalqualitiestothemind，itcou’dneverhaveanysecondaryones；becauseinthatcaseitwou’dhavenofoundationforaction，norcou’deverbegintoexertitself。Nowthesequalities，whichwemustconsiderasoriginal，aresuchasaremostinseparablefromthesoul，andcanberesolv’dintonoother:Andsuchisthequality，whichdeterminestheobjectofprideandhumility。Wemay，perhaps，makeitagreaterquestion，whetherthecauses，thatproducethepassion，beasnaturalastheobject，towhichitisdirected，andwhetherallthatvastvarietyproceedsfromcapriceorfromtheconstitutionofthemind。Thisdoubtweshallsoonremove，ifwecastoureyeuponhumannature，andconsiderthatinallnationsandages，thesameobjectsstillgiverisetoprideandhumility；andthatupontheviewevenofastranger，wecanknowprettynearly，whatwilleitherencreaseordiminishhispassionsofthiskind。Iftherebeanyvariationinthisparticular，itproceedsfromnothingbutadifferenceinthetempersandcomplexionsofmen；andisbesidesveryinconsiderable。Canweimagineitpossible，thatwhilehumannatureremainsthesame，menwilleverbecomeentirelyindifferenttotheirpower，riches，beautyorpersonalmerit，andthattheirprideandvanitywillnotbeaffectedbytheseadvantages？
Buttho’thecausesofprideandhumilitybeplainlynatural，weshallfinduponexamination，thattheyarenotoriginal，andthat`tisutterlyimpossibletheyshou’deachofthembeadaptedtothesepassionsbyaparticularprovision，andprimaryconstitutionofnature，Besidetheirprodigiousnumber，manyofthemaretheeffectsofart，andarisepartlyfromtheindustry，partlyfromthecaprice，andpartlyfromthegoodfortuneofmen，Industryproduceshouses，furniture，cloaths。Capricedeterminestheirparticularkindsandqualities。Andgoodfortunefrequentlycontributestoallthis，bydiscoveringtheeffectsthatresultfromthedifferentmixturesandcombinationsofbodies。Tisabsurd，therefore，toimagine，thateachofthesewasforeseenandprovidedforbynature，andthateverynewproductionofart，whichcausesprideorhumility；insteadofadaptingitselftothepassionbypartakingofsomegeneralquality，thatnaturallyoperatesonthemind；isitselftheobjectofanoriginalprinciple，whichtillthenlayconceal’dinthesoul，andisonlybyaccidentatlastbroughttolight。Thusthefirstmechanic，thatinventedafinescritoire，produc’dprideinhim，whobecamepossestofit，byprinciplesdifferentfromthose，whichmadehimproudofhandsomechairsandtables。Asthisappearsevidentlyridiculous，wemustconclude，thateachcauseofprideandhumilityisnotadaptedtothepassionsbyadistinctoriginalquality；butthattherearesomeoneormorecircumstancescommontoallofthem，onwhichtheirefficacydepends。
Besides，wefindinthecourseofnature，thattho’theeffectsbemany，theprinciples，fromwhichtheyarise，arecommonlybutfewandsimple，andthat`tisthesignofanunskilfulnaturalisttohaverecoursetoadifferentquality，inordertoexplaineverydifferentoperation。Howmuchmoremustthisbetruewithregardtothehumanmind，whichbeingsoconfin’dasubjectmayjustlybethoughtincapableofcontainingsuchamonstrousheapofprinciples，aswoudbenecessarytoexcitethepassionsofprideandhumility，wereeachdistinctcauseadaptedtothepassionbyadistinctsetofprinciples？
Here，therefore，moralphilosophyisinthesameconditionasnatural，withregardtoastronomybeforethetimeofCopernicus。Theantients，tho’sensibleofthatmaxim，thatnaturedoesnothinginvain，contriv’dsuchintricatesystemsoftheheavens，asseem’dinconsistentwithtruephilosophy，andgaveplaceatlasttosomethingmoresimpleandnatural。Toinventwithoutscrupleanewprincipletoeverynewphaenomenon，insteadofadaptingittotheold；tooverloadourhypotheseswithavarietyofthiskind；arecertainproofs，thatnoneoftheseprinciplesisthejustone，andthatweonlydesire，byanumberoffalsehoods，tocoverourignoranceofthetruth。
OftherelationsofimpressionsandideasThuswehaveestablish’dtwotruthswithoutanyobstacleordifficulty，that`tisfromnaturalprinciplesthisvarietyofcausesexcitesprideandhumility，andthat`tisnotbyadifferentprincipleeachdifferentcauseisadaptedtoitspassion。Weshallnowproceedtoenquirehowwemayreducetheseprinciplestoalessernumber，andfindamongthecausessomethingcommon，onwhichtheirinfluencedepends。
Inordertothiswemustreflectoncertainpropertiesofhumannature，whichtho’theyhaveamightyinfluenceoneveryoperationbothoftheunderstandingandpassions，arenotcommonlymuchinsistedonbyphilosophers。Thefirstoftheseistheassociationofideas，whichIhavesooftenobserv’dandexplain’d。Tisimpossibleforthemindtofixitselfsteadilyupononeideaforanyconsiderabletime；norcanitbyitsutmosteffortseverarriveatsuchaconstancy。Buthoweverchangeableourthoughtsmaybe，theyarenotentirelywithoutruleandmethodintheirchanges。Therule，bywhichtheyproceed，istopassfromoneobjecttowhatisresembling，contiguousto，orproduc’dbyit。Whenoneideaispresenttotheimagination，anyother，unitedbytheserelations，naturallyfollowsit，andenterswithmorefacilitybymeansofthatintroduction。
ThesecondpropertyIshallobserveinthehumanmindisalikeassociationofimpressions。Allresemblingimpressionsareconnectedtogether，andnosooneronearisesthanthe`restimmediatelyfollow。Griefanddisappointmentgiverisetoanger，angertoenvy，envytomalice，andmalicetogriefagain，tillthewholecirclebecompleated。Inlikemannerourtemper，whenelevatedwithjoy，naturallythrowsitselfintolove，generosity，pity，courage，pride，andtheotherresemblingaffections。`Tisdifficultforthemind，whenactuatedbyanypassion，toconfineitselftothatpassionalone，withoutanychangeorvariation。Humannatureistooinconstanttoadmitofanysuchregularity。Changeablenessisessentialtoit。Andtowhatcanitsonaturallychangeastoaffectionsoremotions，whicharesuitabletothetemper，andagreewiththatsetofpassions，whichthenprevail？`Tisevident，then，thereisanattractionorassociationamongimpressions，aswellasamongideas；tho’withthisremarkabledifference，thatideasareassociatedbyresemblance，contiguity，andcausation；andimpressionsonlybyresemblance。
Inthethirdplace，`tisobservableofthesetwokindsofassociation，thattheyverymuchassistandforwardeachother，andthatthetransitionismoreeasilymadewheretheybothconcurinthesameobject。Thusaman，who，byanyinjuryfromanother，isverymuchdiscompos’dandruffledinhistemper，isapttofindahundredsubjectsofdiscontent，impatience，fear，andotheruneasypassions；especiallyifhecandiscoverthesesubjectsinorneartheperson，whowasthecauseofhisfirstpassion。Thoseprinciples，whichforwardthetransitionofideas，hereconcurwiththose，whichoperateonthepassions；andbothunitinginoneaction，bestowonthemindadoubleimpulse。Thenewpassion，therefore，mustarisewithsomuchgreaterviolence，andthetransitiontoitmustberender’dsomuchmoreeasyandnatural。
UponthisoccasionImaycitetheauthorityofanelegantwriter，whoexpresseshimselfinthefollowingmanner。
`Asthefancydelightsineverythingthatisgreat，strange，orbeautiful，andisstillmorepleas’dthemoreitfindsoftheseperfectionsinthesameobject，soitiscapableofreceivinganewsatisfactionbytheassistanceofanothersense。Thusanycontinu’dsound，asthemusicofbirds，orafallofwaters，awakenseverymomentthemindofthebeholder，andmakeshimmoreattentivetotheseveralbeautiesoftheplace，thatliebeforehim。Thusiftherearisesafragrancyofsmellsorperfumes，theyheightenthepleasureoftheimagination，andmakeeventhecoloursandverdureofthelandschapeappearmoreagreeable；fortheideasofbothsensesrecommendeachother，andarepleasantertogetherthanwhentheyenterthemindseparately:Asthedifferentcoloursofapicture，whentheyarewelldisposed，setoffoneanother，andreceiveanadditionalbeautyfromtheadvantageofthesituation。’[Addison，Spectator412，finalparagraph。]
Inthisphaenomenonwemayremarktheassociationbothofimpressionsandideas，aswellasthemutualassistancetheylendeachother。
SECT。VOftheinfluenceoftheserelationsonprideandhumilityTheseprinciplesbeingestablish’donunquestionableexperience，Ibegintoconsiderhowweshallapplythem，byrevolvingoverallthecausesofprideandhumility，whetherthesecausesberegarded，asthequalities，thatoperate，orasthesubjects，onwhichthequalitiesareplac’d。InexaminingthesequalitiesIimmediatelyfindmanyofthemtoconcurinproducingthesensationofpainandpleasure，independentofthoseaffections，whichIhereendeavourtoexplain。Thusthebeautyofourperson，ofitself，andbyitsveryappearance，givespleasure，aswellaspride；anditsdeformity，painaswellashumility。Amagnificentfeastdelightsus，andasordidonedispleases。WhatIdiscovertobetrueinsomeinstances，Isupposetobesoinall；andtakeitforgrantedatpresent，withoutanyfartherproof，thateverycauseofpride，byitspeculiarqualities，producesaseparatepleasure，andofhumilityaseparateuneasiness。
Again，inconsideringthesubjects，towhichthesequalitiesadhere，Imakeanewsupposition，whichalsoappearsprobablefrommanyobviousinstances，viz，thatthesesubjectsareeitherpartsofourselves，orsomethingnearlyrelatedtous。Thusthegoodandbadqualitiesofouractionsandmannersconstitutevirtueandvice，anddetermineourpersonalcharacter，thanwhichnothingoperatesmorestronglyonthesepassions。Inlikemanner，`tisthebeautyordeformityofourperson，houses，equipage，orfurniture，bywhichwearerender’deithervainorhumble。Thesamequalities，whentransfer’dtosubjects，whichbearusnorelation，influencenotinthesmallestdegreeeitheroftheseaffections。
Havingthusinamannersuppos’dtwopropertiesofthecausesoftheseaffections，viz，thatthequalitiesproduceaseparatepainorpleasure，andthatthesubjects，onwhichthequalitiesareplac’d，arerelatedtoself；Iproceedtoexaminethepassionsthemselves，inordertofindsomethinginthem，correspondentrothesuppos’dpropertiesoftheircauses。First，Ifind，thatthepeculiarobjectofprideandhumilityisdetermin’dbyanoriginalandnaturalinstinct，andthat`tisabsolutelyimpossible，fromtheprimaryconstitutionofthemind，thatthesepassionsshou’deverlookbeyondself，orthatindividualperson。ofwhoseactionsandsentimentseachofusisintimatelyconscious。Hereatlasttheviewalwaysrests，whenweareactuatedbyeitherofthesepassions；norcanwe，inthatsituationofmind，everlosesightofthisobject。ForthisIpretendnottogiveanyreason；butconsidersuchapeculiardirectionofthethoughtasanoriginalquality。
Thesecondquality，whichIdiscoverinthesepassions，andwhichIlikewiseconsiderananoriginalquality，istheirsensations，orthepeculiaremotionstheyexciteinthesoul，andwhichconstitutetheirverybeingandessence。Thusprideisapleasantsensation，andhumilityapainful；andupontheremovalofthepleasureandpain，thereisinrealitynopridenorhumility。Ofthisourveryfeelingconvincesus；andbeyondourfeeling，`tishereinvaintoreasonordispute。
IfIcompare，therefore，thesetwoestablish’dpropertiesofthepassions，viz，theirobject，whichisself，andtheirsensation，whichiseitherpleasantorpainful，tothetwosuppos’dpropertiesofthecauses，viz，theirrelationtoself，andtheirtendencytoproduceapainorpleasure，independentofthepassion；Iimmediatelyfind，thattakingthesesuppositionstobejust，thetruesystembreaksinuponmewithanirresistibleevidence。Thatcause，whichexcitesthepassion，isrelatedtotheobject，whichnaturehasattributedtothepassion；thesensation，whichthecauseseparatelyproduces，isrelatedtothesensationofthepassion:Fromthisdoublerelationofideasandimpressions，thepassionisderiv’d。Theoneideaiseasilyconvertedintoitscorrelative；andtheoneimpressionintothat，whichresemblesandcorrespondstoit:Withhowmuchgreaterfacilitymustthistransitionbemade，wherethesemovementsmutuallyassisteachother，andthemindreceivesadoubleimpulsefromtherelationsbothofitsimpressionsandideas？
Thatwemaycomprehendthisthebetter，wemustsuppose，thatnaturehasgiventotheorgansofthehumanmind，acertaindispositionfittedtoproduceapeculiarimpressionoremotion，whichwecallpride:Tothisemotionshehasassign’dacertainidea，viz，thatofself，whichitneverfailstoproduce。Thiscontrivanceofnatureiseasilyconceiv’d。Wehavemanyinstancesofsuchasituationofaffairs。Thenervesofthenoseandpalatearesodispos’d，asincertaincircumstancestoconveysuchpeculiarsensationstothemind:Thesensationsoflustandhungeralwaysproduceinustheideaofthosepeculiarobjects，whicharesuitabletoeachappetite。Thesetwocircumstancesareunitedinpride。Theorgansaresodispos’dastoproducethepassion；andthepassion，afteritsproduction，naturallyproducesacertainidea。Allthisneedsnoproof。`Tisevidentwenevershou’dbepossestofthatpassion，weretherenotadispositionofmindproperforit；and`tisasevident，thatthepassionalwaysturnsourviewtoourselves，andmakesusthinkofourownqualitiesandcircumstances。
Thisbeingfullycomprehended，itmaynowbeask’d，Whethernatureproducesthepassionimmediately，ofherself；orwhethershemustbeassistedbytheco-operationofothercauses？For`tisobservable，thatinthisparticularherconductisdifferentinthedifferentpassionsandsensations。Thepalatemustbeexcitedbyanexternalobject，inordertoproduceanyrelish:Buthungerarisesinternally，withouttheconcurrenceofanyexternalobject。Buthoweverthecasemaystandwithotherpassionsandimpressions，`tiscertain，thatpriderequirestheassistanceofsomeforeignobject，andthattheorgans，whichproduceit，exertnotthemselvesliketheheartandarteries，byanoriginalinternalmovement。Forfirst，dailyexperienceconvincesus，thatpriderequirescertaincausestoexciteit，andlanguisheswhenunsupportedbysomeexcellencyinthecharacter，inbodilyaccomplishments，incloaths，equipageorfortune。Secondly，`tisevidentpridewou’dbeperpetual，ifitaroseimmediatelyfromnature；sincetheobjectisalwaysthesame，andthereisnodispositionofbodypeculiartopride，asthereistothirstandhunger。Thirdly，Humilityisintheverysamesituationwithpride；andtherefore，eithermust，uponthissupposition，beperpetuallikewise，ormustdestroythecontrarypassionfrom，theveryfirstmoment；sothatnoneofthemcou’devermakeitsappearance。Uponthewhole，wemayrestsatisfy’dwiththeforegoingconclusion，thatpridemusthaveacause，aswellasanobject，andthattheonehasnoinfluencewithouttheother。
Thedifficulty，then，isonlytodiscoverthiscause，andfindwhatitisthatgivesthefirstmotiontopride，andsetsthoseorgansinaction，whicharenaturallyfittedtoproducethatemotion。Uponmyconsultingexperience，inordertoresolvethisdifficulty，Iimmediatelyfindahundreddifferentcauses，thatproducepride；anduponexaminingthesecauses，Isuppose，whatatfirstIperceivetobeprobable，thatallofthemconcurintwocircumstances；whichare，thatofthemselvestheyproduceanimpression，ally’dtothepassion，andareplac’donasubject，ally’dtotheobjectofthepassion。WhenIconsiderafterthisthenatureofrelation，anditseffectsbothonthepassionsandideas，Icannolongerdoubt，uponthesesuppositions，that`tistheveryprinciple，whichgivesrisetopride，andbestowsmotiononthoseorgans，whichbeingnaturallydispos’dtoproducethataffection，requireonlyafirstimpulseorbeginningtotheiraction。Anything，thatgivesapleasantsensation，andisrelatedtoself，excitesthepassionofpride，whichisalsoagreeable，andhasselfforitsobject。
WhatIhavesaidofprideisequallytrueofhumility。Thesensationofhumilityisuneasy，asthatofprideisagreeable；forwhichreasontheseparatesensation，arisingfromthecauses，mustberevers’d，whiletherelationtoselfcontinuesthesame。Tho’prideandhumilityaredirectlycontraryintheireffects，andintheirsensations，theyhavenotwithstandingthesameobject；sothat`tisrequisiteonlytochangetherelationofimpressions，withoutmakinganychangeuponthatofideas。Accordinglywefind，thatabeautifulhouse，belongingtoourselves，producespride；andthatthesamehouse，stillbelongingtoourselves，produceshumility，whenbyanyaccidentitsbeautyischang’dintodeformity，andtherebythesensationofpleasure，whichcorrespondedtopride，istransform’dintopain，whichisrelatedtohumility。Thedoublerelationbetweentheideasandimpressionssubsistsinbothcases，andproducesaneasytransitionfromtheoneemotiontotheother。
Inaword，naturehasbestow’dakindofattractiononcertainimpressionsandideas，bywhichoneofthem，uponitsappearance，naturallyintroducesitscorrelative。Ifthesetwoattractionsorassociationsofimpressionsandideasconcuronthesameobject，theymutuallyassisteachother，andthetransitionoftheaffectionsandoftheimaginationismadewiththegreatesteaseandfacility。Whenanideaproducesanimpression，relatedtoanimpression，whichisconnectedwithanidea，relatedtothefirstidea，thesetwoimpressionsmustbeinamannerinseparable，norwilltheoneinanycasebeunattendedwiththeother。`Tisafterthismanner，thattheparticularcausesofprideandhumilityaredetermin’d。Thequality，whichoperatesonthepassion，producesseparatelyanimpressionresemblingit；thesubject，towhichthequalityadheres，isrelatedtoself，theobjectofthepassion:Nowonderthewholecause，consistingofaqualityandofasubject，doessounavoidablygiverisetothepasson。
Toillustratethishypothesis。wemaycompareittothat，bywhichIhavealreadyexplain’dthebeliefattendingthejudgments，whichweformfromcausation。Ihaveobserv’d，thatinalljudgmentsofthiskind，thereisalwaysapresentimpression。andarelatedidea；andthatthepresentimpressiongivesavivacitytothefancy，andtherelationconveysthisvivacity，byaneasytransition，totherelatedidea。Withoutthepresentimpression，theattentionisnotfix’d，northespiritsexcited。Withouttherelation，thisattentionrestsonitsfirstobject，andhasnofartherconsequence。Thereisevidentlyagreatanalogybetwixtthathypothesis。andourpresentoneofanimpressionandidea，thattransfusethemselvesintoanotherimpressionandideabymeansoftheirdoublerelation:Whichanalogymustbeallow’dtobenodespicableproofofbothhypotheses。