Iaccepted，providinghewouldpayitattherateof$6000ayearforseventeenyears。Thiswasdone，andthus，withthetelephonemoney，Ireceived$12，000yearlyforthatperiodfromtheWesternUnionTelegraphCompany。“
AyearortwolaterthemotographcroppedupagaininEdison\'sworkinacuriousmanner。ThetelephonewasbeingdevelopedinEngland，andEdisonhadmadearrangementswithColonelGouraud，hisoldassociateintheautomatictelegraph，torepresenthisinterests。Acompanywasformed，alargenumberofinstrumentsweremadeandsenttoGouraudinLondon，andprospectswerebright。ThentherecameathreatoflitigationfromtheownersoftheBellpatent，andGouraudfoundhecouldnotpushtheenterpriseunlesshecouldavoidusingwhatwasassertedtobeaninfringementoftheBellreceiver。
HecabledforhelptoEdison，whosentbackwordtellinghimtoholdthefort。“Ihadrecourseagain，“
saysEdison，“tothephenomenondiscoveredbymeyearsprevious，thatthefrictionofarubbingelectrodepassingoveramoistchalksurfacewasvariedbyelectricity。Idevisedatelephonereceiverwhichwasafterwardknownasthe`loud-speakingtelephone，\'
or`chalkreceiver。\'Therewasnomagnet，simplyadiaphragmandacylinderofcompressedchalkaboutthesizeofathimble。Athinspringconnectedtothecentreofthediaphragmextendedoutwardlyandrestedonthechalkcylinder，andwaspressedagainstitwithapressureequaltothatwhichwouldbeduetoaweightofaboutsixpounds。Thechalkwasrotatedbyhand。Thevolumeofsoundwasverygreat。ApersontalkingintothecarbontransmitterinNewYorkhadhisvoicesoamplifiedthathecouldbeheardonethousandfeetawayinanopenfieldatMenloPark。Thisgreatexcessofpowerwasduetothefactthatthelattercamefromthepersonturningthehandle。Thevoice，insteadoffurnishingallthepoweraswiththepresentreceiver，merelycontrolledthepower，justasanengineerworkingavalvewouldcontrolapowerfulengine。
“Imadesixofthesereceiversandsenttheminchargeofanexpertonthefirststeamer。Theywerewelcomedandtested，andshortlyafterwardIshippedahundredmore。AtthesametimeIwasorderedtosendtwentyyoungmen，afterteachingthemtobecomeexpert。Isetupanexchange，aroundthelaboratory，ofteninstruments。Iwouldthengooutandgeteachoneoutoforderineveryconceivableway，cuttingthewiresofone，short-circuitinganother，destroyingtheadjustmentofathird，puttingdirtbetweentheelectrodesofafourth，andsoon。
Amanwouldbesenttoeachtofindoutthetrouble。
Whenhecouldfindthetroubletenconsecutivetimes，usingfiveminuteseach，hewassenttoLondon。
Aboutsixtymenweresiftedtogettwenty。
Beforeallhadarrived，theBellcompanythere，seeingwecouldnotbestopped，enteredintonegotiationsforconsolidation。OnedayIreceivedacablefromGouraudoffering`30，000\'formyinterest。IcabledbackIwouldaccept。WhenthedraftcameIwasastonishedtofinditwasforL30，000。Ihadthoughtitwasdollars。“
Inregardtothissingularandhappyconclusion，Edisonmakessomeinterestingcommentsastotheattitudeofthecourtstowardinventors，andthedifferencebetweenAmericanandEnglishcourts。“ThemenIsentoverwereusedtoestablishtelephoneexchangesallovertheContinent，andsomeofthembecamewealthy。ItwasamongthiscrowdinLondonthatBernardShawwasemployedbeforehebecamefamous。ThechalktelephonewasfinallydiscardedinfavoroftheBellreceiver——thelatterbeingmoresimpleandcheaper。Extensivelitigationwithnew-comersfollowed。Mycarbon-transmitterpatentwassustained，andpreservedthemonopolyofthetelephoneinEnglandformanyyears。Bell\'spatentwasnotsustainedbythecourts。SirRichardWebster，nowChief-JusticeofEngland，wasmycounsel，andsustainedallofmypatentsinEnglandformanyyears。Websterhasamarvellouscapacityforunderstandingthingsscientific；andhisaddressbeforethecourtswaslucidityitself。Hisbrainishighlyorganized。
Myexperiencewiththelegalfraternityisthatscientificsubjectsaredistastefultothem，anditisrareinthiscountry，onaccountofthesystemoftryingpatentsuits，forajudgereallytoreachthemeatofthecontroversy，andinventorsscarcelyevergetadecisionsquarelyandentirelyintheirfavor。
Thefaultrests，inmyjudgment，almostwhollywiththesystemunderwhichtestimonytotheextentofthousandsofpagesbearingonallconceivablesubjects，manyofthemhavingnopossibleconnectionwiththeinventionindispute，ispresentedtoanover-
workedjudgeinanhourortwoofargumentsupportedbyseveralhundredpagesofbriefs；andthejudgeissupposedtoextractsomeessenceofjusticefromthismassofconflicting，blind，andmisleadingstatements。Itisahumanimpossibility，nomatterhowableandfair-mindedthejudgemaybe。InEnglandthecaseisdifferent。Therethejudgesarefacetofacewiththeexpertsandotherwitnesses。
Theygetthetestimonyfirst-handandonlysomuchastheyneed，andtherearenolong-windedbriefsandarguments，andthecaseisdecidedthenandthere，afewmonthsperhapsaftersuitisbrought，insteadofmanyyearsafterward，asinthiscountry。AndinEngland，whenacaseisoncefinallydecideditissettledforthewholecountry，whilehereitisnotso。
Hereapatenthavingoncebeensustained，say，inBoston，mayhavetobelitigatedalloveragaininNewYork，andagaininPhiladelphia，andsoonforalltheFederalcircuits。Furthermore，itseemstomethatscientificdisputesshouldbedecidedbysomecourtcontainingatleastoneortwoscientificmen——
mencapableofcomprehendingthesignificanceofaninventionandthedifficultiesofitsaccomplishment——ifjusticeisevertobegiventoaninventor。
AndIthink，also，thatthiscourtshouldhavethepowertosummonbeforeitandexamineanyrecognizedexpertinthespecialart，whomightbeabletotestifytoFACTSfororagainstthepatent，insteadoftryingtogatherthetruthfromthetediousessaysofhiredexperts，whosedepositionsarereallynothingbutswornarguments。Therealgistofpatentsuitsisgenerallyverysimple，andIhavenodoubtthatanyjudgeoffairintelligence，assistedbyoneormorescientificadvisers，couldinacoupleofdaysatthemostexamineallthenecessarywitnesses；hearallthenecessaryarguments，andactuallydecideanordinarypatentsuitinawaythatwouldmorenearlybejust，thancannowbedoneatanexpenditureofahundredtimesasmuchmoneyandmonthsandyearsofpreparation。AndIhavenodoubtthatthetimetakenbythecourtwouldbeenormouslyless，becauseifajudgeattemptstoreadthebulkyrecordsandbriefs，thatworkalonewouldrequireseveraldays。
“Actingasjudges，inventorswouldnotbeveryapttocorrectlydecideacomplicatedlawpoint；andontheotherhand，itishardtoseehowalawyercandecideacomplicatedscientificpointrightly。SomeinventorscomplainofourPatentOffice，butmyownexperiencewiththePatentOfficeisthattheexaminersarefair-mindedandintelligent，andwhentheyrefuseapatenttheyaregenerallyright；butIthinkthewholetroublelieswiththesysteminvogueintheFederalcourtsfortryingpatentsuits，andinthefact，whichcannotbedisputed，thattheFederaljudges，withbutfewexceptions，donotcomprehendcomplicatedscientificquestions。TosecureuniformityintheseveralFederalcircuitsandcorrecterrors，ithasbeenproposedtoestablishacentralcourtofpatentappealsinWashington。ThisIbelievein；
butthiscourtshouldalsocontainatleasttwoscientificmen，whowouldnotbeblindtothesophistryofpaidexperts。[7]Menwhoseinventionswouldhavecreatedwealthofmillionshavebeenruinedandpreventedfrommakinganymoneywherebytheycouldcontinuetheircareersascreatorsofwealthforthegeneralgood，justbecausetheexpertsbefuddledthejudgebytheirmisleadingstatements。“
[7]Asanillustrationoftheperplexingnatureofexpertevidenceinpatentcases，thereaderwillprobablybeinterestedinperusingthefollowingextractsfromtheopinionofJudgeDayton，inthesuitofBryceBros。Co。vs。SenecaGlassCo。，triedintheUnitedStatesCircuitCourt，NorthernDistrictofWestVirginia，reportedinTheFederalReporter，140，page161：
“Onthissubjectofthevalidityofthispatent，avastamountofconflicting，technical，perplexing，andalmosthypercriticaldiscussionandopinionhasbeenindulged，bothinthetestimonyandintheableandexhaustiveargumentsandbriefsofcounsel。
ExpertOsbornfordefendant，aftersettingforthminutelyhissuperiorqualificationsmechanicaleducation，andgreatexperience，takesupindetailthepatentclaims，andshowstohisownentiresatisfactionthatnoneofthemarenew；thatallofthemhavebeenapplied，underoneformoranother，insometwenty-
twopreviouspatents，andintwoothermachines，notpatented，to-wit，theCentralGlassandKunyKahbelones；thatthewholemachineisonly`anaggregationofwell-knownmechanicalelementsthatanyskilleddesignerwouldbringtohisuseintheconstructionofsuchamachine。\'Thiscertainly，underordinaryconditions，wouldsettlethematterbeyondperadventure；forthiswitnessisaverywiseandlearnedmaninthesethings，andverypositive。ButexpertClarkeappearsfortheplaintiff，andaftersettingforthjustasminutelyhissuperiorqualifications，mechanicaleducation，andgreatexperience，whichappearfullyequalinallrespectstothoseofexpertOsborn，proceedstotakeupindetailthepatentclaims，andshowstohisentiresatisfactionthatall，withpossiblyoneexception，arenew，showinventivegenius，anddistinctadvancesuponthepriorart。Inthemostlucid，andevenfascinating，wayhediscussesallthepartsofthismachine，comparesitwiththeothers，drawsdistinctions，pointsoutthemeritsoftheoneincontroversyandthedefectsofalltheothers，considersthetwenty-oddpatentsreferredtobyOsborn，andinthepolitest，butneatest，mannerimaginableshowsthatexpertOsborndidnotknowwhathewastalkingabout，andsumsthewholematterupbydeclaringthis`inventionofMr。
Schrader\'s，asembodiedinthepatentinsuit，aradicalandwidedeparture，fromtheKahbelmachine\'admittedonallsidestobenearestpriorapproachtoit，`adistinctandimportantadvanceintheartofengravingglassware，andgenerallyamachineforthispurposewhichhasinvolvedtheexerciseoftheinventivefacultyinthehighestdegree。\'
“Thusamoreradicalandirreconcilabledisagreementbetweenexpertstouchingthesamethingcouldhardlybefound。Soitiswiththetestimony。Ifwetakethatforthedefendant，theCentralGlassCompanymachine，andespeciallytheKunyKahbelmachine，builtandoperatedyearsbeforethispatentissued，andnotpatented，arejustasgood，justaseffectiveandpractical，asthisone，andcapableofturningoutjustasperfectworkandasgreatavarietyofit。Ontheotherhand，ifwetakethatproducedbytheplaintiff，wearedriventotheconclusionthatthesepriormachines，theproductofthesamemind，wereonlyprogressivestepsforwardfromutterdarkness，sotospeak，intofullinventivesunlight，whichmadecleartohimthesolutionoftheprobleminthispatentedmachine。Theshortcomingsoftheearliermachinesareminutelysetforth，andthewitnessesfortheplaintiffareclearthattheyareneitherpracticalnorprofitable。
“Butthisisnotallofthetroublethatconfrontsusinthiscase。Counselofbothsides，withanindomitablecouragethatmustcommandadmiration，acouragethathasledthemtoavastamountofstudy，investigation，andthought，thatinfacthasmadethemallexperts，havedissectedthisrecordof356closelyprintedpages，appliedallmechanicalprinciplesandlawstothefactsastheyseethem，and，besides，haveransackedthelaw-
booksandcitedanenormousnumberofcases，moreorlessinpoint，asillustrationoftheirrespectivecontentions。Thecourtsfindnothingmoredifficultthantoapplyanabstractprincipletoallclassesofcasesthatmayarise。Thefactsineachcasesofrequentlycreateanexceptiontothegeneralrulethatsuchrulemustbehonoredratherinitsbreachthaninitsobservance。
Therefore，afteracarefulexaminationofthesecases，itisnocriticismofthecourtstosaythatbothsideshavefoundabundantandaboutanequalamountofauthoritytosustaintheirrespectivecontentions，and，asaresult，counselhavesubmitted，inbriefs，asumtotalof225closelyprintedpages，inwhichtheyhaveclearly，yet，almosttoamathematicalcertainty，demonstratedontheonesidethatthisSchradermachineisnewandpatentable，andontheotherthatitisoldandnotso。Underthesecircumstances，itwouldbeunnecessarylaborandafruitlesstaskformetoenterintoanyfurthertechnicaldiscussionofthemechanicalproblemsinvolved，forthepurposeofseekingtoconvinceeithersideofitserror。Incasesofsuchperplexityasthisgenerallysomeincidentsappearthatspeakmoreunerringlythandothetonguesofthewitnesses，andtosomeoftheseIpurposetonowrefer。“
Mr。BernardShaw，thedistinguishedEnglishauthor，hasgivenamostvividandamusingpictureofthisintroductionofEdison\'stelephoneintoEngland，describingtheapparatusas“amuchtooingeniousinvention，beingnothinglessthanatelephoneofsuchstentorianefficiencythatitbellowedyourmostprivatecommunicationsalloverthehouse，insteadofwhisperingthemwithsomesortofdiscretion。“Shaw，asayoungman，wasemployedbytheEdisonTelephoneCompany，andwasverymuchalivetohissurroundings，oftenassistinginpublicdemonstra-
tionsoftheapparatus“inamannerwhichIampersuadedlaidthefoundationofMr。Edison\'sreputation。“ThesketchofthemensentoverfromAmericaisgraphic：“WhilsttheEdisonTelephoneCompanylasteditcrowdedthebasementofahighpileofofficesinQueenVictoriaStreetwithAmericanartificers。ThesedeludedandromanticmengavemeaglimpseoftheskilledproletariatoftheUnitedStates。Theysangobsoletesentimentalsongswithgenuineemotion；andtheirlanguagewasfrightfuleventoanIrishman。Theyworkedwithaferociousenergywhichwasoutofallproportiontotheactualresultachieved。Indomitablyresolvedtoasserttheirrepublicanmanhoodbytakingnoordersfromatall-
hattedEnglishmanwhosestiffpolitenesscoveredhisconvictionthattheywererelativelytohimselfinferiorandcommonpersons，theyinsistedonbeingslave-drivenwithgenuineAmericanoathsbyagenuinefreeandequalAmericanforeman。TheyutterlydespisedtheartfullyslowBritishworkman，whodidaslittleforhiswagesashepossiblycould；
neverhurriedhimself；andhadadeepreverenceforonewhosepocketcouldbetappedbyrespectfulbehavior。NeedIaddthattheywerecontemptuouslywonderedatbythissameBritishworkmanasaparcelofoutlandishadultboyswhosweatedthemselvesfortheiremployer\'sbenefitinsteadoflookingaftertheirowninterest？TheyadoredMr。Edisonasthegreatestmanofalltimeineverypossibledepartmentofscience，art，andphilosophy，andexecratedMr。GrahamBell，theinventoroftherivaltelephone，ashisSatanicadversary；buteachofthemhadorintendedtohaveonthebrinkofcompletionanimprovementonthetelephone，usuallyanewtransmitter。
Theywerefree-souledcreatures，excellentcompany，sensitive，cheerful，andprofane；liars，braggarts，andhustlers，withanairofmakingslowoldEnglandhum，whichneverleftthemevenwhen，asoftenhappened，theywerewrestlingwithdifficultiesoftheirownmaking，orstrugglinginno-
thoroughfares，fromwhichtheyhadtoberetrievedlikestraysheepbyEnglishmenwithoutimaginationenoughtogowrong。“
Mr。SamuelInsull，whoafterwardbecameprivatesecretarytoMr。Edison，andaleaderinthedevelopmentofAmericanelectricalmanufacturingandthecentral-stationart，wasalsoinclosetouchwiththeLondonsituationthusdepicted，beingatthetimeprivatesecretarytoColonelGouraud，andactingforthefirsthalfhourastheamateurtelephoneoperatorinthefirstexperimentalexchangeerectedinEurope。
HetooknotesofanearlymeetingwheretheaffairsofthecompanywerediscussedbyleadingmenlikeSirJohnLubbockLordAveburyandtheRightHon。
E。P。Bouveriethenacabinetminister，noneofwhomcouldseeinthetelephonemuchmorethananauxiliaryforgettingoutpromptlyinthenextmorning\'spapersthemidnightdebatesinParliament。“I
rememberanotherincident，“saysMr。Insull。“ItwasatsomecelebrationofoneoftheRoyalSocietiesattheBurlingtonHouse，Piccadilly。Wehadatelephonelinerunningacrosstheroofstothebasementofthebuilding。IthinkitwastoTyndall\'slaboratoryinBurlingtonStreet。Astheladiesandgentle-
mencamethrough，theynaturallywantedtolookatthegreatcuriosity，theloud-speakingtelephone：infact，anytelephonewasacuriositythen。Mr。andMrs。Gladstonecamethrough。IwashandlingthetelephoneattheBurlingtonHouseend。Mrs。Gladstoneaskedthemanoverthetelephonewhetherheknewifamanorwomanwasspeaking；andthereplycameinquiteloudtonesthatitwasaman！”
WithMr。E。H。Johnson，whorepresentedEdison，therewenttoEnglandforthefurtheranceofthistelephoneenterprise，Mr。CharlesEdison，anephewoftheinventor。HediedinParis，October，1879，nottwentyyearsofage。Stimulatedbytheexampleofhisuncle，thisbrilliantyouthhadalreadymadeamarkforhimselfasastudentandinventor，andwhenonlyeighteenhesecuredinopencompetitionthecontracttoinstallacompletefire-alarmtelegraphsystemforPortHuron。AfewmonthslaterhewaseagerlywelcomedbyhisuncleatMenloPark，andafterworkingonthetelephonewassenttoLondontoaidinitsintroduction。TherehemadetheacquaintanceofProfessorTyndall，exhibitedthetelephonetothelateKingofEngland；andalsowonthefriendshipofthelateKingoftheBelgians，withwhomhetookuptheprojectofestablishingtelephoniccommunicationbetweenBelgiumandEngland。AtthetimeofhisprematuredeathhewasengagedininstallingtheEdisonquadruplexbetweenBrusselsandParis，beingoneoftheveryfewpersonstheninEuropefamiliarwiththeworkingofthatinvention。
Meantime，thetelephonicartinAmericawasundergoingveryrapiddevelopment。InMarch，1878，addressing“thecapitalistsoftheElectricTelephoneCompany“onthefutureofhisinvention，Belloutlinedwithpropheticforesightandremarkableclearnessthecomingofthemoderntelephoneexchange。Comparingwithgasandwaterdistribution，hesaid：“Inasimilarmanner，itisconceivablethatcablesoftelephonewirescouldbelaidundergroundorsuspendedoverheadcommunicatingbybranchwireswithprivatedwellings，countryhouses，shops，manufactories，etc。，unitingthemthroughthemaincablewithacentraloffice，wherethewirecouldbeconnectedasdesired，establishingdirectcommunicationbetweenanytwoplacesinthecity……
Notonlyso，butIbelieve，inthefuture，wireswillunitetheheadofficesoftelephonecompaniesindifferentcities；andamaninonepartofthecountrymaycommunicatebywordofmouthwithanotherinadistantplace。“
Allofwhichhascometopass。ProfessorBellalsosuggestedhowthiscouldbedoneby“theemployofamanineachcentralofficeforthepurposeofconnectingthewiresasdirected。“Healsoindicatedthetwomethodsoftelephonictariff——afixedrentalandatoll；andmentionedthepractice，nowinuseonlong-distancelines，ofatimecharge。Asamatteroffact，this“centralizing“wasattemptedinMay，1877，inBoston，withthecircuitsoftheHolmesburglar-alarmsystem，fourbanking-housesbeingthusinterconnected；whileinJanuaryof1878theBelltelephonecentral-officesystematNewHaven，Connecticut，wasopenedforbusiness，“thefirstfullyequippedcommercialtelephoneexchangeeverestablishedforpublicorgeneralservice。“
AllthroughthisformativeperiodBellhadadheredtoandintroducedthemagnetoformoftelephone，nowusedonlyasareceiver，andverypoorlyadaptedforthevitalfunctionofaspeech-transmitter。FromAugust，1877，theWesternUnionTelegraphCompanyworkedalongtheotherline，andin1878，withitsalliedGold&StockTelegraphCompany，itbroughtintoexistencetheAmericanSpeakingTelephoneCompanytointroducetheEdisonapparatus，andtocreatetelephoneexchangesalloverthecountry。
Inthiswarfare，thepossessionofagoodbatterytransmittercountedveryheavilyinfavoroftheWesternUnion，foruponthattherealexpansionofthewholeindustrydepended；butinafewmonthstheBellsystemhaditsbatterytransmitter，too，tendingtoequalizematters。LateinthesameyearpatentlitigationwasbegunwhichbroughtoutclearlythemeritsofBell，throughhispatent，astheoriginalandfirstinventoroftheelectricspeakingtelephone；
andtheWesternUnionTelegraphCompanymadetermswithitsrival。AfamouscontractbearingdateofNovember10，1879，showedthatundertheEdisonandothercontrollingpatentstheWesternUnionCompanyhadalreadysetgoingsomeeighty-
fiveexchanges，andwasmakinglargequantitiesoftelephonicapparatus。Inreturnforitsvoluntaryretirementfromthetelephonicfield，theWesternUnionTelegraphCompany，underthiscontract，receivedaroyaltyof20percent。ofallthetelephoneearningsoftheBellsystemwhiletheBellpatentsran；andthuscametoenjoyanannualincomeofseveralhundredthousanddollarsforsomeyears，basedchieflyonitsmodestinvestmentinEdison\'swork。
ItwasalsopaidseveralthousanddollarsincashfortheEdison，Phelps，Gray，andotherapparatusonhand。Itsecuredfurther40percent。ofthestockofthelocaltelephonesystemsofNewYorkandChicago；andlast，butbynomeansleast，itexactedfromtheBellinterestsanagreementtostayoutofthetelegraphfield。
ByMarch，1881，therewereintheUnitedStatesonlyninecitiesofmorethantenthousandinhabitants，andonlyoneofmorethanfifteenthousand，withoutatelephoneexchange。Theindustrythrivedundercompetition，andtheabsenceofitnowhadadecidedeffectincheckinggrowth；forwhentheBellpatentexpiredin1893，thetotaloftelephonesetsinoperationintheUnitedStateswasonly291，253。
ToquotefromanofficialBellstatement：
“ThebriefbutvigorousWesternUnioncompetitionwasakindofblessingindisguise。Theveryfactthattwodistinctinterestswereactivelyengagedintheworkoforganizingandestablishingcompetingtelephoneexchangesalloverthecountry，greatlyfacilitatedthespreadoftheideaandthegrowthofthebusiness，andfamiliarizedthepeoplewiththeuseofthetelephoneasabusinessagency；whilethekeennessofthecompetition，extendingtotheagentsandemployeesofbothcompanies，broughtaboutaswiftbutquiteunforeseenandunlooked-
forexpansionintheindividualexchangesofthelargercities，andacorrespondingadvanceintheirimportance，value，andusefulness。“
Thetruthofthiswasimmediatelyshownin1894，aftertheBellpatentshadexpired，bythetremendousoutburstofnewcompetitiveactivity，in“independent“
countrysystemsandtolllinesthroughsparselysettleddistricts——workforwhichtheEdisonapparatusandmethodswerepeculiarlyadapted，yetagainstwhichtheinfluenceoftheEdisonpatentwasinvoked。ThedatasecuredbytheUnitedStatesCensusOfficein1902showedthatthewholeindustryhadmadegiganticleapsineightyears，andhad2，371，044telephonestationsinservice，ofwhich1，053，866werewhollyornominallyindependentoftheBell。By1907anevenmorenotableincreasewasshown，andtheCensusfiguresforthatyearincludednofewerthan6，118，578stations，ofwhich1，986，575were“independent。“Thesesixmillioninstrumentseverysinglesetemployingtheprincipleofthecarbontransmitter——weregroupedinto15，527
publicexchanges，intheverymannerpredictedbyBellthirtyyearsbefore，andtheygaveserviceintheshapeofoverelevenbillionsoftalks。Theoutstandingcapitalizedvalueoftheplantwas$814，616，004，theincomefortheyearwasnearly$185，000，000，andthepeopleemployedwere140，000。IfEdisonhaddonenothingelse，hisshareinthecreationofsuchanindustrywouldhaveentitledhimtoahighplaceamonginventors。
Thischapterisofnecessitybriefinitsreferencetomanyextremelyinterestingpointsanddetails；andtosomereadersitmayseemincompleteinitsreferencestotheworkofothermenthanEdison，whoseinfluenceontelephonyasanarthasalsobeencon-
siderable。Inreplytothispertinentcriticism，itmaybepointedoutthatthisisalifeofEdison，andnotofanyoneelse；andthateventhediscussionofhisachievementsaloneinthesevariousfieldsrequiresmorespacethantheauthorshaveattheirdisposal。Theattempthasbeenmade，however，toindicatethecourseofeventsanddealfairlywiththefacts。Thecontroversythatoncewagedwithgreatexcitementovertheinventionofthemicrophone，buthaslongsincediedaway，issuggestiveofthedifficultiesinvolvedintryingtodojusticetoeverybody。
Astandardhistorydescribesthemicrophonethus：
“AformofapparatusproducedduringtheearlydaysofthetelephonebyProfessorHughes，ofEngland，forthepurposeofrenderingfaint，indistinctsoundsdistinctlyaudible，dependedforitsoperationonthechangesthatresultintheresistanceofloosecontacts。Thisapparatuswascalledthemicrophone，andwasinrealitybutoneofthemanyformsthatitispossibletogivetothetelephonetransmitter。Forexample，theEdisongranulartransmitterwasavarietyofmicrophone，aswasalsoEdison\'stransmitter，inwhichthesolidbuttonofcarbonwasemployed。
Indeed，eventheplatinumpoint，whichintheearlyformoftheReistransmitterpressedagainsttheplatinumcontactcementedtothecentreofthediaphragm，wasamicrophone。“
Atatimewhenmostpeoplewereamazedattheideaofhearing，withtheaidofa“microphone，“aflywalkatadistanceofmanymiles，thepriorityofinventionofsuchadevicewashotlydisputed。YetwithoutdesiringtotakeanythingfromthecreditofthebrilliantAmerican，Hughes，whosetelegraphicapparatusisstillinusealloverEurope，itmaybepointedoutthatthispassagegivesEdisontheattributionofatleasttwooriginalformsofwhichthosesuggestedbyHughesweremerevariationsandmodifications。
Withregardtothismatter，Mr。Edisonhimselfremarks：“AfterIsentoneofmymenovertoLondonespecially，toshowPreecethecarbontransmitter，andwhereHughesfirstsawit，andheardit——thenwithinamonthhecameoutwiththemicrophone，withoutanyacknowledgmentwhatever。
PublisheddateswillshowthatHughescamealongafterme。“
TherehavebeenotherwaysalsoinwhichEdisonhasutilizedthepeculiarpropertythatcarbonpossessesofalteringitsresistancetothepassageofcurrent，accordingtothepressuretowhichitissubjected，whetheratthesurface，orthroughcloserunionofthemass。Alooseroadwithafewinchesofdustorpebblesonitoffersappreciableresistancetothewheelsofvehiclestravellingoverit；butifthesurfaceiskepthardandsmooththeeffectisquitedifferent。
Inthesamewaycarbon，whethersolidorintheshapeoffinelydividedpowder，offersahighresistancetothepassageofelectricity；butifthecarbonissqueezedtogethertheconditionschange，withlessresistancetoelectricityinthecircuit。
Forhisquadruplexsystem，Mr。Edisonutilizedthisfactintheconstructionofarheostatorresistancebox。Itconsistsofaseriesofsilkdiskssaturatedwithasizingofplumbagoandwelldried。Thedisksarecompressedbymeansofanadjustablescrew；andinthismannertheresistanceofacircuitcanbevariedoverawiderange。
InlikemannerEdisondevelopeda“pressure“orcarbonrelay，adaptedtothetransferenceofsignalsofvariablestrengthfromonecircuittoanother。Anordinaryrelayconsistsofanelectromagnetinsertedinthemainlinefortelegraphing，whichbringsalocalbatteryandsoundercircuitintoplay，reproducinginthelocalcircuitthesignalssentoverthemainline。
Therelayisadjustedtotheweakercurrentslikelytobereceived，butthesignalsreproducedonthesounderbytheagencyoftherelayare，ofcourse，allofequalstrength，astheydependuponthelocalbattery，whichhasonlythissteadyworktoperform。Incaseswhereitisdesirabletoreproducethesignalsinthelocalcircuitwiththesamevariationsinstrengthastheyarereceivedbytherelay，theEdisoncarbonpressurerelaydoesthework。Thepolesoftheelectromagnetinthelocalcircuitarehollowedoutandfilledupwithcarbondisksorpowderedplumbago。
Thearmatureandthecarbon-tippedpolesoftheelectromagnetformpartofthelocalcircuit；andiftherelayisactuatedbyaweakcurrentthearmaturewillbeattractedbutfeebly。Thecarbonbeingonlyslightlycompressedwillofferconsiderableresistancetotheflowofcurrentfromthelocalbattery，andthereforethesignalonthelocalsounderwillbeweak。
If，onthecontrary，theincomingcurrentonthemainlinebestrong，thearmaturewillbestronglyattracted，thecarbonwillbesharplycompressed，theresistanceinthelocalcircuitwillbeproportionatelylowered，andthesignalheardonthelocalsounderwillbealoudone。Thusitwillbeseen，byanothercleverjugglewiththewillingagent，carbon，forwhichhehasfoundsomanyduties，Edisonisabletotransferortransmitexactly，tothelocalcircuit，themain-linecurrentinallitsminutestvariations。
Inhisresearchestodeterminethenatureofthemotographphenomena，andtoopenupothersourcesofelectricalcurrentgeneration，Edisonhasworkedoutaveryingeniousandsomewhatperplexingpieceofapparatusknownasthe“chalkbattery。“Itconsistsofaseriesofchalkcylindersmountedonashaftrevolvedbyhand。Restingagainsteachofthesecylindersisapalladium-facedspring，andsimilarspringsmakecontactwiththeshaftbetweeneachcylinder。Byconnectingallthesespringsincircuitwithagalvanometerandrevolvingtheshaftrapidly，anotabledeflectionisobtainedofthegalvanometerneedle，indicatingtheproductionofelectricalenergy。
Thereasonforthisdoesnotappeartohavebeendetermined。
Lastbutnotleast，inthisbeautifulandingeniousseries，comesthe“tasimeter，“aninstrumentofmostdelicatesensibilityinthepresenceofheat。ThenameisderivedfromtheGreek，theuseoftheapparatusbeingprimarilytomeasureextremelyminutedifferencesofpressure。Astripofhardrubberwithpointedendsrestsperpendicularlyonaplatinumplate，beneathwhichisacarbonbutton，underwhichagainliesanotherplatinumplate。Thetwoplatesandthecarbonbuttonformpartofanelectriccircuitcontainingabatteryandagalvanometer。Thehard-rubberstripisexceedinglysensitivetoheat。
Theslightestdegreeofheatimpartedtoitcausesittoexpandinvisibly，thusincreasingthepressurecontactonthecarbonbuttonandproducingavariationintheresistanceofthecircuit，registeredimmediatelybythelittleswingingneedleofthegalvanometer。
Theinstrumentissosensitivethatwithadelicategalvanometeritwillshowtheimpingementoftheheatfromaperson\'shandthirtyfeetaway。Thesuggestiontoemploysuchanapparatusinastronomicalobservationsoccursatonce，anditmaybenotedthatinoneinstancetheheatofraysoflightfromtheremotestarArcturusgaveresults。
CHAPTERX
THEPHONOGRAPH
ATtheopeningoftheElectricalShowinNewYorkCityinOctober，1908，tocelebratethejubileeoftheAtlanticCableandthefirstquartercenturyoflightingwiththeEdisonserviceonManhattanIsland，theexerciseswereallconductedbymeansoftheEdisonphonograph。ThisincludedthededicatoryspeechofGovernorHughes，ofNewYork；
themodestremarksofMr。Edison，aspresident；thecongratulationsofthepresidentsofseveralnationalelectricbodies，andanumberofvocalandinstrumentalselectionsofoperaticnature。Allthiswasheardclearlybyaverylargeaudience，andwasrepeatedonotherevenings。ThesamespeecheswereusedagainphonographicallyattheElectricalShowinChicagoin1909——andnowtherecordsarepreservedforreproductionahundredorathousandyearshence。Thistourdeforce，neverattemptedbefore，wasmerelyanexemplificationofthevalueofthephonographnotonlyinestablishingatfirsthandthefactsofhistory，butinpreservingthehumanvoice。WhatwouldwenotgivetolistentotheveryaccentsandtonesoftheSermonontheMount，theorationsofDemosthenes，thefirstPitt\'sappealforAmericanliberty，theFarewellofWashington，ortheAddressatGettysburg？UntilEdisonmadehiswonderfulinventionin1877，thehumanracewasentirelywithoutmeansforpreservingorpassingontoposterityitsownlinguisticutterancesoranyothervocalsound。Wehavesomeideahowtheancientslookedandfeltandwrote；theabundantevidencetakesusbacktothecave-dwellers。Butalltheoldlanguagesaredead，andtheliteraryformistheirembalmment。
WedonotevenknowdefinitelyhowShakespeare\'sandGoldsmith\'splayswerepronouncedonthestageinthetheatresofthetime；whileitisonlyaguessthatperhapsChaucerwouldsoundmuchmoremodernthanhescans。
Theanalysisofsound，whichowessomuchtoHelmholtz，wasonesteptowardrecording；andthevariousmeansofillustratingthephenomenaofsoundtotheeyeandear，priortothephonograph，wereallingenious。OnecanwatchthedancinglittleflamesofKoenig，andseeavoiceexpressedintonguesoffire；buttherecordcanonlybephotographic。Inlikemanner，thesimplephonautographofLeonScott，inventedabout1858，recordsonarevolvingcylinderofblackenedpaperthesoundvibrationstransmittedthroughamembranetowhichatinystylusisattached；
sothatahumanmouthusesapenandinscribesitssignvocal。YetafterallwearejustasfarawayaseverfromenablingtheyoungactorsatHarvardtogiveAristophaneswithallthetrue，subtleintonationandinflectionoftheAthensof400B。C。
Theinstrumentisdumb。Ingenuityhasbeenshownalsointheinventionof“talking-machines，“likeFaber\'s，basedonthereedorganpipe。Theseautom-
atacanbemadebydexterousmanipulationtojabberalittle，likeadollwithitsmonotonous“ma-ma，“oracuckooclock；buttheylackeventhesterileutilityoftheimitativeartofventriloquism。Therealgreatinventionliesincreatingdevicesthatshallbeabletoevokefromtinfoil，wax，orcompositionatanytimeto-dayorinthefuturethesoundthatoncewasasevanescentasthevibrationsitmadeontheair。
Contrarytothegeneralnotion，veryfewofthegreatmoderninventionshavebeentheresultofasuddeninspirationbywhich，Minerva-like，theyhavesprungfull-fledgedfromtheircreators\'brain；but，onthecontrary，theyhavebeenevolvedbyslowandgradualsteps，sothatfrequentlythefinaladvancehasbeenoftenalmostimperceptible。TheEdisonphonographisanimportantexceptiontothegeneralrule；not，ofcourse，thephonographofthepresentdaywithallofitsmechanicalperfection，butasaninstrumentcapableofrecordingandreproducingsound。Itsinventionhasbeenfrequentlyattributedtothediscoverythatapointattachedtoatelephonediaphragmwould，undertheeffectofsound-waves，vibratewithsufficientforcetoprickthefinger。Thestory，thoughinteresting，isnotfoundedonfact；
but，iftrue，itisdifficulttoseehowthediscoveryinquestioncouldhavecontributedmateriallytotheultimateaccomplishment。ToamanofEdison\'sperceptionitisabsurdtosupposethattheeffectoftheso-calleddiscoverywouldnothavebeenmadeasamatterofdeductionlongbeforethephysicalsensationwasexperienced。Asamatteroffact，theinventionofthephonographwastheresultofpurereason。
Sometimepriorto1877，Edisonhadbeenexperimentingonanautomatictelegraphinwhichtheletterswereformedbyembossingstripsofpaperwiththeproperarrangementofdotsanddashes。
Bydrawingthisstripbeneathacontactlever，thelatterwasactuatedsoastocontrolthecircuitsandsendthedesiredsignalsovertheline。Itwasobservedthatwhenthestripwasmovedveryrapidlythevibrationoftheleverresultedintheproductionofanaudiblenote。Withthesefactsbeforehim，Edisonreasonedthatifthepaperstripcouldbeimprintedwithelevationsanddepressionsrepresentativeofsound-waves，theymightbecausedtoactuateadiaphragmsoastoreproducethecorrespondingsounds。Thenextstepinthelineofdevelopmentwastoformthenecessaryundulationsonthestrip，anditwasthenreasonedthatoriginalsoundsthemselvesmightbeutilizedtoformagraphicrecordbyactuatingadiaphragmandcausingacuttingorindentingpointcarriedtherebytovibrateincontactwithamovingsurface，soastocutorindenttherecordtherein。Strangeasitmayseem，therefore，andcontrarytothegeneralbelief，thephonographwasdevelopedbackward，theproductionofthesoundsbeingofpriordevelopmenttotheideaofactuallyrecordingthem。
Mr。Edison\'sownaccountoftheinventionofthephonographisintenselyinteresting。“Iwasexperimenting，“hesays，“onanautomaticmethodofrecordingtelegraphmessagesonadiskofpaperlaidonarevolvingplaten，exactlythesameasthedisktalking-machineofto-day。Theplatenhadaspiralgrooveonitssurface，likethedisk。Overthiswasplacedacirculardiskofpaper；anelectromagnetwiththeembossingpointconnectedtoanarmtravelledoverthedisk；andanysignalsgiventhroughthemagnetswereembossedonthediskofpaper。Ifthisdiskwasremovedfromthemachineandputonasimilarmachineprovidedwithacontactpoint，theembossedrecordwouldcausethesignalstoberepeatedintoanotherwire。Theordinaryspeedoftelegraphicsignalsisthirty-fivetofortywordsaminute；butwiththismachineseveralhundredwordswerepossible。
“FrommyexperimentsonthetelephoneIknewofthepowerofadiaphragmtotakeupsoundvibrations，asIhadmadealittletoywhich，whenyourecitedloudlyinthefunnel，wouldworkapawlconnectedtothediaphragm；andthisengagingaratchet-
wheelservedtogivecontinuousrotationtoapulley。
Thispulleywasconnectedbyacordtoalittlepapertoyrepresentingamansawingwood。Hence，ifoneshouted：`Maryhadalittlelamb，\'etc。，thepapermanwouldstartsawingwood。IreachedtheconclusionthatifIcouldrecordthemovementsofthediaphragmproperly，Icouldcausesuchrecordtoreproducetheoriginalmovementsimpartedtothediaphragmbythevoice，andthussucceedinrecordingandreproducingthehumanvoice。
“InsteadofusingadiskIdesignedalittlemachineusingacylinderprovidedwithgroovesaroundthesurface。Overthiswastobeplacedtinfoil，whicheasilyreceivedandrecordedthemovementsofthediaphragm。Asketchwasmade，andthepiece-workprice，$18，wasmarkedonthesketch。IwasinthehabitofmarkingthepriceIwouldpayoneachsketch。Iftheworkmanlost，Iwouldpayhisregularwages；ifhemademorethanthewages，hekeptit。
TheworkmanwhogotthesketchwasJohnKruesi。
Ididn\'thavemuchfaiththatitwouldwork，expectingthatImightpossiblyhearawordorsothatwouldgivehopeofafuturefortheidea。Kruesi，whenhehadnearlyfinishedit，askedwhatitwasfor。
ItoldhimIwasgoingtorecordtalking，andthenhavethemachinetalkback。Hethoughtitabsurd。
However，itwasfinished，thefoilwasputon；Ithenshouted`Maryhadalittlelamb，\'etc。Iadjustedthereproducer，andthemachinereproduceditperfectly。
Iwasneversotakenabackinmylife。Everybodywasastonished。Iwasalwaysafraidofthingsthatworkedthefirsttime。Longexperienceprovedthatthereweregreatdrawbacksfoundgenerallybeforetheycouldbegotcommercial；butherewassomethingtherewasnodoubtof。“
NowonderthathonestJohnKruesi，ashestoodandlistenedtothemarvellousperformanceofthesimplelittlemachinehehadhimselfjustfinished，ejaculatedinanawe-strickentone：“MeinGottimHimmel！”AndyethehadalreadyseenEdisondoafewcleverthings。Nowondertheysatupallnightfixingandadjustingitsoastogetbetterandbetterresults——recitingandsinging，tryingeachother\'svoices，andthenlisteningwithinvoluntaryaweasthewordscamebackagainandagain，justaslongastheywerewillingtorevolvethelittlecylinderwithitsdottedspiralindentationsinthetinfoilunderthevibratingstylusofthereproducingdiaphragm。
Ittookalittletimetoacquiretheknackofturningthecranksteadilywhileleaningovertherecordertotalkintothemachine；andtherewassomedeftnessrequiredalsoinfasteningdownthetinfoilonthecylinderwhereitwasheldbyapinrunninginalongitudinalslot。Paraffinedpaperappearsalsotohavebeenexperimentedwithasanimpressiblematerial。ItissaidthatCarman，theforemanofthemachineshop，hadgonethelengthofwageringEdisonaboxofcigarsthatthedevicewouldnotwork。Alltheworldknowsthathelost。
TheoriginalEdisonphonographthusbuiltbyKruesiispreservedintheSouthKensingtonMuseum，London。Thatrepositorycancertainlyhavenogreatertreasureofitskind。Butastoitsimmediateuse，theinventorsays：“ThatmorningItookitovertoNewYorkandwalkedintotheofficeoftheScientificAmerican，wentuptoMr。Beach\'sdesk，andsaidI
hadsomethingtoshowhim。Heaskedwhatitwas。
ItoldhimIhadamachinethatwouldrecordandreproducethehumanvoice。Iopenedthepackage，setupthemachineandrecited，`Maryhadalittlelamb，\'etc。ThenIreproduceditsothatitcouldbeheardallovertheroom。TheykeptmeatituntilthecrowdgotsogreatMr。Beachwasafraidthefloorwouldcollapse；andwewerecompelledtostop。
Thepapersnextmorningcontainedcolumns。Noneofthewritersseemedtounderstandhowitwasdone。
Itriedtoexplain，itwassoverysimple，buttheresultsweresosurprisingtheymadeuptheirmindsprobablythattheyneverwouldunderstandit——andtheydidn\'t。
“Istartedimmediatelymakingseverallargerandbettermachines，whichIexhibitedatMenloParktocrowds。ThePennsylvaniaRailroadranspecialtrains。Washingtonpeopletelegraphedmetocomeon。ItookaphonographtoWashingtonandexhibiteditintheroomofJamesG。Blaine\'snieceGailHamilton；andmembersofCongressandnotablepeopleofthatcitycamealldaylonguntillateintheevening。Imadeonebreak。Irecited`Mary，\'etc。，andanotherditty：
`Therewasalittlegirl，whohadalittlecurlRightinthemiddleofherforehead；
Andwhenshewasgoodshewasvery，verygood，Butwhenshewasbadshewashorrid。\'
ItwillberememberedthatSenatorRoscoeConkling，thenveryprominent，hadacurlofhaironhisforehead；
andallthecaricaturistsdevelopeditabnormally。
Hewasverysensitiveaboutthesubject。
Whenhecameinhewasintroduced；butbeingratherdeaf，Ididn\'tcatchhisname，butsatdownandstartedthecurlditty。Everybodytittered，andI
wastoldthatMr。Conklingwasdispleased。About11o\'clockatnightwordwasreceivedfromPresidentHayesthathewouldbeverymuchpleasedifIwouldcomeuptotheWhiteHouse。Iwastakenthere，andfoundMr。Hayesandseveralotherswaiting。
AmongthemIrememberCarlSchurz，whowasplayingthepianowhenIenteredtheroom。Theexhibitioncontinuedtillabout12。30A。M。，whenMrs。Hayesandseveralotherladies，whohadbeeninducedtogetupanddress，appeared。Ileftat3。30A，M，“Foralongtimesomepeoplethoughttherewastrickery。OnemorningatMenloParkagentlemancametothelaboratoryandaskedtoseethephonograph。
ItwasBishopVincent，whohelpedLewisMillerfoundtheChautauquaIexhibitedit，andthenheaskedifhecouldspeakafewwords。Iputonafreshfoilandtoldhimtogoahead。HecommencedtoreciteBiblicalnameswithimmenserapidity。Onreproducingithesaid：`Iamsatisfied，now。Thereisn\'tamanintheUnitedStateswhocouldrecitethosenameswiththesamerapidity。\'“
Thephonographwasnowfairlylaunchedasaworldsensation，andareferencetothenewspapersof1878willshowtheextenttowhichitandEdisonwerethemesofuniversaldiscussion。Someofthepressnoticesoftheperiodweremostamazing——andamusing。Asthoughtherealachievementsofthisyoungman，barelythirty，werenottangibleandsolidenoughtojustifyadmirationofhisgenius，the“yellowjournalists“oftheperiodbeganbusilytocreatean“Edisonmyth，“withgrossabsurditiesofassertionandattributionfromwhichthemodestsubjectofitallhasnotyetceasedtosufferwithunthinkingpeople。AbrilliantlyviciousexampleofthismethodoftreatmentistobefoundintheParisFigaroofthatyear，whichundertheappropriatetitleof“ThisAstoundingEddison“laybarebeforetheFrenchpublicthemoststartlingrevelationsastotheinventor\'slifeandcharacter。“Itshouldbeunderstood，“saidthisjournal，“thatMr。Eddisondoesnotbelongtohimself。HeisthepropertyofthetelegraphcompanywhichlodgeshiminNewYorkatasuperbhotel；keepshimonaluxuriousfooting，andpayshimaformidablesalarysoastobetheonetoknowofandprofitbyhisdiscoveries。
Thecompanyhas，inthedwellingofEddison，meninitsemploywhodonotquithimforamoment，atthetable，onthestreet，inthelaboratory。
Sothatthiswretchedman，watchedmorecloselythaneverwasanymalefactor，cannotevengiveamoment\'sthoughttohisownprivateaffairswithoutoneofhisguardsaskinghimwhatheisthinkingabout。“Thisfoolish“blague“wasaccompaniedbyadescriptionofEdison\'snew“aerophone，“
asteammachinewhichcarriedthevoiceadistanceofoneandahalfmiles。“Youspeaktoajetofvapor。Afriendpreviouslyadvisedcanansweryoubythesamemethod。“NorwereAmericanjournalsbackwardinthiswildexaggeration。
Thefurorhaditseffectinstimulatingadesireeverywhereonthepartofeverybodytoseeandhearthephonograph。Asmallcommercialorganizationwasformedtobuildandexploittheapparatus，andtheshopsatMenloParklaboratorywereassistedbythelittleBergmannshopinNewYork。Officesweretakenforthenewenterpriseat203Broadway，wheretheMailandExpressbuildingnowstands，andwhere，inageneralway，undertheauspicesofatalenteddwarf，C。A。Cheever，theembryonicphonographandthecrudetelephonesharedroomsandexpenses。
GardinerG。Hubbard，father-in-lawofAlex。
GrahamBell，wasoneofthestockholdersinthePhonographCompany，whichpaidEdison$10，000
cashanda20percent。royalty。Thiscuriouspart-
nershipwasmaintainedforsometime，evenwhentheBellTelephoneofficeswereremovedtoReadeStreet，NewYork，whitherthephonographwentalso；
andwasperhapsexplainedbythefactthatjustthentheabilityofthephonographasamoney-makerwasmuchmoreeasilydemonstratedthanwasthatofthetelephone，stillinitsshortrangemagnetostageandawaitingdevelopmentwiththeaidofthecarbontransmitter。
Theearningcapacityofthephonographthen，aslargelynow，layinitsexhibitionqualities。TheroyaltiesfromBoston，everintellectuallyawakeandreadyforsomethingnew，ranashighas$1800aweek。InNewYorktherewasaceaselessdemandforit，andwiththeaidofHilbourneL。Roosevelt，afamousorganbuilder，anduncleofex-PresidentRoosevelt，concertsweregivenatwhichthephonographwas“featured。“TomanagethisnovelshowbusinesstheservicesofJamesRedpathwerecalledintorequisitionwithgreatsuccess。Redpath，famousasafriendandbiographerofJohnBrown，asaCivilWarcorrespondent，andasfounderofthecelebratedRedpathLyceumBureauinBoston，dividedthecountryintoterritories，eachsectionbeingleasedforexhibitionpurposesonabasisofapercentageofthe“gatemoney。“To203BroadwayfromallovertheUnionflockedaswarmofshowmen，cranks，andparticularlyofoldoperators，who，theseediertheywereinappearance，themoreinsistenttheywerethat“Tom“shouldgivethem，forthesakeof“Auldlangsyne，“thischancetomakeafortuneforhimandforthemselves。Atthetopofthebuildingwasaflooronwhichthesenovicesweregraduatedintheuseandcareofthemachine，andthen，withanequipmentoftinfoilandothersupplies，theyweresentoutontheroad。Itwasadivertingexperiencewhileitlasted。
Theexcitementoverthephonographwasmaintainedformanymonths，untilalargeproportionoftheinhabitantsofthecountryhadseenit；andthentheshowreceiptsdeclinedanddwindledaway。Manyoftheoldoperators，takenonoutofgood-nature，werepoorexhibitorsandworseaccountants，andatlasttheyandthemachineswithwhichtheyhadbeenintrustedfadedfromsight。ButinthemeantimeEdisonhadlearnedmanylessonsastothispracticalsideofdevelopmentthatwerenotforgottenwhentherenascenceofthephonographbeganafewyearslater，leadinguptothepresentenormousandsteadydemandforbothmachinesandrecords。
Itdeservestobepointedoutthatthephonographhaschangedlittleintheinterveningyearsfromthefirstcrudeinstrumentsof1877-78。Ithassimplybeenrefinedandmademoreperfectinamechanicalsense。Edisonwasimmenselyimpressedwithitspossibilities，andgreatlyinclinedtoworkuponit，butthecomingoftheelectriclightcompelledhimtothrowallhisenergiesforatimeintothevastnewfieldawaitingconquest。Theoriginalphonograph，asbrieflynotedabove，wasrotatedbyhand，andthecylinderwasfedslowlylongitudinallybymeansofanutengagingascrewthreadonthecylindershaft。
Wrappedaroundthecylinderwasasheetoftinfoil，withwhichengagedasmallchisel-likerecordingneedle，connectedadhesivelywiththecentreofanirondiaphragm。Obviously，asthecylinderwasturned，theneedlefollowedaspiralpathwhosepitchdependeduponthatofthefeedscrew。Alongthispathathreadwascutinthecylindersoastopermittheneedletoindentthefoilreadilyasthediaphragmvibrated。Byrotatingthecylinderandbycausingthediaphragmtovibrateundertheeffectofvocalormusicalsounds，theneedle-likepointwouldformaseriesofindentationsinthefoilcorrespondingtoandcharacteristicofthesound-waves。Bynowengagingthepointwiththebeginningofthegroovedrecordsoformed，andbyagainrotatingthecylinder，theundulationsoftherecordwouldcausetheneedleanditsattacheddiaphragmtovibratesoastoeffectthereproduction。Suchanapparatuswasnecessarilyundeveloped，andwasinterestingonlyfromascientificpointofview。Ithadmanymechanicaldefectswhichpreventeditsuseasapracticalapparatus。
Sincethecylinderwasrotatedbyhand，thespeedatwhichtherecordwasformedwouldvaryconsiderably，evenwiththesamemanipulator，sothatitwouldhavebeenimpossibletorecordandreproducemusicsatisfactorily；indoingwhichexactuniformityofspeedisessential。Theformationoftherecordintinfoilwasalsoobjectionablefromapracticalstandpoint，sincesucharecordwasfaintandwouldbesubstantiallyobliteratedaftertwoorthreereproductions。Furthermore，thefoilcouldnotbeeasilyremovedfromandreplacedupontheinstrument，andconsequentlythereproductionhadtofollowtherecordingimmediately，andthesuccessivetinfoilswerethrownaway。Theinstrumentwasalsoheavyandbulky。Notwithstandingtheseobjectionstheoriginalphonographcreated，asalreadyremarked，anenormouspopularexcitement，andtheexhibitionswereconsideredbymanyscepticalpersonsasnothingmorethancleverventriloquism。Thepossibilitiesoftheinstrumentasacommercialapparatuswererecognizedfromtheveryfirst，andsomeofthefieldsinwhichitwaspredictedthatthephonographwouldbeusedarenowfullyoccupied。Somehavenotyetbeenrealized。Writingin1878intheNorthAmerican-Review，Mr。Edisonthussummeduphisownideasastothefutureapplicationsofthenewinvention：
“Amongthemanyusestowhichthephonographwillbeappliedarethefollowing：
1。Letterwritingandallkindsofdictationwithouttheaidofastenographer。
2。Phonographicbooks，whichwillspeaktoblindpeoplewithouteffortontheirpart。
3。Theteachingofelocution。
4。Reproductionofmusic。
5。The`FamilyRecord\'——aregistryofsayings，reminiscences，etc。，bymembersofafamilyintheirownvoices，andofthelastwordsofdyingpersons。
6。Music-boxesandtoys。
7。Clocksthatshouldannounceinarticulatespeechthetimeforgoinghome，goingtomeals，etc。
8。Thepreservationoflanguagesbyexactreproductionofthemannerofpronouncing。
9。Educationalpurposes；suchaspreservingtheexplanationsmadebyateacher，sothatthepupilcanrefertothematanymoment，andspellingorotherlessonsplaceduponthephonographforconvenienceincommittingtomemory。
10。Connectionwiththetelephone，soastomakethatinstrumentanauxiliaryinthetransmissionofpermanentandinvaluablerecords，insteadofbeingtherecipientofmomentaryandfleetingcommunication。“
Oftheabovefieldsofusefulnessinwhichitwasexpectedthatthephonographmightbeapplied，onlythreehavebeencommerciallyrealized——namely，thereproductionofmusical，includingvaudevilleortalkingselections，forwhichpurposeaverylargeproportionofthephonographsnowmadeisused；theemploymentofthemachineasamechanicalstenographer，whichfieldhasbeentakenupactivelyonlywithinthepastfewyears；andtheutilizationofthedevicefortheteachingoflanguages，forwhichpurposeithasbeensuccessfullyemployed，forexample，bytheInternationalCorrespondenceSchoolsofScranton，Pennsylvania，forseveralyears。Theotheruses，however，whichwereearlypredictedforthephonographhavenotasyetbeenworkedoutpractically，althoughthetimeseemsnotfardistantwhenitsgeneralutilitywillbewidelyenlarged。Bothdollsandclockshavebeenmade，butthusfartheworldhasnottakenthemseriously。
Theoriginalphonograph，asinventedbyEdison，remainedinitscrudeandimmaturestateforalmosttenyears——stilltheobjectofphilosophicalinterest，andasaconvenienttext-bookillustrationoftheeffectofsoundvibration。Itcontinuedtobeathemeofcuriousinteresttotheimaginative，andthesubjectofmuchfiction，whileitsneglectedcommercialpossibilitieswerestillmoreorlessvaguelyreferredto。
Duringthisperiodofarresteddevelopment，Edisonwascontinuouslyworkingontheinventionandcommercialexploitationoftheincandescentlamp。In1887histimewascomparativelyfree，andthephonographwasthentakenupwithrenewedenergy，andtheeffortmadetoovercomeitsmechanicaldefectsandtofurnishacommercialinstrument，sothatitsearlypromisemightberealized。Theimportantchangesmadefromthattimeupto1890convertedthephonographfromascientifictoyintoasuccessfulindustrialapparatus。Theideaofformingtherecordontinfoilhadbeenearlyabandoned，andinitssteadwassubstitutedacylinderofwax-likematerial，inwhichtherecordwascutbyaminutechisel-likegougingtool。Sucharecordorphonogram，asitwasthencalled，couldberemovedfromthemachineorreplacedatanytime，manyreproductionscouldbeobtainedwithoutwearingouttherecord，andwheneverdesiredtherecordcouldbeshavedoffbyaturning-toolsoastopresentafreshsurfaceonwhichanewrecordcouldbeformed，somethinglikeanancientpalimpsest。Awaxcylinderhavingwallslessthanone-quarterofaninchinthicknesscouldbeusedforreceivingalargenumberofrecords，sincethemaximumdepthoftherecordgrooveishardlyevergreaterthanoneone-thousandthofaninch。
Lateron，andasthecrowningachievementinthephonographfield，fromacommercialpointofview，cametheduplicationofrecordstotheextentofmanythousandsfromasingle“master。“Thisworkwasactivelydevelopedbetweentheyears1890and1898，anditsdifficultiesmaybeappreciatedwhentheproblemisstated；thecopyingfromasinglemasterofmanymillionsofexcessivelyminutesound-waveshavingamaximumwidthofonehundredthofaninch，andamaximumdepthofonethousandthofaninch，orlessthanthethicknessofasheetoftissue-paper。Amongtheinterestingdevelopmentsofthisprocesswasthecoatingoftheoriginalormasterrecordwithahomogeneousfilmofgoldsothinthatthreehundredthousandofthesepiledoneontopoftheotherwouldpresentathicknessofonlyoneinch！
Anotherimportantchangewasinthenatureofareversaloftheoriginalarrangement，thecylinderormandrelcarryingtherecordbeingmountedinfixedbearings，andtherecordingorreproducingdevicebeingfedlengthwise，likethecutting-toolofalathe，astheblankorrecordwasrotated。Itwasearlyrecognizedthatasingleneedleforformingtherecordandthereproductiontherefromwasanundesirablearrangement，sincetheformationoftherecordrequiredaverysharpcutting-tool，whilesatisfactoryandrepeatedreproductionsuggestedtheuseofastyluswhichwouldresultintheminimumwear。
Aftermanyexperimentsandtheproductionofanumberoftypesofmachines，thepresentrecordersandreproducerswereevolved，theformerconsistingofaverysmallcylindricalgougingtoolhavingadiameterofaboutfortythousandthsofaninch，andthelatteraballorbutton-shapedstyluswithadiameterofaboutthirty-fivethousandthsofaninch。Byusinganincisorofthissort，therecordisformedofaseriesofconnectedgougeswithroundedsides，varyingindepthandwidth，andwithwhichthereproducerautomaticallyengagesandmaintainsitsengagement。Anotherdifficultyencounteredinthecommercialdevelopmentofthephonographwastheadjustmentoftherecordingstylussoastoenterthewax-likesurfacetoaveryslightdepth，andofthereproducersoastoengageexactlytherecordwhenformed。Theearliertypesofmachineswereprovidedwithseparatescrewsforeffectingtheseadjustments；
butconsiderableskillwasrequiredtoobtaingoodresults，andgreatdifficultywasexperiencedinmeetingthevariationsinthewax-likecylinders，duetothewarpingunderatmosphericchanges。Consequently，withtheearlytypesofcommercialphonographs，itwasfirstnecessarytoshaveofftheblankaccuratelybeforearecordwasformedthereon，inorderthatanabsolutelytruesurfacemightbepresented。Toovercomethesetroubles，theveryingenioussuggestionwasthenmadeandadopted，ofconnectingtherecordingandreproducingstylusestotheirrespectivediaphragmsthroughtheinstrumentalityofacompensatingweight，whichactedpracticallyasafixedsupportundertheveryrapidsoundvibrations，butwhichyieldedreadilytodistortionsorvariationsinthewax-likecylinders。Byreasonofthisimprovement，itbecamepossibletodoawaywithalladjustments，themassofthecompensatingweightcausingtherecordertoengagetheblankautomaticallytotherequireddepth，andtomaintainthereproducingstylusalwayswiththedesiredpressureontherecordwhenformed。Theseautomaticadjustmentsweremaintainedeventhoughtheblankorrecordmightbesomuchoutoftrueasaneighthofaninch，equaltomorethantwohundredtimesthemaximumdepthoftherecordgroove。
AnotherimprovementthatfollowedalongthelinesadoptedbyEdisonforthecommercialdevelopmentofthephonographwasmakingtherecordingandreproducingstylusesofsapphire，anextremelyhard，non-oxidizablejewel，sothatthosetinyinstrumentswouldalwaysretaintheirtrueformandeffectivelyresistwear。Ofcourse，inthisworkmanyotherthingsweredonethatmaystillbefoundontheperfectedphonographasitstandsto-day，andmanyothersuggestionsweremadewhichwerecontemporaneouslyadopted，butwhichwerelaterabandoned。Forthecurious-minded，referenceismadetotherecordsinthePatentOffice，whichwillshowthatupto1893
Edisonhadobtainedupwardofsixty-fivepatentsinthisart，fromwhichhislineofthoughtcanbeverycloselytraced。Thephonographofto-day，exceptfortheperfectionofitsmechanicalfeatures，initsbeautyofmanufactureanddesign，andinsmalldetails，maybeconsideredidenticalwiththemachineof1889，withtheexceptionthatwiththelattertherotationoftherecordcylinderwaseffectedbyanelectricmotor。
Itsessentialuseasthencontemplatedwasasasubstituteforstenographers，andthemostextravagantfancieswereindulgedinastoutilityinthatfield。Toexploitthedevicecommercially，thepatentsweresoldtoPhiladelphiacapitalists，whoorganizedtheNorthAmericanPhonographCompany，throughwhichleasesforlimitedperiodsweregrantedtolocalcompaniesdoingbusinessinspecialterritories，gen-
erallywithintheconfinesofasingleState。Underthatplan，resemblingthemethodsof1878，themachinesandblankcylindersweremanufacturedbytheEdisonPhonographWorks，whichstillretainsitsfactoriesatOrange，NewJersey。Themarketingenterprisewasearlydoomedtofailure，principallybecausetheinstrumentswerenotwellunderstood，anddidnotpossessthenecessaryrefinementsthatwouldfitthemforthespecialfieldinwhichtheyweretobeused。Atfirsttheinstrumentswereleased；
butitwasfoundthattheleaseswereseldomrenewed。
Effortswerethenmadetosellthem，butthepriceswerehigh——from$100to$150。Inthemidstofthesedifficulties，thechiefpromoteroftheenterprise，Mr。
Lippincott，died；anditwassoonfoundthattheroseatedreamsofsuccessentertainedbythesanguinepromoterswerenottoberealized。TheNorthAmericanPhonographCompanyfailed，itsprincipalcreditorbeingMr。Edison，who，havingacquiredtheassetsofthedefunctconcern，organizedtheNationalPhonographCompany，towhichheturnedoverthepatents；andwithcharacteristicenergyheattemptedagaintobuildupabusinesswithwhichhisfavoriteand，tohim，mostinterestinginventionmightbesuccessfullyidentified。TheNationalPhonographCompanyfromtheverystartdeterminedtoretireatleasttemporarilyfromthefieldofstenographicuse，andtoexploitthephonographformusicalpurposesasacompetitorofthemusic-box。Henceitwasnecessarythatforsuchworktherelativelyheavyandexpensiveelectricmotorshouldbediscarded，andasimplespringmotorconstructedwithasufficientlysensitivegovernortopermitaccuratemusicalreproduction。
Suchamotorwasdesigned，andisnowusedonallphonographsexceptonsuchspecialinstrumentsasmaybemadewithelectricmotors，aswellasonthesuccessfulapparatusthathasmorerecentlybeendesignedandintroducedforstenographicuse。Improvedfactoryfacilitieswereintroduced；newtoolsweremade，andvarioustypesofmachinesweredesignedsothatphonographscannowbeboughtatpricesrangingfrom$10to$200。Evenwiththechangeswhichwerethusmadeinthetwomachines，theworkofdevelopingthebusinesswasslow，asademandhadtobecreated；andtheearlyprejudiceofthepublicagainstthephonograph，duetoitsfailureasastenographicapparatus，hadtobeovercome。
Thestoryofthephonographasanindustrialenterprise，fromthispointofdeparture，isitselffullofinterest，butembracessomanydetailsthatitisnecessarilygiveninaseparatelaterchapter。Wemustreturntothedaysof1878，whenEdison，withatleastthreefirst-classinventionstohiscredit——thequadruplex，thecarbontelephone，andthephonograph——hadbecomeamanofmarkanda“worldcharacter。“
Theinventionofthephonographwasimmediatelyfollowed，asusual，bytheappearanceofseveralotherincidentalandauxiliarydevices，somepatented，andothersremainingsimplytheapplicationoftheprinciplesofapparatusthathadbeenworkedout。Oneofthesewasthetelephonograph，acombinationofatelephoneatadistantstationwithaphonograph。
Thediaphragmofthephonographmouthpieceisactuatedbyanelectromagnetinthesamewayasthatofanordinarytelephonereceiver，andinthismannerarecordofthemessagespokenfromadistancecanbeobtainedandturnedintosoundatwill。
Evidentlysuchaprocessisreversible，andthephonographcansendamessagetothedistantreceiver。
ThisideawasbrilliantlydemonstratedinpracticeinFebruary，1889，byMr。W。J。Hammer，oneofEdison\'searliestandmostcapableassociates，whocarriedontelephonographiccommunicationbetweenNewYorkandanaudienceinPhiladelphia。TherecordmadeinNewYorkontheEdisonphonographwasrepeatedintoanEdisoncarbontransmitter，sentoveronehundredandthreemilesofcircuit，includingsixmilesofundergroundcable；receivedbyanEdisonmotograph；repeatedbythatontoaphonograph；
transferredfromthephonographtoanEdisoncarbontransmitter，andbythatdeliveredtotheEdisonmotographreceiverintheenthusiasticlecture-hall，whereeveryonecouldheareachsoundandsyllabledistinctly。Inrealpracticethisspectacularplayingwithsoundvibrations，asiftheywerelacrosseballstotossaroundbetweenthegoals，couldbemateriallysimplified。
Themodernmegaphone，nowuseduniversallyinmakingannouncementstolargecrowds，particularlyatsportingevents，isalsoduetothisperiodasaperfectionbyEdisonofmanyantecedentdevicesgoingback，perhaps，muchfurtherthanthelegendaryfunnelsthroughwhichAlexandertheGreatissaidtohavesentcommandstohisoutlyingforces。TheimprovedEdisonmegaphoneforlong-distanceworkcomprisedtwohornsofwoodormetalaboutsixfeetlong，taperingfromadiameteroftwofeetsixinchesatthemouthtoasmallapertureprovidedwithear-
tubes。Theseconverginghornsorfunnels，withalargespeaking-trumpetinbetweenthem，aremountedonatripod，andthemegaphoneiscomplete。
Conversationcanbecarriedonwiththismegaphoneatadistanceofovertwomiles，aswithashiportheballoon。Themodernmegaphonenowemploysthereceiverformthusintroducedasitsveryeffectivetransmitter，withwhichtheold-fashionedspeaking-
trumpetcannotpossiblycompete；andtheword“megaphone“isuniversallyappliedtothesingle，side-flaringhorn。
AfurtherstepinthislinebroughtEdisontothe“aerophone，“aroundwhichtheFigaroweaveditsfancifuldescription。Intheconstructionoftheaerophonethesamekindoftympanumisusedasinthephonograph，buttheimitationofthehumanvoice，orthetransmissionofsound，iseffectedbythequickopeningandclosingofvalvesplacedwithinasteam-
whistleoranorgan-pipe。Thevibrationsofthediaphragmcommunicatedtothevalvescausethemtooperateinsynchronism，sothatthevibrationsarethrownupontheescapingairorsteam；andtheresultisaninstrumentwithacapacityofmagnifyingthesoundstwohundredtimes，andofhurlingthemtogreatdistancesintelligibly，likeahugefog-siren，butwithimmenseclearnessandpenetration。Allthisstudyofsoundtransmissionoverlongdistanceswithoutwiresleduptotheconsiderationandinven-
tionofpioneerapparatusforwirelesstelegraphy——
butthatalsoisanotherchapter。
Yetonemoreingeniousdeviceofthisperiodmustbenoted——Edison\'svocalengine，thepatentapplicationforwhichwasexecutedinAugust，1878，thepatentbeinggrantedthefollowingDecember。ReferencetothisbyEdisonhimselfhasalreadybeenquoted。The“voice-engine，“or“phonomotor，“convertsthevibrationsofthevoiceorofmusic，actingonthediaphragm，intomotionwhichisutilizedtodrivesomesecondaryappliance，whetherasatoyorforsomeusefulpurpose。Thusamancanactuallytalkaholethroughaboard。
Somewhatwearyofallthisworkandexcitement，andnothavingenjoyedanycessationfromtoil，orperiodofrest，fortenyears，Edisonjumpedeagerlyattheopportunityaffordedhiminthesummerof1878ofmakingawestwardtrip。Justthirtyyearslater，onasimilartripoverthesameground，hejotteddownforthisvolumesomeofhisreminiscences。
Thelureof1878wastheopportunitytotrytheabilityofhisdelicatetasimeterduringthetotaleclipseofthesun，July29。Hisadmiringfriend，Prof。
GeorgeF。Barker，oftheUniversityofPennsylvania，withwhomhehadnowbeenontermsofintimacyforsomeyears，suggestedtheholiday，andwashimselfamemberoftheexcursionpartythatmadeitsrendezvousatRawlins，WyomingTerritory。Edisonhadtestedhistasimeter，andwassatisfiedthatitwouldmeasuredowntothemillionthpartofadegreeFahrenheit。ItwasjusttenyearssincehehadlefttheWestinpovertyandobscurity，apenni-
lessoperatorinsearchofajob；butnowhewasagreatinventorandfamous，awelcomeadditiontothebandofastronomersandphysicistsassembledtoobservetheeclipseandthecorona。