Thecommongroundofallthesevariouslinesofinvestigationsofpathologist，anatomist，physiologist，physicist，andpsychologistis，clearly，thecentralnervoussystem——thespinalcordandthebrain。Theimportanceofthesestructuresasthefociofnervousandmentalactivitieshasbeenrecognizedmoreandmorewitheachnewaccretionofknowledge，andtheeffortstofathomthesecretsoftheirintimatestructurehasbeenunceasing。Fortheearlierstudents，onlythecrudemethodsofgrossdissectionsandmicroscopicalinspectionwereavailable。Thesecouldrevealsomething，butofcoursetheinnersecretswereforthekeenerinsightofthemicroscopistalone。Andevenforhimthetaskofinvestigationwasfarfromfacile，forthecentralnervoustissuesarethemostdelicateandfragile，andonmanyaccountsthemostdifficultofmanipulationofanyinthebody。
Specialmethods，therefore，wereneededforthisessay，andbrainhistologyhasprogressedbyfitfulimpulses，eachforwardjetmarkingtheintroductionofsomeingeniousimprovementofmechanicaltechnique，whichplacedanewweaponinthehandsoftheinvestigators。
Theverybeginningwasmadein1824byRolando，whofirstthoughtofcuttingchemicallyhardenedpiecesofbraintissuesintothinsectionsformicroscopicalexamination——thebasalstructureuponwhichalmostallthelateradvanceshavebeenconducted。Mullerpresentlydiscoveredthatbichromateofpotassiuminsolutionmakesthebestoffluidsforthepreliminarypreservationandhardeningofthetissues。Stilling，in1842，perfectedthemethodbyintroducingthecustomofcuttingaseriesofconsecutivesectionsofthesametissue，inordertotracenervetractsandestablishspacialrelations。Thenfromtimetotimemechanicalingenuityaddedfreshdetailsofimprovement。Itwasfoundthatpiecesofhardenedtissueofextremedelicacycanbemadebettersubjecttomanipulationbybeingimpregnatedwithcollodionorcelloidineandembeddedinparaffine。Latterlyithasbecomeusualtocutsectionsalsofromfreshtissues，unchangedbychemicals，byfreezingthemsuddenlywithvaporizedetheror，better，carbonicacid。Bythesemethods，andwiththeaidofperfectedmicrotomes，theworkerofrecentperiodsavailshimselfofsectionsofbraintissuesofatenuousnesswhichtheearlyinvestigatorscouldnotapproach。
Butmoreimportanteventhanthecuttingofthinsectionsistheprocessofmakingthedifferentpartsofthesectionvisible，onetissuedifferentiatedfromanother。Thethinsection，astheearlyworkersexaminedit，waspracticallycolorless，andeventhecrudestdetailsofitsstructureweremadeoutwithextremedifficulty。Remakdid，indeed，managetodiscoverthatthebraintissueiscellular，asearlyas1833，andEhrenberginthesameyearsawthatitisalsofibrillar，butbeyondthisnogreatadvancewasmadeuntil1858，whenasuddenimpulsewasreceivedfromanewprocessintroducedbyGerlach。Theprocessitselfwasmostsimple，consistingessentiallyofnothingmorethanthetreatmentofamicroscopicalsectionwithasolutionofcarmine。
Buttheresultwaswonderful，forwhensuchasectionwasplacedunderthelensitnolongerappearedhomogeneous。Sprinkledthroughitssubstancewereseenirregularbodiesthathadtakenonabeautifulcolor，whilethematrixinwhichtheywereembeddedremainedunstained。Inaword，thecentralnervecellhadsprungsuddenlyintoclearview。
Amostinterestingbodyitproved，thisnervecell，organglioncell，asitcametobecalled。Itwasseentobeexceedinglyminuteinsize，requiringhighpowersofthemicroscopetomakeitvisible。Itexistsinalmostinfinitenumbers，not，however，scatteredatrandomthroughthebrainandspinalcord。Onthecontrary，itisconfinedtothoseportionsofthecentralnervousmasseswhichtothenakedeyeappeargrayincolor，beingaltogetherwantinginthewhitesubstancewhichmakesupthechiefmassofthebrain。Eveninthegraymatter，thoughsometimesthicklydistributed，theganglioncellsareneverinactualcontactonewithanother；theyalwayslieembeddedinintercellulartissues，whichcametobeknown，followingVirchow，astheneuroglia。
Eachganglioncellwasseentobeirregularincontour，andtohavejuttingoutfromittwosetsofminutefibres，onesetrelativelyshort，indefinitelynumerous，andbranchingineverydirection；theothersetlimitedinnumber，sometimesevensingle，andstartingoutdirectlyfromthecellasifbentonalongerjourney。Thenumerousfilamentscametobeknownasprotoplasmicprocesses；theotherfibrewasnamed，afteritsdiscoverer，theaxiscylinderofDeiters。Itwasanaturalinference，thoughnotclearlydemonstrableinthesections，thatthesefilamentousprocessesaretheconnectinglinksbetweenthedifferentnervecellsandalsothechannelsofcommunicationbetweennervecellsandtheperipheryofthebody。Thewhitesubstanceofbrainandcord，apparently，ismadeupofsuchconnectingfibres，thusbringingthedifferentganglioncellseverywhereintocommunicationonewithanother。
Intheattempttotracetheconnectingnervetractsthroughthiswhitesubstancebyeithermacroscopicalormicroscopicalmethods，mostimportantaidisgivenbyamethodoriginatedbyWallerin1852。Earlierthanthat，in1839，Nassehaddiscoveredthataseverednervecorddegeneratesinitsperipheralportions。Wallerdiscoveredthateverynervefibre，sensoryormotor，hasanervecelltoorfromwhichitleads，whichdominatesitsnutrition，sothatitcanonlyretainitsvitalitywhileitsconnectionwiththatcellisintact。Suchcellshenamedtrophiccentres。
Certaincellsoftheanteriorpartofthespinalcord，forexample，arethetrophiccentresofthespinalmotornerves。
Othertrophiccentres，governingnervetractsinthespinalcorditself，areinthevariousregionsofthebrain。ItoccurredtoWallerthatbydestroyingsuchcentres，orbyseveringtheconnectionatvariousregionsbetweenanervoustractanditstrophiccentre，sharplydefinedtractscouldbemadetodegenerate，andtheirlocationcouldsubsequentlybeaccuratelydefined，asthedegeneratedtissuestakeonachangedaspect，bothtomacroscopicalandmicroscopicalobservation。Recognitionofthisprinciplethusgavetheexperimenteranewweaponofgreatefficiencyintracingnervousconnections。Moreover，thesameprinciplehaswideapplicationincaseofthehumansubjectindisease，suchasthelesionofnervetractsorthedestructionofcentresbylocalizedtumors，byembolisms，orbytraumatisms。
Allthesevariousmethodsofanatomicalexaminationcombinetomaketheconclusionalmostunavoidablethatthecentralganglioncellsaretheveritable\"centres\"ofnervousactivitytowhichsomanyotherlinesofresearchhavepointed。Theconclusionwasstrengthenedbyexperimentsofthestudentsofmotorlocalization，whichshowedthattheveritablecentresoftheirdiscoverylie，demonstrably，inthegraycortexofthebrain，notinthewhitematter。Butthefullproofcamefrompathology。Atthehandsofamultitudeofobserversitwasshownthatincertainwell-knowndiseasesofthespinalcord，withresultingparalysis，itistheganglioncellsthemselvesthatarefoundtobedestroyed。Similarly，inthecaseofsufferersfromchronicinsanities，withmarkeddementia，theganglioncellsofthecortexofthebrainarefoundtohaveundergonedegeneration。Thebrainsofpareticsinparticularshowsuchdegeneration，instrikingcorrespondencewiththeirmentaldecadence。Thepositionoftheganglioncellastheultimatecentreofnervousactivitieswasthusplacedbeyonddispute。
Meantime，generalacceptancebeinggiventhehistologicalschemeofGerlach，accordingtowhichthemassofthewhitesubstanceofthebrainisamesh-workofintercellularfibrils，aproximalideaseemedattainableofthewayinwhichtheganglionicactivitiesarecorrelated，and，throughassociation，builtup，sotospeak，intothehighermentalprocesses。Suchaconceptionaccordedbeautifullywiththeideasoftheassociationists，whohadnowbecomedominantinpsychology。Butonestandingpuzzleattendedthisotherwisesatisfactorycorrelationofanatomicalobservationsandpsychicanalyses。Itwasthis:Since，accordingtothehistologist，theintercellularfibres，alongwhichimpulsesareconveyed，connecteachbraincell，directlyorindirectly，witheveryotherbraincellinanendlessmesh-work，howisitpossiblethatvarioussetsofcellsmayattimesbeshutofffromoneanother？Suchisolationmusttakeplace，forallnormalideationdependsforitsintegrityquiteasmuchupontheshutting-outofthegreatmassofassociationsasupontheinclusionofcertainotherassociations。Forexample，astudentinsolvingamathematicalproblemmustforthemomentbecomequiteoblivioustothespecialassociationsthathavetodowithgeography，naturalhistory，andthelike。Butdoeshistologygiveanyclewtothewayinwhichsuchisolationmaybeeffected？
Attemptsweremadetofindananswerthroughconsiderationoftheverypeculiarcharacteroftheblood-supplyinthebrain。Here，asnowhereelse，theterminaltwigsofthearteriesarearrangedinclosedsystems，notanastomosingfreelywithneighboringsystems。Clearly，then，arestrictedareaofthebrainmay，throughthecontrollinginfluenceofthevasomotornerves，beflushedwitharterialbloodwhileneighboringpartsremainrelativelyanaemic。Andsincevitalactivitiesunquestionablydependinpartuponthesupplyofarterialblood，thispeculiararrangementofthevascularmechanismmayveryproperlybesupposedtoaidinthelocalizedactivitiesofthecentralnervousganglia。Butthisexplanationleftmuchtobedesired——inparticularwhenitisrecalledthatallhigherintellectionmustinallprobabilityinvolvemultitudesofwidelyscatteredcentres。
Nobetterexplanationwasforthcoming，however，untiltheyear1889，whenofasuddenthemysterywasclearedawaybyafreshdiscovery。NotlongbeforethistheItalianhistologistDr。
CamilleGolgihaddiscoveredamethodofimpregnatinghardenedbraintissueswithasolutionofnitrateofsilver，withtheresultofstainingthenervecellsandtheirprocessesalmostinfinitelybetterthanwaspossiblebythemethodsofGerlach，orbyanyofthemultiformmethodsthatotherworkershadintroduced。Nowforthefirsttimeitbecamepossibletotracethecellularprolongationsdefinitelytotheirtermini，forthefinerfibrilshadnotbeenrenderedvisiblebyanypreviousmethodoftreatment。Golgihimselfprovedthatthesetoffibrilsknownasprotoplasmicprolongationsterminatebyfreeextremities，andhavenodirectconnectionwithanycellsavetheonefromwhichtheyspring。Heshowedalsothattheaxiscylindersgiveoffmultitudesoflateralbranchesnothithertosuspected。Butherehepaused，missingtherealimportofthediscoveryofwhichhewashardonthetrack。ItremainedfortheSpanishhistologistDr。S。RamonyCajaltofollowuptheinvestigationbymeansofanimprovedapplicationofGolgi’smethodofstaining，andtodemonstratethattheaxiscylinders，togetherwithalltheircollateralbranches，thoughsometimesextendingtoagreatdistance，yetfinallyterminate，liketheothercellprolongations，inarborescentfibrilshavingfreeextremities。Inaword，itwasshownthateachcentralnervecell，withitsfibrillaroffshoots，isanisolatedentity。
Insteadofbeinginphysicalconnectionwithamultitudeofothernervecells，ithasnodirectphysicalconnectionwithanyothernervecellwhatever。
WhenDr。Cajalannouncedhisdiscovery，in1889，hisrevolutionaryclaimsnotunnaturallyamazedthemassofhistologists。Thereweresomefewofthem，however，whowerenotquiteunpreparedfortherevelation；inparticularHis，whohadhalfsuspectedtheindependenceofthecells，becausetheyseemedtodevelopfromdissociatedcentres；andForel，whobasedasimilarsuspiciononthefactthathehadneverbeenableactuallytotraceafibrefromonecelltoanother。TheseobserversthencamereadilytorepeatCajal’sexperiments。SoalsodidtheveteranhistologistKolliker，andsoonafterwardsalltheleaderseverywhere。TheresultwasapracticallyunanimousconfirmationoftheSpanishhistologist’sclaims，andwithinafewmonthsafterhisannouncementstheoldtheoryofunionofnervecellsintoanendlessmesh-workwascompletelydiscarded，andthetheoryofisolatednerveelements——thetheoryofneurons，asitcametobecalled——wasfullyestablishedinitsplace。
Astohowtheseisolatednervecellsfunctionate，Dr。Cajalgavetheclewfromtheveryfirst，andhisexplanationhasmetwithuniversalapproval。
Inthemodifiedview，thenervecellretainsitsoldpositionasthestorehouseofnervousenergy。Eachofthefilamentsjuttingoutfromthecellisheld，asbefore，tobeindeedatransmitterofimpulses，butatransmitterthatoperatesintermittently，likeatelephonewirethatisnotalways\"connected，\"and，likethatwire，thenervefibriloperatesbycontactandnotbycontinuity。
Underproperstimulationtheendsofthefibrilsreachout，comeincontactwithotherendfibrilsofothercells，andconducttheirdestinedimpulse。Againtheyretract，andcommunicationceasesforthetimebetweenthoseparticularcells。Meantime，byadifferentarrangementofthevariousconductors，differentsetsofcellsareplacedincommunication，differentassociationsofnervousimpulsesinduced，differenttrainsofthoughtengendered。
Eachfibrilwhenretractedbecomesanon-conductor，butwhenextendedandincontactwithanotherfibril，orwiththebodyofanothercell，itconductsitsmessageasreadilyasacontinuousfilamentcoulddo——preciselyasinthecaseofanelectricwire。
Thisconception，foundedonamosttangibleanatomicalbasis，enablesustoanswerthequestionastohowideasareisolated，andalso，asDr。Cajalpointsout，throwsnewlightonmanyothermentalprocesses。Onecanimagine，forexample，bykeepinginmindtheflexiblenerveprolongations，hownewtrainsofthoughtmaybeengenderedthroughnovelassociationsofcells；howfacilityofthoughtorofactionincertaindirectionsisacquiredthroughthehabitualmakingofcertainnerve-cellconnections；howcertainbitsofknowledgemayescapeourmemoryandrefusetobefoundforatimebecauseofatemporaryincapacityofthenervecellstomaketheproperconnections，andsoonindefinitely。
Ifonelikenseachnervecelltoacentraltelephoneoffice，eachofitsfilamentousprolongationstoatelephonewire，onecanimagineastrikinganalogybetweenthemodusoperandiofnervousprocessesandofthetelephonesystem。Theutilityofnewconnectionsatthecentraloffice，theuselessnessofthemechanismwhentheconnectionscannotbemade，the\"wiresinuse\"
thatretardyourmessage，perhapseventhecrossingofwires，bringingyouajangleofsoundsfardifferentfromwhatyoudesire——alltheseandamultiplicityofotherthingsthatwillsuggestthemselvestoeveryuserofthetelephonemaybeimaginedasbeingalmostludicrouslyparalleledintheoperationsofthenervousmechanism。Andthatparallel，startlingasitmayseem，isnotamerefutileimagining。Itissustainedandrenderedplausiblebyasoundsubstratumofknowledgeoftheanatomicalconditionsunderwhichthecentralnervousmechanismexists，andindefaultofwhich，aspathologydemonstrateswithnolesscertitude，itsfunctioningsarefutiletoproducethenormalmanifestationsofhigherintellection。
X。THENEWSCIENCEOFORIENTALARCHAEOLOGY
HOWTHE\"RIDDLEOFTHESPHINX\"WASREAD
ConspicuouslyplacedinthegreathallofEgyptianantiquitiesintheBritishMuseumisawonderfulpieceofsculptureknownastheRosettaStone。Idoubtifanyotherpieceintheentireexhibitattractssomuchattentionfromthecasualvisitorasthisslabofblackbasaltonitstelescope-likepedestal。Thehallitself，despiteitsprofusionofstrangelysculpturedtreasures，isnevercrowded，butbeforethisstoneyoumayalmostalwaysfindsomeonestanding，gazingwithmoreorlessofdiscernmentatthestrangecharactersthataregravenneatlyacrossitsupturned，glass-protectedface。Aglanceatthisgravensurfacesufficestoshowthatthreesetsofinscriptionsarerecordedthere。Theupperone，occupyingaboutone-fourthofthesurface，isapicturedscroll，madeupofchainsofthosestrangeoutlinesofserpents，hawks，lions，andsoon，whicharerecognized，evenbytheleastinitiated，ashieroglyphics。Themiddleinscription，madeupoflines，angles，andhalf-pictures，onemightsurmisetobeasortofabbreviatedorshort-handhieroglyphic。ThethirdorlowerinscriptionisGreek——obviouslyathingofwords。Ifthescreedsabovebealsomadeofwords，onlytheelecthaveanywayofprovingthefact。
Fortunately，however，eventheleastscholarlyobserverisleftinnodoubtastotherealimportofthethinghesees，foranobligingEnglishlabeltellsusthatthesethreeinscriptionsarerenderingsofthesamemessage，andthatthismessageisa\"decreeofthepriestsofMemphisconferringdivinehonorsonPtolemyV。Epiphenes，KingofEgypt，B。C。195。\"Thelabelgoesontostatethattheupperinscriptionofwhich，unfortunately，onlypartofthelastdozenlinesorsoremains，theslabbeingbrokenisin\"theEgyptianlanguage，inhieroglyphics，orwritingofthepriests\"；thesecondinscription\"inthesamelanguageisinDemotic，orthewritingofthepeople\"；andthethird\"theGreeklanguageandcharacter。\"FollowingthisisabriefbiographyoftheRosettaStoneitself，asfollows:\"ThestonewasfoundbytheFrenchin1798amongtheruinsofFortSaintJulien，neartheRosettamouthoftheNile。ItpassedintothehandsoftheBritishbythetreatyofAlexandria，andwasdepositedintheBritishMuseumintheyear1801。\"Thereisawholevolumeofhistoryinthatbriefinscription——andabitterstingthrownin，ifthereaderchancetobeaFrenchman。Yetthefactsinvolvedcouldscarcelybesuggestedmoremodestly。Theyarerecordedmuchmorebluntlyinagraveninscriptiononthesideofthestone，whichreads:\"CapturedinEgyptbytheBritishArmy，1801。\"NoFrenchmancouldreadthosewordswithoutaveritablesinkingoftheheart。
ThevalueoftheRosettaStonedependedonthefactthatitgavepromise，evenwhencasuallyinspected，offurnishingakeytothecenturies-oldmysteryofthehieroglyphics。Fortwothousandyearsthesecretofthesestrangemarkingshadbeenforgotten。
Nowhereintheworld——quiteaslittleinEgyptaselsewhere——hadanymantheslightestclewtotheirmeaning；therewerethosewhoevendoubtedwhetherthesedrollpicturingsreallyhadanyspecificmeaning，questioningwhethertheywerenotrathervaguesymbolsofesotericreligiousimportandnothingmore。AnditwastheRosettaStonethatgavetheanswertothesedoubtersandrestoredtotheworldalostlanguageandaforgottenliterature。
ThetrusteesofthemuseumrecognizedatoncethattheproblemoftheRosettaStonewasoneonwhichthescientistsoftheworldmightwellexhausttheiringenuity，andpromptlypublishedtotheworldacarefullylithographedcopyoftheentireinscription，sothatforeignscholarshiphadequalopportunitywiththeBritishtotryattheriddle。ItwasanEnglishman，however，whofirstgainedaclewtothesolution。ThiswasnoneotherthantheextraordinaryDr。ThomasYoung，thedemonstratorofthevibratorynatureoflight。
Young’sspecificdiscoverieswerethese:1Thatmanyofthepicturesofthehieroglyphicsstandforthenamesoftheobjectsactuallydelineated；2thatotherpicturesaresometimesonlysymbolic；3thatpluralnumbersarerepresentedbyrepetition；
4thatnumeralsarerepresentedbydashes；5thathieroglyphicsmayreadeitherfromtherightorfromtheleft，butalwaysfromthedirectioninwhichtheanimalandhumanfiguresface；6thatpropernamesaresurroundedbyagravenovalring，makingwhathecalledacartouche；7thatthecartouchesofthepreservedportionoftheRosettaStonestandforthenameofPtolemyalone；8thatthepresenceofafemalefigureaftersuchcartouchesinotherinscriptionsalwaysdenotesthefemalesex；9thatwithinthecartouchesthehieroglyphicsymbolshaveapositivelyphoneticvalue，eitheralphabeticorsyllabic；and10thatseveraldifferentcharactersmayhavethesamephoneticvalue。
JustwhatthesephoneticvaluesareYoungpointedoutinthecaseoffourteencharactersrepresentingninesounds，sixofwhichareacceptedto-dayascorrectlyrepresentingtheletterstowhichheascribedthem，andthethreeothersasbeingcorrectregardingtheiressentialorconsonantelement。Itisclear，therefore，thathewasontherighttrackthusfar，andontheveryvergeofcompletediscovery。But，unfortunately，hefailedtotakethenextstep，whichwouldhavebeentorealizethatthesamephoneticvalueswhichweregiventothealphabeticcharacterswithinthecartoucheswereoftenascribedtothemalsowhenusedinthegeneraltextofaninscription；inotherwords，thattheuseofanalphabetwasnotconfinedtopropernames。ThiswasthegreatsecretwhichYoungmissedandwhichhisFrenchsuccessor，JeanFrancoisChampollion，workingonthefoundationthatYounghadlaid，wasenabledtoferretout。
Young’sinitialstudiesoftheRosettaStoneweremadein1814；
hislaterpublicationboredateof1819。Champollion’sfirstannouncementofresultscamein1822；hissecondandmoreimportantonein1824。Bythistime，throughstudyofthecartouchesofotherinscriptions，Champollionhadmadeoutalmostthecompletealphabet，andthe\"riddleoftheSphinx\"waspracticallysolved。HeprovedthattheEgyptianshaddevelopedarelativelycompletealphabetmostlyneglectingthevowels，asearlySemiticalphabetsdidalsocenturiesbeforethePhoenicianswereheardofinhistory。WhatrelationthisalphabetboretothePhoenicianweshallhaveoccasiontoaskinanotherconnection；forthemomentitsufficestoknowthatthosestrangepicturesoftheEgyptianscrollarereallyletters。
Eventhisstatement，however，mustbeinameasuremodified。
Thesepicturesarelettersandsomethingmore。Someofthemarepurelyalphabeticalincharacterandsomearesymbolicinanotherway。Somecharactersrepresentsyllables。Othersstandsometimesasmererepresentativesofsounds，andagain，inamoreextendedsense，asrepresentationsofthings，suchasallhieroglyphicsdoubtlesswereinthebeginning。Inaword，thisisanalphabet，butnotaperfectedalphabet，suchasmodernnationsareaccustomedto；hencetheenormouscomplicationsanddifficultiesitpresentedtotheearlyinvestigators。
Champolliondidnotlivetoclearupallthesemysteries。HisworkwastakenupandextendedbyhispupilRossellini，andinparticularbyDr。RichardLepsiusinGermany，followedbyM。
Bernouf，andbySamuelBirchoftheBritishMuseum，andmorerecentlybysuchwell-knownEgyptologistsasMM。MasperoandMarietteandChabas，inFrance，Dr。Brugsch，inGermany，andDr。
E。WallisBudge，thepresentheadoftheDepartmentofOrientalAntiquitiesattheBritishMuseum。Butthetaskoflaterinvestigatorshasbeenlargelyoneofexhumationandtranslationofrecordsratherthanoffindingmethods。
TREASURESFROMNINEVEH
ThemostcasualwandererintheBritishMuseumcanhardlyfailtonoticetwopairsofmassivesculptures，intheonecasewingedbulls，intheotherwingedlions，bothhuman-headed，whichguardtheentrancetotheEgyptianhall，closetotheRosettaStone。
EachpairoftheseweirdcreaturesonceguardedanentrancetothepalaceofakinginthefamouscityofNineveh。Asonestandsbeforethemhismindiscarriedbackoversometwenty-seveninterveningcenturies，tothedayswhenthe\"CedarofLebanon\"was\"fairinhisgreatness\"andthescourgeofIsrael。
TheverySculpturesbeforeus，forexample，wereperhapsseenbyJonahwhenhemadethatfamousvoyagetoNinevehsomesevenoreighthundredyearsB。C。AlittlelatertheBabylonianandtheMederevoltedagainstAssyriantyrannyanddescendeduponthefaircityofNineveh，andalmostliterallylevelledittotheground。Butthesegreatsculptures，amongotherthings，escapeddestruction，andatoncehiddenandpreservedbytheaccumulatingdebrisofthecenturies，theystoodthereageafterage，theirveryexistencequiteforgotten。WhenXenophonmarchedpasttheirsitewiththeill-starredexpeditionofthetenthousand，intheyear400B。C。，hesawonlyamoundwhichseemedtomarkthesiteofsomeancientruin；buttheGreekdidnotsuspectthathelookeduponthesiteofthatcitywhichonlytwocenturiesbeforehadbeenthemistressoftheworld。
Soephemeralisfame！Andyetthemoralscarcelyholdsinthesequel；forweofto-day，inthisnew，undreamed-ofWesternworld，beholdthesemementosofAssyriangreatnessfreshfromtheirtwenty-fivehundredyearsofentombment，andwiththemrecordswhichrestoretousthehistoryofthatlong-forgottenpeopleinsuchdetailasitwasnotknowntoanypreviousgenerationsincethefallofNineveh。Fortwothousandfivehundredyearsnoonesawthesetreasuresorknewthattheyexisted。OnehundredgenerationsofmencameandwentwithoutoncepronouncingthenameofkingsShalmaneserorAsumazirpalorAsurbanipal。Andto-day，afterthesecenturiesofoblivion，thesenamesarerestoredtohistory，and，thankstothecharacteroftheirmonuments，areassuredapermanencyoffamethatcanalmostdefytimeitself。Itwouldbenothingstrange，butratherinkeepingwiththeirpreviousmutationsoffortune，ifthenamesofAsurnazirpalandAsurbanipalshouldbefamiliarashouseholdwordstofuturegenerationsthathaveforgottentheexistenceofanAlexander，aCaesar，andaNapoleon。ForwhenMacaulay’sprospectiveNewZealanderexplorestheruinsoftheBritishMuseumtherecordsoftheancientAssyrianswillpresumablystillbethereunscathed，totelltheirstoryastheyhavetoldittoourgeneration，thougheverymanuscriptandprintedbookmayhavegonethewayoffragiletextures。
ButthepastoftheAssyriansculpturesisquitenecromanticenoughwithoutconjuringforthemanecromanticfuture。Thestoryoftheirrestorationislikeabrilliantromanceofhistory。
PriortothemiddleofthiscenturytheinquiringstudentcouldlearninanhourorsoallthatwasknowninfactandinfableoftherenownedcityofNineveh。HehadbuttoreadafewchaptersoftheBibleandafewpagesofDiodorustoexhausttheimportantliteratureonthesubject。IfheturnedalsotothepagesofHerodotusandXenophon，ofJustinandAelian，theseservedchieflytoconfirmthesuspicionthattheGreeksthemselvesknewalmostnothingmoreofthehistoryoftheirfamedOrientalforerunners。ThecurrentfablestoldofafirstKingNinusandhiswonderfulqueenSemiramis；ofSennacheribtheconqueror；oftheeffeminateSardanapalus，whoneglectedthewarlikewaysofhisancestorsbutperishedgloriouslyatthelast，withNinevehitself，inaself-imposedholocaust。Andthatwasall。Howmuchofthiswashistory，howmuchmyth，nomancouldsay；andforallanyonesuspectedtothecontrary，nomancouldeverknow。Andto-daythecontemporaryrecordsofthecityarebeforeusinsuchprofusionasnoothernationofantiquity，saveEgyptalone，canatallrival。WholelibrariesofAssyrianbooksareathandthatwerewrittenintheseventhcenturybeforeourera。These，beitunderstood，aretheoriginalbooksthemselves，notcopies。Theauthorofthatremotetimeappealstousdirectly，handtoeye，withoutintermediarytranscriber。AndthereisnotalineofanyHebreworGreekmanuscriptofalikeagethathasbeenpreservedtous；thereislittleenoughthatcanmatchtheseancientbooksbyathousandyears。WhenonereadsMosesorIsaiah，Homer，Hesiod，orHerodotus，heisbutfollowingthetranscription——oftenunquestionablyfaultyandprobablyneverinallpartsperfect——ofsuccessivecopyistsoflatergenerations。
TheoldestknowncopyoftheBible，forexample，datesprobablyfromthefourthcenturyA。D。，athousandyearsormoreafterthelastAssyrianrecordsweremadeandreadandburiedandforgotten。
TherewasatleastonekingofAssyria——namely，Asurbanipal，whosepalaceboastedalibraryofsometenthousandvolumes——alibrary，ifyouplease，inwhichthebookswerenumberedandshelvedsystematically，andclassifiedandcaredforbyanofficiallibrarian。IfyouwouldseesomeofthedocumentsofthismarvellouslibraryyouhavebuttosteppastthewingedlionsofAsurnazirpalandentertheAssyrianhalljustaroundthecornerfromtheRosettaStone。Indeed，thegreatslabsofstonefromwhichthelionsthemselvesarecarvedareinasensebooks，inasmuchastherearewrittenrecordsinscribedontheirsurface。
Aglancerevealsthestrangecharactersinwhichtheserecordsarewritten，gravenneatlyinstraightlinesacrossthestone，andlookingtocasualinspectionlikenothingsomuchasrandomflightsofarrow-heads。Theresemblanceissostrikingthatthisissometimescalledthearrow-headcharacter，thoughitismoregenerallyknownasthewedgeorcuneiformcharacter。Theinscriptionsontheflanksofthelionsare，however，onlymakeshiftbooks。ButtheveritablebooksarenofartherawaythanthenextroombeyondthehallofAsurnazirpal。Theyoccupypartofaseriesofcasesplaceddownthecentreofthisroom。
PerhapsitisnottoomuchtospeakofthiscollectionasthemostextraordinarysetofdocumentsofalltheraretreasuresoftheBritishMuseum，foritincludesnotbooksalone，butpublicandprivateletters，businessannouncements，marriagecontracts——inaword，allthespeciesofwrittenrecordsthatenterintotheevery-daylifeofanintelligentandculturedcommunity。
Butbywhatmiraclehavesuchdocumentsbeenpreservedthroughallthesecenturies？Aglancemakesthesecretevident。Itissimplyacaseoftime-defyingmaterials。EachoneoftheseAssyriandocumentsappearstobe，andinrealityis，nothingmoreorlessthananinscribedfragmentofbrick，havingmuchthecolorandtextureofaweatheredterra-cottatileofmodernmanufacture。Theseslabsareusuallyovaloroblonginshape，andfromtwoorthreetosixoreightinchesinlengthandaninchorsointhickness。Eachofthemwasoriginallyaportionofbrick-clay，onwhichthescribeindentedtheflightsofarrowheadswithsomesharp-corneredinstrument，afterwhichthedocumentwasmadepermanentbybaking。Theyaresomewhatfragile，ofcourse，asallbricksare，andmanyofthemhavebeenmoreorlesscrumbledinthedestructionofthepalaceatNineveh；buttotheravagesofmeretimetheyareasnearlyinvulnerableasalmostanythinginnature。Henceitisthattheserecordsofaremotecivilizationhavebeenpreservedtous，whilethesimilarrecordsofsuchlatercivilizationsastheGrecianhaveutterlyperished，muchastheflintimplementsofthecave-dwellercometousunchanged，whiletheironimplementsofafarmorerecentagehavecrumbledaway。
HOWTHERECORDSWEREREAD
Afterall，then，grantedthechoiceofmaterials，thereisnothingsoveryextraordinaryinthemerefactofpreservationoftheseancientrecords。Tobesure，itisvastlytothecreditofnineteenth-centuryenterprisetohavesearchedthemoutandbroughtthembacktolight。Buttherealmarvelinconnectionwiththemisthefactthatnineteenth-centuryscholarshipshouldhavegivenus，notthematerialdocumentsthemselves，butaknowledgeoftheiractualcontents。Theflightofarrow-headsonwallorslabortinybrickhavesurelyameaning；buthowshallweguessthatmeaning？Thesemustbewords；butwhatwords？ThehieroglyphicsoftheEgyptiansweremysteriousenoughinallconscience；yet，afterall，theirsymbolshaveacertainsuggestiveness，whereasthereisnothingthatseemstopromiseamentalleverageintheunbrokensuccessionofthesecuneiformdashes。YettheAssyrianscholarofto-daycaninterpretthesestrangerecordsalmostasreadilyandassurelyastheclassicalscholarinterpretsaGreekmanuscript。Andthisevidencesoneofthegreatesttriumphsofnineteenth-centuryscholarship，forwithinalmosttwothousandyearsnomanhaslived，priortoourcentury，towhomthesestrangeinscriptionswouldnothavebeenasmeaninglessastheyaretothemostcasualstrollerwholooksonthemwithvaguewondermenthereinthemuseumto-day。FortheAssyrianlanguage，liketheEgyptian，wasveritablyadeadlanguage；not，likeGreekandLatin，merelypassedfrompracticalevery-dayusetotheclosetofthescholar，bututterlyandabsolutelyforgottenbyalltheworld。Suchbeingthecase，itisnothinglessthanmarvellousthatitshouldhavebeenrestored。
Itisbutfairtoaddthatthisrestorationprobablyneverwouldhavebeeneffected，withAssyrianorwithEgyptian，hadthelanguageindyingleftnocognatesuccessor；forthepowersofmodernlinguistry，thoughgreat，arenotactuallymiraculous。
But，fortunately，alanguageoncedevelopedisnotblottedoutintoto；itmerelyoutlivesitsusefulnessandisgraduallysupplanted，itssuccessorretainingmanytracesofitsorigin。
So，justasLatin，forexample，hasitslivingrepresentativesinItalianandtheotherRomancetongues，thelanguageofAssyriaisrepresentedbycognateSemiticlanguages。Asitchances，however，thesehavebeenofaidratherinthelaterstagesofAssyrianstudythanattheveryoutset；andthefirstclewtothemessageofthecuneiformwritingcamethroughaslightlydifferentchannel。
Curiouslyenough，itwasatrilingualinscriptionthatgavetheclew，asinthecaseoftheRosettaStone，thoughwithverystrikingdifferencewithal。Thetrilingualinscriptionnowinquestion，insteadofbeingasmall，portablemonument，coversthesurfaceofamassivebluffatBehistuninwesternPersia。
Moreover，allthreeofitsinscriptionsareincuneiformcharacters，andallthreeareinlanguagesthatatthebeginningofourcenturywereabsolutelyunknown。Thisinscriptionitself，asastrikingmonumentofunknownimport，hadbeenseenbysuccessivegenerations。Traditionascribedit，aswelearnfromCtesias，throughDiodorus，tothefabledAssyrianqueenSemiramis。Traditionwasquiteatfaultinthis；butitisonlyrecentlythatknowledgehasavailedtosetitright。Theinscription，asisnowknown，wasreallywrittenabouttheyear515B。C。，attheinstanceofDariusI。，KingofPersia，someofwhosedeedsitrecountsinthethreechieflanguagesofhiswidelyscatteredsubjects。
Themanwhoatactualriskoflifeandlimbcopiedthiswonderfulinscription，andthroughinterpretingitbecametheveritable\"fatherofAssyriology，\"wastheEnglishgeneralSirHenryRawlinson。HisfeatwasanotherBritishtriumphoverthesamerivalswhohadcompetedfortheRosettaStone；forsomeFrenchexplorershadbeensentbytheirgovernment，someyearsearlier，expresslytocopythisstrangerecord，andhadreportedthatitwasimpossibletoreachtheinscription。ButBritishcouragedidnotfinditso，andin1835Rawlinsonscaledthedangerousheightandmadeapapercastofabouthalftheinscription。Diplomaticdutiescalledhimawayfromthetaskforsomeyears，butin1848
hereturnedtoitandcompletedthecopyofallpartsoftheinscriptionthathaveescapedtheravagesoftime。Andnowthematerialwasinhandforanewscience，whichGeneralRawlinsonhimselfsoon，assistedbyahostofothers，proceededtoelaborate。
ThekeytothevalueofthisuniqueinscriptionliesinthefactthatitsthirdlanguageisancientPersian。ItappearsthattheancientPersianshadadoptedthecuneiformcharacterfromtheirwesternneighbors，theAssyrians，butinsodoinghadmadeoneofthoseessentialmodificationsandimprovementswhicharescarcelypossibletoaccomplishexceptinthetransitionfromoneracetoanother。Insteadofbuildingwiththearrow-headamultitudeofsyllabiccharacters，includingmanyhomophones，ashadbeenandcontinuedtobethecustomwiththeAssyrians，thePersiansselectedafewofthesecharactersandascribedtothemphoneticvaluesthatwerealmostpurelyalphabetic。Inaword，whileretainingthewedgeasthebasalstrokeoftheirscript，theydevelopedanalphabet，makingthelastwonderfulanalysisofphoneticsoundswhicheventothisdayhasescapedtheChinese，whichtheEgyptianshadonlypartiallyeffected，andwhichthePhoenicianswereaccreditedbytheGreekswithhavingintroducedtotheWesternworld。Inadditiontothisall-essentialstep，thePersianshadintroducedtheminorbuthighlyconvenientcustomofseparatingthewordsofasentencefromoneanotherbyaparticularmark，differinginthisregardnotonlyfromtheAssyriansandEgyptians，butfromtheearlyGreekscribesaswell。
Thankstothesesimplifications，theoldPersianlanguagehadbeenpracticallyrestoredaboutthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury，throughtheeffortsoftheGermanGrotefend，andfurtheradvancesinitweremadejustatthistimebyRenouf，inFrance，andbyLassen，inGermany，aswellasbyRawlinsonhimself，wholargelysolvedtheproblemofthePersianalphabetindependently。
SothePersianportionoftheBehistuninscriptioncouldbeatleastpartiallydeciphered。Thisinitself，however，wouldhavebeennoverygreataidtowardstherestorationofthelanguagesoftheotherportionshaditnotchanced，fortunately，thattheinscriptionissprinkledwithpropernames。Nowpropernames，generallyspeaking，arenottranslatedfromonelanguagetoanother，buttransliteratedasnearlyasthegeniusofthelanguagewillpermit。ItwasthefactthattheGreekwordPtolemaicswastransliteratedontheRosettaStonethatgavethefirstclewtothesoundsoftheEgyptiancharacters。HadtheupperpartoftheRosettaStonebeenpreserved，onwhich，originally，therewereseveralothernames，Youngwouldnothavehaltedwherehedidinhisdecipherment。
Butfortune，whichhadbeenatoncesokindandsotantalizinginthecaseoftheRosettaStone，haddealtmoregentlywiththeBehistuninscriptions；fornofewerthanninetypropernameswerepreservedinthePersianportionandduplicated，inanothercharacter，intheAssyrianinscription。AstudyofthesegaveaclewtothesoundsoftheAssyriancharacters。Thedeciphermentofthischaracter，however，evenwiththisaid，provedenormouslydifficult，foritwassoonevidentthathereitwasnolongeraquestionofanearlyperfectalphabetofafewcharacters，butofasyllabaryofseveralhundredcharacters，includingmanyhomophones，ordifferentformsforrepresentingthesamesound。
ButwiththePersiantranslationforaguideontheonehand，andtheSemiticlanguages，towhichfamilytheAssyrianbelonged，ontheother，theappallingtaskwasgraduallyaccomplished，theleadinginvestigatorsbeingGeneralRawlinson，ProfessorHincks，andMr。Fox-Talbot，inEngland，ProfessorJulesOppert，inParis，andProfessorJulianSchrader，inGermany，thoughahostofotherscholarssoonenteredthefield。
Thisgreatlinguisticfeatwasaccomplishedaboutthemiddleofthenineteenthcentury。Butsogreatafeatwasitthatmanyscholarsofthehigheststanding，includingJosephErnesteRenan，inFrance，andSirG。CornewallLewis，inEngland，declinedatfirsttoaccepttheresults，contendingthattheAssyriologistshadmerelydeceivedthemselvesbycreatinganarbitrarylanguage。
Thematterwasputtoatestin1855atthesuggestionofMr。
Fox-Talbot，whenfourscholars，onebeingMr。TalbothimselfandtheothersGeneralRawlinson，ProfessorHincks，andProfessorOppert，laidbeforetheRoyalAsiaticSocietytheirindependentinterpretationsofahithertountranslatedAssyriantext。A
committeeofthesociety，includingEngland’sgreatesthistorianofthecentury，GeorgeGrote，brokethesealsofthefourtranslations，andreportedthattheyfoundthemunequivocallyinaccordasregardstheirmainpurport，andevensurprisinglyuniformasregardsthephraseologyofcertainpassages——inshort，ascloselysimilarastranslationsfromtheobscuretextsofanydifficultlanguageeverare。ThisdecisiongavetheworkoftheAssyriologistsofficialstatus，andthereliabilityoftheirmethodhasneversincebeeninquestion。HenceforthAssyriologywasanestablishedscience。
APPENDIX
REFERENCE-LIST
CHAPTERI。MODERNDEVELOPMENTOFTHEPHYSICALSCIENCES
[1]RobertBoyle，PhilosophicalWorks3vols。。London，1738。
CHAPTERII。THEBEGINNINGSOFMODERNCHEMISTRY
[1]Foracompleteaccountofthecontroversycalledthe\"WaterControversy，\"seeTheLifeoftheHon。HenryCavendish，byGeorgeWilson，M。D。，F。R。S。E。London，1850。
[2]HenryCavendish，inPhil。Trans。for1784，P。119。
[3]LivesofthePhilosophersoftheTimeofGeorgeIII。，byHenry，LordBrougham，F。R。S。，p。106。London，1855。
[4]ExperimentsandObservationsonDifferentKindsofAir，byJosephPriestley3vols。。Birmingham，790，vol。II，pp。
103-107。
[5]LecturesonExperimentalPhilosophy，byJosephPriestley，lectureIV。，pp。18，ig。J。Johnson，London，1794。
[6]TranslatedfromScheele’sOmBrunsten，ellerMagnesia，ochdessEgenakaper。Stockholm，1774，andpublishedasAlembicClubReprints，No。13，1897，p。6。
[7]AccordingtosomewritersthiswasdiscoveredbyBerzelius。
[8]HistoiredelaChimie，parFerdinandHoefer。Paris，1869，Vol。CL，p。289。
[9]ElementsofChemistry，byAntonLaurentLavoisier，translatedbyRobertKerr，p。8。LondonandEdinburgh，1790。
[10]Ibid。，pp。414-416。
CHAPTERIII。CHEMISTRYSINCETHETIMEOFDALTON
[1]SirHumphryDavy，inPhil。Trans。，Vol。VIII。
CHAPTERIV。ANATOMYANDPHYSIOLOGYINTHEEIGHTEENTHCENTURY
[1]Baas，HistoryofMedicine，p。692。
[2]BasedonThomasH。Huxley’sPresidentialAddresstotheBritishAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience，1870。
[3]EssaysonDigestion，byJamesCarson。London，1834，p。6。
[4]Ibid。，p。7。
[5]JohnHunter，OntheDigestionoftheStomachafterDeath，firstedition，pp。183-188。
[6]ErasmusDarwin，TheBotanicGarden，pp。448-453。London，1799。
CHAPTERV。ANATOMYANDPHYSIOLOGYINTHENINETEENTHCENTURY
[1]BarondeCuvier’sTheoryoftheEarth。NewYork，1818，p。
123。
[2]OntheOrgansandModeofFecundationofOrchidexandAsclepiadea，byRobertBrown，Esq。，inMiscellaneousBotanicalWorks。London，1866，Vol。I。，pp。511-514。
[3]JustinLiebig，AnimalChemistry。London，1843，p。17f。
CHAPTERVI。THEORIESOFORGANICEVOLUTION
[1]\"EssayontheMetamorphosesofPlants，\"byGoethe，translatedforthepresentworkfromGrundrisseinerGeschichtederNaturwissenschaften，byFriederichDannemann2vols。。Leipzig，1896，Vol。I。，p。194。
[2]TheTempleofNature，orTheOriginofSociety，byErasmusDarwin，editionpublishedin1807，p。35。
[3]BarondeCuvier，TheoryoftheEarth。NewYork，1818，p。74。
ThiswastheintroductiontoCuvier’sgreatwork。
[4]RobertChambers，Explanations:asequeltoVestigesofCreation。London，Churchill，1845，pp。148-153。
CHAPTERVII。EIGHTEENTH-CENTURYMEDICINE
[1]CondensedfromDr。Boerhaave’sAcademicalLecturesontheTheoryofPhysic。London，1751，pp。77，78。Boerhaave’slectureswerepublishedasAphorismidecognoscendisetcurandisMorbis，Leyden，1709。OnthisbookVanSwietenwrotecommentariesfillingfivevolumes。AnotherverycelebratedworkofBoerhaaveishisInstitutionesetExperimentaChemic，Paris，1724，thegermsofthisbeinggivenasalectureonhisappointmenttothechairofchemistryintheUniversityofLeydenin1718。
[2]AnInquiryintotheCausesandEffectsoftheVariolaVaccine，etc。，byEdwardJenner，M。D。，F。R。S。，etc。London，1799，pp。2-7。Hewroteseveralotherpapers，mostofwhichwerecommunicationstotheRoyalSociety。Hislastpublicationwas，OntheInfluenceofArtificialEruptionsinCertainDiseasesLondon，1822，asubjecttowhichhehadgivenmuchtimeandstudy。
CHAPTERVIII。NINETEENTH-CENTURYMEDICINE
[1]IntheintroductiontoCorvisart’stranslationofAvenbrugger’swork。Paris，1808。
[2]Laennec，Traited’AuscultationMediate。Paris，1819。ThiswasLaennec’schiefwork，andwassoontranslatedintoseveraldifferentlanguages。Beforepublishingthishehadwrittenalso，Propositionssurladoctrinemidicaled’Hippocrate，Paris，1804，andMemoiressurlesversvisiculaires，inthesameyear。
[3]Researches，ChemicalandPhilosophical，chieflyconcerningNitrousOxideorDephlogisticatedNitrousAiranditsRespiration，byHumphryDavy。London，1800，pp。479-556。
[4]Ibid。
[5]Foraccountsofthediscoveryofanaesthesia，seeReportoftheBoardofTrusteesoftheMassachusettsGeneralHospital，Boston，1888。Also，TheEtherControversy:VindicationoftheHospitalReportsof1848，byN。LBowditch，Boston，1848。AnexcellentaccountisgiveninLittell’sLivingAge，forMarch，1848，writtenbyR。H。Dana，Jr。TherearealsotwoCongressionalReportsonthequestionofthediscoveryofetherization，onefor1848，theotherfor11852。
[6]SimpsonmadepublicthisdiscoveryoftheanaestheticpropertiesofchloroforminapaperreadbeforetheMedico-ChirurgicalSocietyofEdinburgh，inMarch，1847，aboutthreemonthsafterhehadfirstseenasurgicaloperationperformeduponapatienttowhometherhadbeenadministered。
[7]LouisPasteur，StudiesonFermentation。London，1870。
[8]LouisPasteur，inComptesRendusdesSciencesdeL’AcademiedesSciences，vol。XCII。，1881，pp。429-435。
CHAPTERIX。THENEWSCIENCEOFEXPERIMENTALPSYCHOLOGY
[1]Bell’scommunicationsweremadetotheRoyalSociety，buthisstudiesandhisdiscoveriesinthefieldofanatomyofthenervoussystemwerecollectedandpublished，in1824，asAnExpositionoftheNaturalSystemofNervesoftheHumanBody:
beingaRepublicationofthePapersdeliveredtotheRoyalSocietyontheSubjectoftheNerves。
[2]MarshallHall，M。D。，F。R。S。L。，OntheReflexFunctionsoftheMedullaOblongataandtheMedullaSpinalis，inPhil。Trans。ofRoyalSoc。，vol。XXXIII。，1833。