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　　CHAPTERVII

　　OFTHEINFLUENCEOFLUXURY

　　Thesecondobjectiontotheprinciplesalreadyestablished，isderivedfromtheinfluenceofluxury，andaffirms“thatnations，likeindividuals，aresubjecttothephenomenaofyouthandoldage，andthat，whenapeoplebyeffeminacyanddepravationofmannershavesunkintodecrepitude，itisnotwithinthecompassofhumanabilitytorestorethemtovigourandinnocence。”

　　Thisideahasbeenpartlyfoundedupontheromanticnotionsofpastorallifeandthegoldenage。Innocenceisnotvirtue。Virtuedemandstheactiveemploymentofanardentmindinthepromotionofthegeneralgood。Nomancanbeeminentlyvirtuouswhoisnotaccustomedtoanextensiverangeofreflection。Hemustseeallthebenefitstoarisefromadisinterestedproceeding，andmustunderstandthepropermethodofproducingthosebenefits。

　　Ignorance，theslothfulhabitsandlimitedviewsofuncultivatedlife，havenotinthemmoreoftruevirtue，thoughtheymaybemoreharmless，thanluxury，vanityandextravagance。Individualsofexquisitefeeling，whosedisgusthasbeenexcitedbythehardenedselfishnessortheunblushingcorruptionwhichhaveprevailedintheirowntimes，haverecurredinimaginationtotheforestsofNorwayorthebleakanduncomfortableHighlandsofScotlandinsearchofapurerraceofmankind。Thisimaginationhasbeentheoffspringofdisappointment，notthedictateofreasonandphilosophy。

　　Itmaybetrue，thatignoranceisnearerthanprejudicetothereceptionofwisdom，andthattheabsenceofvirtueisaconditionmoreauspiciousthanthepresenceofitsopposite。Inthiscaseitwouldhavebeenjustertocompareanationsunkinluxurytoanindividualwithconfirmedhabitsofwrong，thantoanindividualwhomadebilitatedconstitutionwasbringingfasttothegrave。Butneitherwouldthatcomparisonhavebeenfairandequitable。

　　Theconditionofnationsismorefluctuating，andwillbefoundlessobstinateinitsresistancetoaconsistentendeavourfortheirimprovement，thanthatofindividuals。Innationssomeoftheirmemberswillbelessconfirmedinerrorthanothers。Acertainnumberwillbeonlyinaverysmalldegreeindisposedtolistentothevoiceoftruth。Thisnumber，fromtheverynatureofjustsentiments，mustintheordinarycourseofthingsperpetuallyincrease。Everynewconvertwillbethemeansofconvertingothers。Inproportionasthebodyofdisciplesisaugmented，themodesofattackupontheprejudicesofotherswillbevaried，andsuitedtothevarietyofmen’stempersandprepossessions。

　　Addtothisthatgenerationsofmenareperpetuallygoingoffthestage，whileothergenerationssucceed。Thenextgenerationwillnothavesomanyprejudicestosubdue。Supposeadespoticnationbysomerevolutioninitsaffairstobecomepossessedoftheadvantagesoffreedom。Thechildrenofthepresentracewillbebredinmorefirmandindependenthabitsofthinking；thesuppleness，thetimidity，andtheviciousdexterityoftheirfathers，willgiveplacetoanerectmienandaclearanddecisivejudgement。

　　Thepartialandimperfectchangeofcharacterwhichwasintroducedatfirstwillinthesucceedingagebecomemoreunalloyedandcomplete。

　　Lastly，thepowerofreasonableandjustideasinchangingthecharacterofnationsisinonerespectinfinitelygreaterthananypowerwhichcanbebroughttobearuponasolitaryindividual。Thecaseisnotofthatcustomarysort，wheretheforceoftheoryaloneistriedincuringanypersonofhiserrors；butisasifheshouldbeplacedinanentirelynewsituation。Hishabitsarebrokenthrough，andhismotivesofactionchanged。

　　Insteadofbeingperpetuallyrecalledtoviciouspracticesbytherecurrenceofhisformerconnections，thewholesocietyreceivesanimpulsefromthesamecausethatactsupontheindividual。Newideasaresuggested，andthelanguorandimbecilitywhichmightbeincidenttoeacharecounteractedbythespectacleofgeneralenthusiasmandconcert。

　　Butithasbeenfurtheralleged，“that，evenshouldaluxuriousnationbeinduced，byintolerablegrievances，andnotorioususurpation，toembracejustprinciplesofhumansociety，theywouldbeunabletoperpetuatethem，andwouldsoonbeledbackbytheirevilhabitstotheirformervicesandcorruption：“thatis，theywouldbecapableoftheheroicenergythatshouldexpeltheusurper，butnotofthemoderateresolutionthatshouldpreventhisreturn。Theywouldrousethemselvessofarfromtheirlethargyastoassumeanewcharacterandenterintodifferentviews；but，afterhavingforsometimeactedupontheirconvictions，theywouldsuddenlybecomeincapableofunderstandingthetruthoftheirprinciplesandfeelingtheirinfluence。

　　Menalwaysactupontheirapprehensionsofpreferableness。Therearefewerrorsofwhichtheyareguiltywhichmaynotberesolvedintoanarrowandinadequateviewofthealternativepresentedfortheirchoice。Presentpleasuremayappearmorecertainandeligiblethandistantgood。Buttheyneverchooseevilasapprehendedtobeevil。Whereveraclearandunanswerablenotionofanysubjectispresentedtotheirview，acorrespondentactionorcourseofactionsinevitablyfollows。Havingthusgainedonestepintheacquisitionoftruth，itcannoteasilybeconceivedaslost。Abodyofmen，havingdetectedtheinjuriousconsequencesofanevilunderwhichtheyhavelonglaboured，andhavingshakenitoff，willscarcelyvoluntarilyrestorethemischieftheyhaveannihilated。Norecollectionofpasterrorcanreasonablybesupposedtohavestrengthenoughtoleadback，intoabsurdityanduncompensatedsubjection，menwhohaveoncebeenthoroughlyawakenedtotheperceptionoftruth。

　　CHAPTERVIII

　　HUMANINVENTIONSSUSCEPTIBLEOFPERPETUALIMPROVEMENT

　　Beforeweproceedtothedirectsubjectofthepresentenquiry，itmaynotbeimpropertoresumethesubjectofhumanimprovableness，andconsideritinasomewhatgreaterdetail。Anopinionhasbeenextensivelyentertained“thatthedifferencesofthehumanspeciesindifferentagesandcountries，particularlysofarasrelatestomoralprinciplesofconduct，areextremelyinsignificantandtrifling；thatwearedeceivedinthisrespectbydistanceandconfoundedbyglare；butthatinrealitythevirtuesandvicesofmen，collectivelytaken，alwayshaveremained，andofconsequence。”itissaid，“alwayswillremain，nearlyatthesamepoint。”

　　Theerroneousnessofthisopinionwillperhapsbemorecompletelyexposed，byasummaryrecollectionoftheactualhistoryofourspecies，thanbytheclosestdeductionsofabstractreason。Wewillinthisplacesimplyremindthereaderofthegreatchangeswhichmanhasundergoneasanintellectualbeing，entitlingustoinfertheprobabilityofimprovementsnotlessessential，toberealizedinfuture。Theconclusiontobededucedfromthisdelineation，thathismoralimprovementswillinsomedegreekeeppacewithhisintellectual，andhisactionscorrespondwithhisopinions，mustdependforitsforceuponthetrainofreasoningwhichhasalreadybeenbroughtforwardunderthathead。1*

　　Letuscarrybackourmindstomaninhisoriginalstate，abeingcapableofimpressionsandknowledgetoanunboundedextent，butnothavingasyetreceivedtheoneorcultivatedtheother；letuscontrastthisbeingwithallthatscienceandgeniushaveeffected；andfromhencewemayformsomeideawhatitisofwhichhumannatureiscapable。Itistoberememberedthatthisbeingdidnot，asnow，deriveassistancefromthecommunicationsofhisfellows，norhadhisfeebleandcrudeconceptionsamendedbytheexperienceofsuccessivecenturies；butthatinthestatewearefiguringallmenwereequallyignorant。Thefieldofimprovementwasbeforethem~

　　butforeverystepinadvancetheyweretobeindebtedtotheiruntutoredefforts。Norisitofconsequencewhethersuchwasactuallytheprogressofmind，orwhether，asothersteach，theprogresswasabridged，andmanwasimmediatelyadvancedhalfwaytotheendofhiscareerbytheinterpositionoftheauthorofhisnature。Inanycaseitisanallowable，andwillbefoundnounimprovingspeculation，toconsidermindasitisinitself，andtoenquirewhatwouldhavebeenitshistoryif，immediatelyuponitsproduction，ithadbeenlefttobeacteduponbythoseordinarylawsoftheuniversewithwhoseoperationweareacquainted。

　　Oneoftheacquisitionsmostevidentlyrequisiteasapreliminarytoourpresentimprovementsisthatoflanguage。Butitisimpossibletoconceiveanacquisitionthatmusthavebeeninitsoriginmoredifferentfromwhatatpresentitisfound，orthatlesspromisedthatcopiousnessandrefinementithassinceexhibited。

　　Itsbeginningwasprobablyfromthoseinvoluntarycrieswhichinfants，forexample，arefoundtoutterintheearlieststagesoftheirexistence，andwhich，previouslytotheideaofexcitingpityorprocuringassistance，spontaneouslyarisefromtheoperationofpainuponouranimalframe。Thesecries，whenactuallyuttered，becomeasubjectofperceptiontohimbywhomtheyareuttered；and，beingobservedtobeconstantlyassociatedwithcertainantecedentimpressionsandtoexcitetheideaofthoseimpressionsinthehearer，mayafterwardsberepeatedfromreflectionandthedesireofrelief。Eagerdesiretocommunicateanyinformationtoanotherwillalsopromptustouttersomesimplesoundforthepurposeofexcitingattention：

　　thissoundwillprobablyfrequentlyrecurtoorgansunpractisedtovariety，andwillatlengthstandasitwerebyconventionfortheinformationintendedtobeconveyed。Butthedistanceisextremefromthesesimplemodesofcommunication，whichwepossessincommonwithsomeoftheinferioranimals，toalltheanalysisandabstractionwhichlanguagesrequire。

　　Abstractionindeed，though，asitiscommonlyunderstood，itbeoneofthesublimestoperationsofmind，isinsomesortcoevalwithandinseparablefromtheexistenceofmind。2*Thenextsteptosimpleperceptionisthatofcomparison，orthecouplingtogetheroftwoideasandtheperceptionoftheirresemblancesanddifferences。Withoutcomparisontherecanbenopreference，andwithoutpreferencenovoluntaryaction：thoughitmustbeacknowledged，thatthiscomparisonisanoperationwhichmaybeperformedbythemindwithoutadvertingtoitsnature，andthatneitherthebrutenorthesavagehasaconsciousnessoftheseveralstepsoftheintellectualprogress。Comparisonimmediatelyleadstoimperfectabstraction。Thesensationofto-dayisclassed，ifsimilar，withthesensationofyesterday，andaninferenceismaderespectingtheconducttobeadopted。Withoutthisdegreeofabstraction，thefaintdawningsoflanguagealreadydescribed，couldneverhaveexisted。Abstraction，whichwasnecessarytothefirstexistenceoflanguage，isagainassistedinitsoperationsbylanguage。

　　Thatgeneralization，whichisimpliedintheverynotionofathinkingbeing，beingthusembodiedandrenderedamatterofsensibleimpression，makesthemindacquaintedwithitsownpowers，andcreatesarestlessdesireafterfurtherprogress。

　　But，thoughitbebynomeansimpossibletotracethecausesthatconcurredtotheproductionoflanguage，andtoprovethemadequatetotheireffect，itdoesnotthelessappearthatthisisanacquisitionofslowgrowthandinestimablevalue。Theverysteps，werewetopursuethem，wouldappearlikeanendlesslabyrinth。Thedistanceisimmeasurablebetweenthethreeorfourvagueandinarticulatesoundsutteredbyanimals，andthecopiousnessoflexicographyortheregularityofgrammar。Thegeneralandspecialnamesbywhichthingsareatfirstcomplicatedandafterwardsdivided，thenamesbywhichpropertiesareseparatedfromtheirsubstances，andpowersfromboth，thecomprehensivedistributionofpartsofspeech，verbs，adjectivesandparticles，theinflectionsofwordsbywhichthechangeoftheirterminationschangestheirmeaningthroughavarietyofshadings，theirconcordsandtheirgovernments，allofthempresentuswithsuchaboundlesscatalogueofsciencethathewhoontheonehanddidnotknowthatthetaskhadbeenactuallyperformed，orwhoontheotherwasnotintimatelyacquaintedwiththeprogressivenatureofmind，wouldpronouncetheaccomplishmentofthemimpossible。

　　Asecondinvention，wellcalculatedtoimpressuswithasenseoftheprogressivenatureofman，isthatofalphabeticalwriting。Hieroglyphicalorpicture-writingappearsatsometimetohavebeenuniversal，andthedifficultyofconceivingthegradationfromthistoalphabeticalissogreatastohaveinducedHartley，oneofthemostacutephilosophicalwriters，tohaverecoursetomiraculousinterpositionastheonlyadequatesolution。

　　Inrealitynoproblemcanbeimaginedmoreoperosethanthatofdecomposingthesoundsofwordsintofourandtwentysimpleelementsorletters，andagainfindingtheseelementsinallotherwords。Whenwehaveexaminedthesubjectalittlemoreclosely，andperceivedthestepsbywhichthislabourwasaccomplished，perhapstheimmensityofthelabourwillrathergainuponus，ashethatshallhavecountedamillionofunitswillhaveavasterideauponthesubjectthanhethatonlyconsiderstheminthegross。

　　InChinahieroglyphicalwritinghasneverbeensupersededbyalphabetical，andthisfromtheverynatureoftheirlanguage，whichisconsiderablymonosyllabic，thesamesoundbeingmadetosignifyagreatvarietyofobjects，bymeansofcertainshadingsoftonetoodelicateforanalphabettorepresent。

　　Theyhavehowevertwokindsofwriting，oneforthelearned，andanotherforthevulgar。Thelearnedadherecloselytotheirhieroglyphicalwriting，representingeverywordbyitscorrespondingpicture；butthevulgararefrequentintheirdeviationsfromit。

　　Hieroglyphicalwritingandspeechmayindeedbeconsideredinthefirstinstanceastwolanguagesrunningparalleltoeachother，butwithnonecessaryconnection。Thepictureandtheword，eachofthem，representtheidea，oneasimmediatelyastheother。But，thoughindependent，theywillbecomeaccidentallyassociated；thepictureatfirstimperfectly，andafterwardsmoreconstantlysuggestingtheideaofitscorrespondentsound。ItisinthismannerthatthemercantileclassesofChinabegantocorrupt，asitisstyled，theirhieroglyphicalwriting。Theyhadawordsupposeoftwosyllablestowrite。Thecharacterappropriatetothatwordtheywerenotacquaintedwith，oritfailedtosuggestitselftotheirmemory。Eachofthesyllableshoweverwasadistinctwordinthelanguage，andthecharactersbelongingtothemperfectlyfamiliar。Theexpedientthatsuggesteditselfwastowritethesetwocharacterswithamarksignifyingtheirunion，thoughinrealitythecharactershadhithertobeenappropriatedtoideasofadifferentsort，whollyunconnectedwiththatnowintendedtobeconveyed。

　　Thusasortofrebusorcharadewasproduced。Inothercasestheword，thoughmonosyllabic，wascapableofbeingdividedintotwosounds，andthesameprocesswasemployed。Thisisafirststeptowardsalphabeticalanalysis。Someword，suchastheinterjectionO！ortheparticleA，isalreadyasoundperfectlysimple，andthusfurnishesafirststonetotheedifice。But，thoughtheseideasmayperhapspresentuswithafaintviewofthemannerinwhichanalphabetwasproduced，yettheactualproductionofacompletealphabetisperhapsofallhumandiscoveriesthatwhichrequiredthemostperseveringreflection，theluckiestconcurrenceofcircumstances，andthemostpatientandgradualprogress。

　　Letushoweversupposemantohavegainedthetwofirstelementsofknowledge，speakingandwriting；letustracehimthroughallhissubsequentimprovements，throughwhateverconstitutestheinequalitybetweenNewtonandtheploughman，andindeedmuchmorethanthis，sincethemostignorantploughmanincivilizedsocietyisinfinitelydifferentfromwhathewouldhavebeenwhenstrippedofallthebenefitshehasderivedfromliteratureandthearts。Letussurveytheearthcoveredwiththelaboursofman，houses，enclosures，harvests，manufactures，instruments，machines，togetherwithallthewondersofpainting，poetry，eloquenceandphilosophy。

　　Suchwasmaninhisoriginalstate，andsuchismanasweatpresentbeholdhim。Isitpossibleforustocontemplatewhathehasalreadydonewithoutbeingimpressedwithastrongpresentimentoftheimprovementshehasyettoaccomplish？Thereisnosciencethatisnotcapableofadditions；

　　thereisnoartthatmaynotbecarriedtoastillhigherperfection。Ifthisbetrueofallothersciences，whynotofmorals？Ifthisbetrueofallotherarts，whynotofsocialinstitution？Theveryconceptionofthisaspossibleisinthehighestdegreeencouraging。Ifwecanstillfurtherdemonstrateittobeapartofthenaturalandregularprogressofmind，ourconfidenceandourhopeswillthenbecomplete。Thisisthetemperwithwhichweoughttoengageinthestudyofpoliticaltruth。Letuslookback，thatwemayprofitbytheexperienceofmankind；butletusnotlookback，asifthewisdomofourancestorswassuch，astoleavenoroomforfutureimprovement。

　　NOTES：

　　1。ChapterV。

　　2。Thequestionwhetherornotthehumanmindiscapableofformingabstractideas，hasbeenthesubjectofmuchprofoundandseriousdisquisition。

　　Itiscertainthatwehaveageneralstandardofsomesort，inconsequenceofwhich，ifananimalispresentedtoourview，wecaninmostcasesdecidethatitis，orisnotahorse，aman，&amp；c。；norisittobeimaginedthatweshouldbeunabletoformsuchjudgements，evenifweweredeniedtheuseofspeech。

　　Itisacuriousfact，andonthataccountworthytobementionedinthisplace，thatthehumanmindisperhapsincapableofentertaininganybutgeneralideas。Take，forexample，awineglass。If，afterthisglassiswithdrawn，Ipresenttoyouanotherfromthesameset，youwillprobablybeunabletodeterminewhetheritisanotherorthesame。Itiswithalikeinattentionthatpeopleingeneralviewaflockofsheep。Theshepherdonlydistinguishesthefeaturesofeveryoneofhissheepfromthefeaturesofeveryother。Butitisimpossiblesotoindividualizeourremarksastocauseourideatobetrulyparticular，andnotspecial。Thustherearememorableinstancesofonemansonearlyresemblinganother，astobeabletopasshimselfuponthewifeandalltherelativesofthisman，asifhewerethesame。

　　Theoppositionwhichhasbeensoingeniouslymaintainedagainstthedoctrineofabstractideasseemschieflytohavearisenfromahabitofwingthetermidea，not，asLockehasdone，foreveryconceptionthatcanexistinthemind，butasconstantlydescriptiveofanimage，orpicture。

　　Thefollowingviewofthesubjectwillperhapsserveinsomedegreetoremoveanyambiguitythatmightcontinuetorestuponit。

　　Ideas，consideringthattermascomprehendingallperceptions，bothprimary，orofthesenses，andsecondary，orofthememory，maybedividedintofourclasses：1。perfect。Theexistenceofthesewehavedisproved。

　　2。imperfect，suchasthosewhichareproducedinusbyanearandcarefulinspectionofanyvisibleobject。3。imperfect，suchasthoseproducedbyaslightanddistantview。4。imperfect，soastohavenoresemblancetoanimageofanyexternalobject。Theperceptionproducedinusinslightandcurrentdiscoursebythewordsriver，field，areofthisnature；andhavenomoreresemblancetotheimageofanyvisibleobjectthantheperceptionordinarilyproducedinusbythewordsconquest，government，virtue。

　　ThesubjectofthislastclassofideasisveryingeniouslytreatedbyBurke，inhisEnquiryintotheSublime，PartV。Hehashowevercommittedonematerialerrorinthediscussion，byrepresentingtheseasinstancesoftheemploymentof“wordswithoutideas。”Ifwerecollectthatbruteshavesimilarabstractions，andageneralconception，ofthefemaleoftheirownspecies，ofman，offood，ofthesmartofawhip，&amp；c。，weshallprobablyadmitthatsuchperceptionsandinalleventstheyareperceptions，or，accordingtotheestablishedlanguageuponthesubject，ideasarenotnecessarilyconnectedwiththeemploymentofwords。

　　PJ2BOOKII

　　PRINCIPALSOFSOCIETY

　　CHAPTERI

　　INTRODUCTION

　　Intheprecedingbookwehaveclearedthefoundationsfortheremainingbranchesofenquiry，andshownwhataretheprospectsitisreasonabletoentertainastofuturepoliticalimprovement。Theeffectswhichareproducedbypositiveinstitutionshavetherebeendelineated，aswellastheextentofthepowersofman，consideredinhissocialcapacity。Itistimethatweproceedtothosedisquisitionswhicharemoreimmediatelytheobjectofthepresentwork。

　　Politicalenquirymaybedistributedundertwoheads：first，whataretheregulationswhichwillconducetothewellbeingofmaninsociety；

　　and，secondly，whatistheauthoritywhichiscompetenttoprescriberegulations。

　　Theregulationstowhichtheconductofmenlivinginsocietyoughttobeconformedmaybeconsideredintwoways：first，thosemorallawswhichareenjoineduponusbythedictatesofenlightenedreason；and，secondly，thoseprinciplesadeviationfromwhichtheinterestofthecommunitymaybesupposedtorenderitpropertorepressbysanctionsandpunishment。

　　Moralityisthatsystemofconductwhichisdeterminedbyaconsiderationofthegreatestgeneralgood：heisentitledtothehighestmoralapprobationwhoseconductis，inthegreatestnumberofinstances，orinthemostmomentousinstances，governedbyviewsofbenevolence，andmadesubservienttopublicutility。Inlikemannertheonlyregulationswhichanypoliticalauthoritycanbejustlyentitledtoenforcearesuchasarebestadaptedtopublicutility。Consequently，justpoliticalregulationsarenothingmorethanacertainselectpartofmorallaw。Thesupremepowerinastateoughtnot，inthestrictestsense，torequireanythingofitsmembersthatanunderstandingsufficientlyenlightenedwouldnotprescribewithoutsuchinterference。1*

　　Theseconsiderationsseemtoleadtothedetectionofamistakewhichhasbeenverygenerallycommittedbypoliticalwritersofourowncountry。

　　TheyhaveforthemostpartconfinedtheirresearchestothequestionofWhatisajustpoliticalauthorityorthemosteligibleformofgovernment，consigningtoothersthedelineationofrightprinciplesofconductandequitableregulations。Butthereappearstobesomethingpreposterousinthismodeofproceeding。Awellconstitutedgovernmentisonlythemeansforenforcingsuitableregulations。Oneformofgovernmentispreferabletoanotherinexactproportiontothesecurityitaffordsthatnothingshallbedoneinthenameofthecommunitywhichisnotconducivetothewelfareofthewhole。Thequestiontherefore，Whatitiswhichisthusconducive，isuponeveryaccountentitledtothefirstplaceinourdisquisitions。

　　Oneoftheillconsequenceswhichhaveresultedfromthisdistortedviewofthescienceofpoliticsisanotionverygenerallyentertained，thatacommunity，orsocietyofmen，hasarighttolaydownwhateverrulesitmaythinkproperforitsownobservance。Thiswillpresentlybeprovedtobeanerroneousposition。2*Itmaybeprudentinanindividualtosubmitinsomecasestotheusurpationofamajority；itmaybeunavoidableinacommunitytoproceedupontheimperfectanderroneousviewstheyshallchancetoentertain：butthisisamisfortuneentaileduponusbythenatureofgovernment，andnotamatterofright。3*

　　Asecondillconsequencethathasarisenfromthisproceedingisthat，politicshavingbeenthusviolentlyseparatedfrommorality，governmentitselfhasnolongerbeencomparedwithitstruecriterion。Insteadofenquiringwhatspeciesofgovernmentwasmostconducivetothepublicwelfare，anunprofitabledisquisitionhasbeeninstitutedrespectingtheprobableoriginofgovernment；anditsdifferentformshavebeenestimated，notbytheconsequenceswithwhichtheywerepregnant，butthesourcefromwhichtheysprung。Hencemenhavebeenpromptedtolookbacktothefollyoftheirancestors，ratherthanforwardtothebenefitsderivablefromtheimprovementsofhumanknowledge。Hence，ininvestigatingtheirrights，theyhaverecurredlesstothegreatprinciplesofmoralitythantotherecordsandchartersofabarbarousage。Asifmenwerenotentitledtoallthebenefitsofthesocialstatetilltheycouldprovetheirinheritingthemfromsomebequestoftheirdistantprogenitors。Asifmenwerenotasjustifiableandmeritoriousinplantinglibertyinasoilinwhichithadneverexistedasinrestoringitwhereitcouldbeprovedonlytohavesufferedatemporarysuspension。

　　Thereasonshereassignedstronglytendtoevincethenecessityofestablishingthegenuineprinciplesofsociety，beforeweenteruponthedirectconsiderationofgovernment。Itmaybeproperinthisplacetostatethefundamentaldistinctionwhichexistsbetweenthesetopicsofenquiry。Manassociatedatfirstforthesakeofmutualassistance。Theydidnotforeseethatanyrestraintwouldbenecessarytoregulatetheconductofindividualmembersofthesocietytowardseachother，ortowardsthewhole。Thenecessityofrestraintgrewoutoftheerrorsandperversenessofafew。Anacutewriterhasexpressedthisideawithpeculiarfelicity“Societyandgovernment。”

　　sayshe，“aredifferentinthemselves，andhavedifferentorigins。Societyisproducedbyourwants，andgovernmentbyourwickedness。Societyisineverystateablessing；governmenteveninitsbeststatebutanecessaryevil。”4*

　　NOTES：

　　1。ChapterV，ofthefollowingBook。

　　2。ChapterV，ofthisBook。

　　3。ChapterV。

　　4。Paine’sCommonSense，p。1。

　　CHAPTERII

　　OFJUSTICE

　　Fromwhathasbeensaiditappears，thatthesubjectofourpresentenquiryisstrictlyspeakingadepartmentofthescienceofmorals。Moralityisthesourcefromwhichitsfundamentalaxiomsmustbedrawn，andtheywillbemadesomewhatclearerinthepresentinstance，ifweassumethetermjusticeasageneralappellationforallmoralduty。

　　Thatthisappellationissufficientlyexpressiveofthesubjectwillappear，ifweexaminemercy，gratitude，temperance，oranyofthosedutieswhich，inlooserspeaking，arecontradistinguishedfromjustice。WhyshouldIpardonthiscriminal，remuneratethisfavour，orabstainfromthisindulgence？

　　Ifitpartakeofthenatureofmorality，itmustbeeitherrightorwrong，justorunjust。Itmusttendtothebenefitoftheindividual，eitherwithouttrenchingupon，orwithactualadvantagetothemassofindividuals。Eitherwayitbenefitsthewhole，becauseindividualsarepartsofthewhole。

　　Thereforetodoitisjust，andtoforbearitisunjust——ByjusticeIunderstandthatimpartialtreatmentofeverymaninmattersthatrelatetohishappiness，whichismeasuredsolelybyaconsiderationofthepropertiesofthereceiver，andthecapacityofhimthatbestows。Itsprinciplethereforeis，accordingtoawellknownphrase，tobe“norespecterofpersons。”

　　Considerablelightwillprobablybethrownuponourinvestigation，if，quittingforthepresentthepoliticalview，weexaminejusticemerelyasitexistsamongindividuals。Justiceisaruleofconductoriginatingintheconnectionofonepercipientbeingwithanother。Acomprehensivemaximwhichhasbeenlaiddownuponthesubjectis“thatweshouldloveourneighbourasourselves。”Butthismaxim，thoughpossessingconsiderablemeritasapopularprinciple，isnotmodeledwiththestrictnessofphilosophicalaccuracy。

　　InalooseandgeneralviewIandmyneighbourarebothofusmen；andofconsequenceentitledtoequalattention。But，inreality，itisprobablethatoneofusisabeingofmoreworthandimportancethantheother。

　　Amanisofmoreworththanabeast；because，beingpossessedofhigherfaculties，heiscapableofamorerefinedandgenuinehappiness。InthesamemannertheillustriousarchbishopofCambraywasofmoreworththanhisvalet，andtherearefewofusthatwouldhesitatetopronounce，ifhispalacewereinflames，andthelifeofonlyoneofthemcouldbepreserved，whichofthetwooughttobepreferred。

　　Butthereisanothergroundofpreference，besidetheprivateconsiderationofoneofthembeingfurtherremovedfromthestateofamereanimal。Wearenotconnectedwithoneortwopercipientbeings，butwithasociety，anation，andinsomesensewiththewholefamilyofmankind。Ofconsequencethatlifeoughttobepreferredwhichwillbemostconducivetothegeneralgood。InsavingthelifeofFenelon，supposeatthemomentheconceivedtheprojectofhisimmortalTelemachus，shouldhavebeenpromotingthebenefitofthousands，whohavebeencuredbytheperusalofthatworkofsomeerror，viceandconsequentunhappiness。Nay，mybenefitwouldextendfurtherthanthis；foreveryindividual，thuscured，hasbecomeabettermemberofsociety，andhascontributedinhisturntothehappiness，information，andimprovementofothers。

　　SupposeIhadbeenmyselfthevalet；Ioughttohavechosentodie，ratherthanFenelonshouldhavedied。ThelifeofFenelonwasreallypreferabletothatofthevalet。Butunderstandingisthefacultythatperceivesthetruthofthisandsimilarpropositions；andjusticeistheprinciplethatregulatesmyconductaccordingly。Itwouldhavebeenjustinthevalettohavepreferredthearchbishoptohimself。Tohavedoneotherwisewouldhavebeenabreachofjustice。1*

　　Supposethevalethadbeenmybrother，myfather，ormybenefactor。

　　Thiswouldnotalterthetruthoftheproposition。ThelifeofFenelonwouldstillbemorevaluablethanthatofthevalet；andjustice，pure，unadulteratedjustice，wouldstillhavepreferredthatwhichwasmostvaluable。

　　JusticewouldhavetaughtmetosavethelifeofFenelonattheexpenseoftheother。Whatmagicisthereinthepronoun“my。”thatshouldjustifyusinoverturningthedecisionsofimpartialtruth？Mybrotherormyfathermaybeafooloraprofligate，malicious，lyingordishonest。Iftheybe，ofwhatconsequenceisitthattheyaremine？

　　“ButtomyfatherIamindebtedforexistence；hesupportedmeinthehelplessnessofinfancy。”Whenhefirstsubjectedhimselftothenecessityofthesecares，hewasprobablyinfluencedbynoparticularmotivesofbenevolencetohisfutureoffspring。Everyvoluntarybenefithoweverentitlesthebestowertosomekindnessandretribution。Why？Becauseavoluntarybenefitisanevidenceofbenevolentintention，thatis，inacertaindegree，ofvirtue。Itisthedispositionofthemind，nottheexternalactionseparatelytaken，thatentitlestorespect。Butthemeritofthisdispositionisequal，whetherthebenefitwereconferreduponmeoruponanother。Iandanothermancannotbothberightinpreferringourrespectivebenefactors，formybenefactorcannotbeatthesametimebothbetterandworsethanhisneighbour。Mybenefactoroughttobeesteemed，notbecausehebestowedabenefituponme，butbecausehebestowedituponahumanbeing。Hisdesertwillbeinexactproportiontothedegreeinwhichthathumanbeingwasworthyofthedistinctionconferred。

　　Thuseveryviewofthesubjectbringsusbacktotheconsiderationofmyneighbour’smoralworth，andhisimportancetothegeneralweal，astheonlystandardtodeterminethetreatmenttowhichheisentitled。Gratitudetherefore，ifbygratitudeweunderstandasentimentofpreferencewhichIentertaintowardsanother，uponthegroundofmyhavingbeenthesubjectofhisbenefits，isnoparteitherofjusticeorvirtue。2*

　　Itmaybeobjected，“thatmyrelation，mycompanion，ormybenefactor，willofcourseinmanyinstancesobtainanuncommonportionofmyregard：

　　for，notbeinguniversallycapableofdiscriminatingthecomparativeworthofdifferentmen，IshallinevitablyjudgemostfavourablyofhimofwhosevirtuesIhavereceivedthemostunquestionableproofs；andthusshallbecompelledtopreferthemanofmoralworthwhomIknow，toanotherwhomaypossess，unknowntome，anessentialsuperiority。”

　　Thiscompulsionhoweverisfoundedonlyintheimperfectionofhumannature。Itmayserveasanapologyformyerror，butcanneverchangeerrorintotruth。Itwillalwaysremaincontrarytothestrictanduniversaldecisionsofjustice。Thedifficultyofconceivingthis，isowingmerelytoourconfoundingthedispositionfromwhichanactionischosen，withtheactionitself。Thedispositionthatwouldprefervirtuetovice，andagreaterdegreeofvirtuetoaless，isundoubtedlyasubjectofapprobation；

　　theerroneousexerciseofthisdisposition，bywhichawrongobjectisselected，ifunavoidable，istobedeplored，butcanbynocolouringandundernodenominationbeconvertedintoright。3*

　　Itmayinthesecondplacebeobjected，“thatamutualcommerceofbenefitstendstoincreasethemassofbenevolentaction，andthattoincreasethemassofbenevolentactionistocontributetothegeneralgood。”Indeed！

　　Isthegeneralgoodpromotedbyfalsehood，bytreatingamanofonedegreeofworthasifhehadtentimesthatworth？orasifhewereinanydegreedifferentfromwhathereallyis？Wouldnotthemostbeneficialconsequencesresultfromadifferentplan；frommyconstantlyandcarefullyenquiringintothedesertsofallthosewithwhomIamconnected，andfromtheirbeingsure，afteracertainallowanceforthefallibilityofhumanjudgement，ofbeingtreatedbymeexactlyastheydeserved？Whocandescribethebenefitsthatwouldresultfromsuchaplanofconduct，ifuniversallyadopted？

　　Itwouldperhapstendtomakethetruthinthisrespectmoreaccuratelyunderstoodtoconsiderthat，whereasthereceivedmoralityteachesmetobegrateful，whetherinaffectionorinact，forbenefitsconferredonmyself，thereasoningsheredelivered，withoutremovingthetieuponmefrompersonalbenefitsexceptwherebenefitisconferredfromanunworthymotive，multiplytheobligation，andenjoinmetobealsogratefulforbenefitsconferreduponothers。Myobligationtowardsmybenefactor，supposinghisbenefittobejustlyconferred，isinnosortdissolved；norcananythingauthorizemetosupersedeitbuttherequisitionofasuperiorduty。Thatwhichtiesmetomybenefactor，upontheseprinciples，isthemoralworthhehasdisplayed；anditwillfrequentlyhappenthatIshallbeobligedtoyieldhimthepreference，because，whileothercompetitorsmaybeofgreaterworth，theevidenceIhaveoftheworthofmybenefactorismorecomplete。

　　Thereseemstobemoretruthintheargument，derivedchieflyfromtheprevailingmodesofsocialexistence，infavourofmyproviding，inordinarycases，formywifeandchildren，mybrothersandrelations，beforeIprovideforstrangers，thaninthosewhichhavejustbeenexamined。Aslongastheprovidingforindividualsisconductedwithitspresentirregularityandcaprice，itseemsasiftheremustbeacertaindistributionoftheclassneedingsuperintendenceandsupply，amongtheclassaffordingit；

　　thateachmanmayhavehisclaimandresource。Butthisargumentistobeadmittedwithgreatcaution。Itbelongsonlytoordinarycases；andcasesofahigherorder，oramoreurgentnecessity，willperpetuallyoccurincompetitionwithwhichthesewillbealtogetherimpotent。Wemustbeseverelyscrupulousinmeasuringthequantityofsupply；and，withrespecttomoneyinparticular，shouldrememberhowlittleisyetunderstoodofthetruemodeofemployingitforthepublicbenefit。

　　Nothingcanbelessexposedtoreasonableexceptionthantheseprinciples。

　　Iftherebesuchathingasvirtue，itmustbeplacedinaconformitytotruth，andnottoerror。ItcannotbevirtuousthatIshouldesteemaman，thatis，considerhimaspossessedofestimablequalities，wheninrealityheisdestituteofthem。ItsurelycannotconducetothebenefitofmankindthateachmanshouldhaveadifferentstandardofmoralJudgement，andpreference，andthatthestandardofallshouldvaryfromthatofreality。

　　Thosewhoteachthisimposethedeepestdisgraceuponvirtue。Theyassertinotherwordsthat，whenmenceasetobedeceived，whenthefilmisremovedfromtheireyes，andtheyseethingsastheyare，theywillceasetobeeithergoodorhappy。Uponthesystemoppositetotheirs，thesoundestcriterionofvirtueistoputourselvesintheplaceofanimpartialspectator，ofanangelicnature，suppose，beholdingusfromanelevatedstation，anduninfluencedbyourprejudices，conceivingwhatwouldbehisestimateoftheintrinsiccircumstancesofourneighbour，andactingaccordingly。

　　Havingconsideredthepersonswithwhomjusticeisconversant，letusnextenquireintothedegreeinwhichweareobligedtoconsultthegoodofothers。Andhere，upontheverysamereasons，itwillfollowthatitisjustIshoulddoallthegoodinmypower。Doesapersonindistressapplytomeforrelief？Itismydutytograntit，andIcommitabreachofdutyinrefusing。Ifthisprinciplebenotofuniversalapplication，itisbecause，inconferringabenefituponanindividual，Imayinsomeinstancesinflictaninjuryofsuperiormagnitudeuponmyselforsociety。

　　Nowthesamejusticethatbindsmetoanyindividualofmyfellowmenbindsmetothewhole。If，whileIconferabenefitupononeman，itappear，instrikinganequitablebalance，thatIaminjuringthewhole，myactionceasestoberight，andbecomesabsolutelywrong。ButhowmuchamIboundtodoforthegeneralweal，thatis，forthebenefitoftheindividualsofwhomthewholeiscomposed？Everythinginmypower。Totheneglectofthemeansofmyownexistence？No；forIammyselfapartofthewhole。

　　Beside，itwillrarelyhappenthattheprojectofdoingforotherseverythinginmypowerwillnotdemandforitsexecutionthepreservationofmyownexistence；orinotherwords，itwillrarelyhappenthatIcannotdomoregoodintwentyyearsthaninone。IftheextraordinarycaseshouldoccurinwhichIcanpromotethegeneralgoodbymydeathmorethanbymylife，justicerequiresthatIshouldbecontenttodie。Inothercases，itwillusuallybeincumbentonmetomaintainmybodyandmindintheutmostvigour，andinthebestconditionforservice。4*

　　Suppose，forexample，thatitisrightforonemantopossessagreaterportionofpropertythananother，whetherasthefruitofhisindustry，ortheinheritanceofhisancestors。Justiceobligeshimtoregardthispropertyasatrust，andcallsuponhimmaturelytoconsiderinwhatmanneritmaybeemployedfortheincreaseofliberty，knowledgeandvirtue。Hehasnorighttodisposeofashillingofitatthesuggestionofhiscaprice。

　　Sofarfrombeingentitledtowellearnedapplause，forhavingemployedsomescantypittanceintheserviceofphilanthropy，heisintheeyeofjusticeadelinquentifhewithholdanyportionfromthatservice。Couldthatportionhavebeenbetterormoreworthilyemployed？Thatitcouldisimpliedintheverytermsoftheproposition。Thenitwasjustitshouldhavebeensoemployed——Inthesamemannerasmyproperty，Iholdmypersonasatrustinbehalfofmankind。Iamboundtoemploymytalents，myunderstanding，mystrengthandmytime，fortheproductionofthegreatestquantityofgeneralgood。Sucharethedeclarationsofjustice，sogreatistheextentofmyduty。

　　Butjusticeisreciprocal。IfitbejustthatIshouldconferabenefit，itisjustthatanothermanshouldreceiveit，and，ifIwithholdfromhimthattowhichheisentitled，hemayjustlycomplain。MyneighbourisinwantoftenpoundsthatIcanspareThereisnolawofpoliticalinstitutiontoreachthiscase，andtransferthepropertyfrommetohim。

　　Butinapassivesense，unlessitcanbeshownthatthemoneycanbemorebeneficentlyemployed，hisrightisascompletethoughactivelyhehavenotthesameright，orratherduty，topossesshimselfofitasifhehadmybondinhispossession，orhadsuppliedmewithgoodstotheamount。5*

　　Tothisithassometimesbeenanswered“thatthereismorethanonepersonwhostandsinneedofthemoneyIhavetospare，andofconsequenceImustbeatlibertytobestowitasIplease。”Bynomeans。Ifonlyonepersonofferhimselftomyknowledgeorsearch，tomethereisbutone。

　　ThoseothersthatIcannotfindbelongtootherrichmentoassisteverymanisinrealityrichwhohasmorethanhisjustoccasionsdemand，andnottome。Ifmorethanonepersonoffer，Iamobligedtobalancetheirclaims，andconductmyselfaccordingly。Itisscarcelypossiblethattwomenshouldhaveanexactlyequalclaim，orthatIshouldbeequallycertainrespectingtheclaimoftheoneasoftheother。

　　Itisthereforeimpossibleformetoconferuponanymanafavour；I

　　canonlydohimright。Whateverdeviatesfromthelawofjustice，thoughitshouldbedoneinthefavourofsomeindividualorsomepartofthegeneralwhole，issomuchsubtractedfromthegeneralstock，somuchofabsoluteinjustice。

　　Thereasoningsherealleged，aresufficientclearlytoestablishthecompetenceofjusticeasaprincipleofdeductioninallcasesofmoralenquiry。Theyarethemselvesratherofthenatureofillustrationandexample，and，iferrorbeimputabletotheminparticulars，thiswillnotinvalidatethegeneralconclusion，theproprietyofapplyingmoraljusticeasacriterionintheinvestigationofpoliticaltruth。

　　Societyisnothingmorethananaggregationofindividuals。Itsclaimsanddutiesmustbetheaggregateoftheirclaimsandduties，theonenomoreprecariousandarbitrarythantheother。Whathasthesocietyarighttorequirefromme？Thequestionisalreadyanswered：everythingthatitismydutytodo。Anythingmore？Certainlynot。Canitchangeeternaltruth，orsubvertthenatureofmenandtheiractions？Canitmakemydutyconsistincommittingintemperance，inmaltreatingorassassinatingmyneighbour？——

　　Again，whatisitthatthesocietyisboundtodoforitsmembers？Everythingthatisrequisitefortheirwelfare。Butthenatureoftheirwelfareisdefinedbythenatureofmind。Thatwillmostcontributetoitwhichexpandstheunderstanding，suppliesincitementstovirtue，fillsuswithagenerousconsciousnessofourindependence，andcarefullyremoveswhatevercanimpedeourexertions。

　　Shoulditbeaffirmed，“thatitisnotinthepowerofpoliticalsystemtosecuretoustheseadvantages。”theconclusionwillnotbelessincontrovertible。

　　Itisboundtocontributeeverythingitisabletothesepurposes。Supposeitsinfluenceintheutmostdegreelimited；theremustbeonemethodapproachingnearerthananyothertothedesiredobject，andthatmethodoughttobeuniversallyadopted。Thereisonethingthatpoliticalinstitutionscanassuredlydo，theycanavoidpositivelycounteractingthetrueinterestsoftheirsubjects。Butallcapriciousrulesandarbitrarydistinctionsdopositivelycounteractthem。Thereisscarcelyanymodificationofsocietybuthasinitsomedegreeofmoraltendency。Sofarasitproducesneithermischiefnorbenefit，itisgoodfornothing。Sofarasittendstotheimprovementofthecommunity，itoughttobeuniversallyadopted。

　　NOTES

　　1。Thequestionhowfarimpartialjusticeisamotivecapableofoperatinguponthemindwillbefoundexaminedatlength，BookIV，ChapterX。

　　2。ThisargumentisstatedwithgreatclearnessinanEssayontheNatureofTrueVirtue，byJonathanEdwards，authorofacelebratedworkontheFreedomoftheWill。

　　3。ChapterIV。

　　4。Appendix。No。1。OfSuicide。

　　5。ChapterV。

　　AppendixI。

　　OFSUICIDE

　　Thisreasoningwillthrowsomelightuponthelongdisputedcaseofsuicide。“HaveIarighttodestroymyselfinordertoescapefrompainordistress？“Circumstancesthatshouldjustifysuchanaction，canrarelyoccur。Therearefewsituationsthatcanexcludethepossibilityoffuturelife，vigour，andusefulness。Itwillfrequentlyhappenthattheman，whooncesawnothingbeforehimbutdespair，shallafterwardsenjoyalongperiodofhappinessandhonour。Inthemeantimethepowerofterminatingourownlives，isoneofthefacultieswithwhichweareendowed；andtherefore，likeeveryotherfaculty，isasubjectofmoraldiscipline。Incommonwitheverybranchofmorality，itisatopicofcalculation，astothebalanceofgoodandeviltoresultfromitsemploymentinanyindividualinstance。

　　Weshouldhoweverbescrupulouslyuponourguardagainstthedeceptionsthatmelancholyandimpatiencearesowellcalculatedtoimpose。Weshouldconsiderthat，thoughthepaintobesufferedbyourselvesisbynomeanstobeoverlooked，wearebutone，andthepersonsnearlyorremotelyinterestedinourpossibleusefulnessinnumerable。Eachmanisbutthepartofagreatsystem，andallthathehasissomuchwealthtobeputtotheaccountofthegeneralstock。

　　Thereisanothercaseofsuicideofmoredifficultestimation。WhatshallwethinkofthereasoningofLycurgus，who，whenhedetermineduponavoluntarydeath，remarked“thatallthefacultiesarationalbeingpossessedwerecapableofbeingbenevolentlyemployed，andthat，afterhavingspenthislifeintheserviceofhiscountry，amanought，ifpossible，torenderhisdeathasourceofadditionalbenefit？“ThiswasthemotiveofthesuicideofCodrus，LeonidasandDecius。IfthesamemotiveprevailedinthemuchadmiredsuicideofCato，andhewereinstigatedbyreasonspurelybenevolent，itisimpossiblenottoapplaudhisintention，evenifheweremistakenintheapplication。Thedifficultyistodecidewhetherinanyinstancetherecoursetoavoluntarydeathcanoverbalancetheusefulnesstobedisplayed，intwentyyearsofadditionallife。

　　Additionalimportancewillbereflecteduponthisdisquisitionifwerememberthatmartyrsmarturesaresuicidesbytheverysignificationoftheterm。Theydieforatestimonymartution。Butthatwouldbeimpossibleiftheirdeathwerenottoacertaindegreeavoluntaryaction。Wemustassumethatitwaspossibleforthemtoavoidthisfate，beforewecandrawanyconclusionfromitinfavourofthecausetheyespoused。Theyweredeterminedtodie，ratherthanreflectdishonouronthatcause。

　　AppendixII

　　OFDUELLING

　　Itmaybeproperinthisplacetobestowamoment’sconsiderationuponthetritebutveryimportantcaseofduelling。Ashortreflectionwillsufficetosetitinitstruelight。

　　Thisdespicablepracticewasoriginallyinventedbybarbariansforthegratificationofrevenge。Itwasprobablyatthattimethoughtaveryhappyproject，forreconcilingtheodiousnessofmalignitywiththegallantryofcourage。

　　Butinthislightitisnowgenerallygivenup。Menofthebestunderstandingwholendittheirsanctionareunwillinglyinducedtodoso，andengageinsinglecombatmerelythattheirreputationmaysustainnoslander。

　　Inexaminingthissubjectwemustproceedupononeoftwosuppositions。

　　Eitherthelivesofboththepersonstobehazardedareworthless，ortheyarenot。Inthelattercase，thequestionanswersitself，andcannotstandinneedofdiscussion。Usefullivesarenottobehazarded，fromaviewtothepartialandcontemptibleobloquythatmaybeannexedtotherefusalofsuchaduel，thatis，toanactofvirtue。

　　Whentheduellisttellsmethatheandthepersonthathasoffendedhimareofnopossibleworthtothecommunity，Imayreasonablyconcludethathetalksthelanguageofspleen。But，ifItakehimathisword，isittobeadmitted，thoughhecannotbenefitthecommunity，thatheshouldinjureit？Whatwouldbetheconsequenceifweallowedourselvestoassaileveryonethatwethoughtworthlessintheworld？Inreality，whenhetalksthislanguage，hedesertsthegroundofvindicatinghisinjuredhonour，andshowsthathisconductisthatofavindictiveandbrutalizedsavage。

　　“Buttherefusingaduelisanambiguousaction。Cowardsmaypretendprincipletoshelterthemselvesfromadangertheydarenotmeet。”

　　Thisispartlytrueandpartlyfalse。Therearefewactionsindeedthatarenotambiguous，orthatwiththesamegeneraloutlinemaynotproceedfromdifferentmotives。Butthemannerofdoingthemwillsufficientlyshowtheprinciplefromwhichtheyspring。

　　He，thatwouldbreakthroughareceivedcustombecausehebelievesittobewrong，mustnodoubtarmhimselfwithfortitude。Thepointinwhichweprincipallyfail，isinnotaccuratelyunderstandingourownintentions，andtakingcarebeforehandtopurifyourselvesfromeveryalloyofweaknessanderror。He，whocomesforwardwithnootherideabutthatofrectitude，andwhoexpresses，withthesimplicityandfirmnesswhichconvictionneverfailstoinspire，theviewswithwhichheispenetrated，isinnodangerofbeingmistakenforacoward。Ifhehesitate，itisbecausehehasnotanideaperfectlyclearofthesentimentheintendstoconvey。Ifhebeinanydegreeembarrassed，itisbecausehehasnotafeelingsufficientlygenerousandintrepidofthedemeritoftheactioninwhichheisurgedtoengage。

　　Ifcouragehaveanyintelligiblenature，oneofitsprincipalfruitsmustbethedaringtospeaktruthatalltimes，toallpersons，andineverypossiblesituationinwhichawellinformedsenseofdutymayprescribeit。Whatisitbutthewantofcouragethatshouldpreventmefromsaying，“Sir，Iwillnotacceptyourchallenge。HaveIinjuredyou？Iwillreadilyandwithoutcompulsionrepairmyinjusticetotheuttermostmite。Haveyoumisconstruedme？Statetometheparticulars，anddoubtnotthatwhatistrueIwillmakeappeartobetrue。IshouldbeanotoriouscriminalwereItoattemptyourlife，orassistyouinanattemptuponmine。Whatcompensationwilltheopinionoftheworldmakefortherecollectionofsovileandbrutalaproceeding？Thereisnotrueapplausebutwheretheheartofhimthatreceivesitbeatsinunison。Thereisnocensureterriblewhiletheheartrepelsitwithconsciousintegrity。IamnotthecowardtodoadeedthatmysouldetestsbecauseIcannotendurethescoffsofthemistaken。Lossofreputationisaseriousevil。ButIwillactsothatnomanshallsuspectmeofirresolutionandpusillanimity。”Hethatshouldfirmlyholdthislanguage，andactaccordingly，wouldsoonbeacquittedofeverydishonourableimputation。

　　CHAPTERIII

　　OFTHEEQUALITYOFMANKIND

　　Theprinciplesofjustice，asexplainedintheprecedingchapter，proceedupontheassumptionoftheequalityofmankind。Thisequalityiseitherphysicalormoral。Physicalequalitymaybeconsideredeitherasitrelatestothestrengthofthebodyorthefacultiesofthemind。

　　Thispartofthesubjecthasbeenexposedtocavilandobjection。Ithasbeensaid“thatthereverseofthisequalityistheresultofourexperience。

　　Amongtheindividualsofourspecies，weactuallyfindthattherearenottwoalike。Onemanisstrong，andanotherweak。Onemaniswise，andanotherfoolish。Allthatexistsintheworldoftheinequalityofconditionsistobetracedtothisastheirsource。Thestrongmanpossessespowertosubdue，andtheweakstandsinneedofanallytoprotect。Theconsequenceisinevitable：theequalityofconditionsisachimericalassumption，neitherpossibletobereducedintopractice，nordesirableifitcouldbesoreduced。”

　　Uponthisstatementtwoobservationsaretobemade。First，thisinequalitywasinitsorigininfinitelylessthanitisatpresent。Intheuncultivatedstateofman，diseases，effeminacyandluxurywerelittleknown；and，ofconsequence，thestrengthofeveryonemuchmorenearlyapproachedtothestrengthofhisneighbour。Intheuncultivatedstateofman，theunderstandingsofallwerelimited，theirwants，theirideasandtheirviewsnearlyuponalevel。Itwastobeexpectedthat，intheirfirstdeparturefromthisstate，greatirregularitieswouldintroducethemselves；anditistheobjectofsubsequentwisdomandimprovementtomitigatetheseirregularities。

　　Secondly，Notwithstandingtheencroachmentsthathavebeenmadeupontheequalityofmankind，agreatandsubstantialequalityremains。Thereisnosuchdisparityamongthehumanraceastoenableonemantoholdseveralothermeninsubjection，exceptsofarastheyarewillingtobesubject。Allgovernmentisfoundedinopinion。Menatpresentliveunderanyparticularformbecausetheyconceiveittheirinteresttodoso。Onepartindeedofacommunityorempiremaybeheldinsubjectionbyforce；

　　butthiscannotbethepersonalforceoftheirdespot；itmustbetheforceofanotherpartofthecommunity，whoareofopinionthatitistheirinteresttosupporthisauthority。Destroythisopinion，andthefabricwhichisbuiltuponitfallstotheground。Itfollowsthereforethatallmenareessentiallyindependent——Somuchforthephysicalequality。

　　Themoralequalityisstilllessopentoreasonableexception。BymoralequalityIunderstand，theproprietyofapplyingoneunalterableruleofjusticetoeverycasethatmayarise。Thiscannotbequestioned，butuponargumentsthatwouldsubverttheverynatureofvirtue。“Equality。”ithasbeenaffirmed，“willalwaysbeanunintelligiblefiction，solongasthecapacitiesofmenshallbeunequal，andtheirpretendedclaimshaveneitherguaranteenorsanctionbywhichtheycanbeenforced。”1*Butsurelyjusticeissufficientlyintelligibleinitsownnature，abstractedlyfromtheconsiderationwhetheritbeorbenotreducedintopractice。Justicehasrelationtobeingsendowedwithperception，andcapableofpleasureandpain。Nowitimmediatelyresultsfromthenatureofsuchbeings，independentlyofanyarbitraryconstitution，thatpleasureisagreeableandpainodious，pleasuretobedesiredandpaintobedisapproved。Itisthereforejustandreasonablethatsuchbeingsshouldcontribute，sofarasitliesintheirpower，tothepleasureandbenefitofeachother。Amongpleasures，somearemoreexquisite，moreunalloyedandlessprecariousthanothers。

　　Itisjustthattheseshouldbepreferred。

　　Fromthesesimpleprincipleswemaydeducethemoralequalityofmankind。

　　Wearepartakersofacommonnature，andthesamecausesthatcontributetothebenefitofonewillcontributetothebenefitofanother。Oursensesandfacultiesareofthesamedenomination。Ourpleasuresandpainswillthereforebealike。Weareallofusendowedwithreason，abletocompare，tojudgeandtoinfer。Theimprovementthereforewhichistobedesiredforoneistobedesiredforanother。Weshallbeprovidentforourselves，andusefultoeachotherinproportionasweriseabovethesphereofprejudice。

　　Thesameindependence，thesamefreedomfromanysuchrestraint，asshouldpreventusfromgivingthereinstoourownunderstanding，orfromuttering，uponalloccasions，whateverwethinktobetrue，willconducetotheimprovementofall。Therearecertainopportunitiesandacertainsituationmostadvantageoustoeveryhumanbeing，anditisjustthattheseshouldbecommunicatedtoall，asnearlyasthegeneraleconomywillpermit。

　　Thereisindeedonespeciesofmoralinequality，paralleltothephysicalinequalitythathasbeenalreadydescribed。Thetreatmenttowhichmenareentitledistobemeasuredbytheirmeritsandtheirvirtues。Thatcountrywouldnotbetheseatofwisdomandreasonwherethebenefactorofhisspecieswasregardedwithnogreaterdegreeofcomplacencethantheirenemy。Butinrealitythisdistinction，sofarfrombeingadversetoequalityinanytenablesense，isfriendlytoit，andisaccordinglyknownbytheappellationofequity，atermderivedfromthesameorigin。

　　Thoughinsomesenseallexception，ittendstothesamepurposetowhichtheprincipleitselfisindebtedforitsvalue。Itiscalculatedloinfuseintoeverybosomanemulationofexcellence。Thethingreallylobedesiredistheremovingasmuchaspossiblearbitrarydistinctions，andleavingtotalentsandvirtuethefieldofexertionunimpaired。Weshouldendeavourtoaffordtoallthesameopportunitiesandthesameencouragement，andtorenderjusticethecommoninterestandchoice。

　　Itshouldbeobservedthattheobjectofthischapterisbarelytopresentageneraloutlineoftheprincipleofequality。Thepracticalinferencesthatflowfromitmustremaintobedetailedundersubsequentheadsofenquiry。

　　NOTES：

　　1。“Onadit-quenousavionstouslesm&ecirc；mesdroits。J’ignorecequec’estruelesm&ecirc；mesdroits，o&ugrave；ilyain&eacute；galit&eacute；

　　detalensoudeforce，etnullegarantie，nullesanction。”Raynal，Revolutiond’Am&eacute；rique，p。34。

　　CHAPTERIV

　　OFPERSONALVIRTUEANDDUTY

　　Therearetwosubjects，oftheutmostimportancetoajustdelineationoftheprinciplesofsociety，whichare，onthataccount，entitledtoaseparateexamination：thedutiesincumbentonmenlivinginsociety，andtherightsaccruingtothem。Thesearemerelydifferentmodesofexpressingtheprincipleofjustice，asitshallhappentobeconsideredinitsrelationtotheagentorthepatient。DutyisthetreatmentIamboundtobestowuponothers；rightisthetreatmentIamentitledtoexpectfromthem。

　　Thiswillmorefullyappearinthesequel。

　　First，ofpersonalvirtueandduty。

　　Virtue，likeeveryothertermofgeneralscience，maybeunderstoodeitherabsolutely，orasthequalificationandattributeofaparticularbeing：inotherwords，itisonethingtoenquirewhetheranactionisvirtuous，andanothertoenquirewhetheramanisvirtuous。Theformerofthesequestionsisconsiderablysimple；thelatterismorecomplex，andwillrequireanexaminationofseveralcircumstancesbeforeitcanbesatisfactorilydetermined。

　　InthefirstsenseIwoulddefinevirtuetobeanyactionoractionsofanintelligentbeingproceedingfromkindandbenevolentintention，andhavingatendencytocontributetogeneralhappiness。Thusdefined，itdistributesitselfundertwoheads；and，inwhateverinstanceeitherthetendencyortheintentioniswanting，thevirtueisincomplete。Anaction，howeverpuremaybetheintentionoftheagent，thetendencyofwhichismischievous，orwhichshallmerelybenugatoryanduselessinitscharacter，isnotavirtuousaction。Wereitotherwise，weshouldbeobligedtoconcedetheappellationofvirtuetothemostnefariousdeedsofbigots，persecutorsandreligiousassassins，andtotheweakestobservancesofadeludedsuperstition。Stilllessdoesanaction，theconsequencesofwhichshallbesupposedtobeinthehighestdegreebeneficial，butwhichproceedsfromamean，corruptanddegradingmotive，deservetheappellationofvirtue。Avirtuousactionisthat，ofwhichboththemotiveandthetendencyconcurtoexciteourapprobation。

　　Letusproceedfromtheconsiderationoftheactiontothatoftheagent。

　　Beforewecandecideuponthedegreeinwhichanymanisentitledtobedenominatedvirtuous，wemustcomparehisperformancewithhismeans。Itisnotenough，thathisconductisattendedwithanoverbalanceofgoodintentionandbeneficialresults。Ifitappearthathehasscarcelyproducedthetenthpartofthatbenefit，eitherinmagnitudeorextent。whichhewascapableofproducing，itisonlyillaverylimitedsensethathecanbeconsideredasavirtuousman。

　　Whatisittherefore，weareledtoenquire，thatconstitutesthecapacityofanyman？Capacityisanideaproducedinthemindbyacontemplationoftheassemblageofpropertiesinanysubstance，andtheusestowhichasubstancesocircumstancedmaybeapplied。Thusagivenportionofmetal，maybeformed，atthepleasureofthemanufacturer，intovariousimplements，aknife，arazor，asword，adozenofcoat-buttons，etc。Thisisonestageofcapacity。Asecondis，whenithasalreadyreceivedtheformofaknife，and，beingdismissedbythemanufacturer，fallsintothehandsofthepersonwhointendsitforhisprivateuse。Bythispersonitmaybedevotedtopurposes，beneficial，perniciousoridle——Toapplytheseconsiderationstothenatureofahumanbeing。

　　Wearenothereenquiringrespectingthecapacityofmanabsolutelyspeaking，butofanindividual；theperformerofagivenaction，orthepersonwhohasengagedinacertainseriesofconduct。Inthesamemannerthereforeastheknifemaybeappliedtovariouspurposesatthepleasureofitspossessor，soanindividualendowedwithcertainqualifications，mayengageinvariouspursuits，accordingtotheviewsthatarepresentedtohim，andthemotivesthatactuatehismind。