2
WemaydistinguishgenerallybetweenpredicatingBofAbecauseitAisitself，andbecauseitissomethingelse；andparticularlybetweenplacewhichiscommonandinwhichallbodiesare，andthespecialplaceoccupiedprimarilybyeach。Imean，forinstance，thatyouarenowintheheavensbecauseyouareintheairanditisintheheavens；andyouareintheairbecauseyouareontheearth；andsimilarlyontheearthbecauseyouareinthisplacewhichcontainsnomorethanyou。
Nowifplaceiswhatprimarilycontainseachbody，itwouldbealimit，sothattheplacewouldbetheformorshapeofeachbodybywhichthemagnitudeorthematterofthemagnitudeisdefined:forthisisthelimitofeachbody。
If，then，welookatthequestioninthiswaytheplaceofathingisitsform。But，ifweregardtheplaceastheextensionofthemagnitude，itisthematter。Forthisisdifferentfromthemagnitude:
itiswhatiscontainedanddefinedbytheform，asbyaboundingplane。Matterortheindeterminateisofthisnature；whentheboundaryandattributesofaspherearetakenaway，nothingbutthematterisleft。
ThisiswhyPlatointheTimaeussaysthatmatterandspacearethesame；forthe\'participant\'andspaceareidentical。Itistrue，indeed，thattheaccounthegivesthereofthe\'participant\'
isdifferentfromwhathesaysinhisso-called\'unwrittenteaching\'。Nevertheless，hedididentifyplaceandspace。ImentionPlatobecause，whileallholdplacetobesomething，healonetriedtosaywhatitis。
Inviewofthesefactsweshouldnaturallyexpecttofinddifficultyindeterminingwhatplaceis，ifindeeditisoneofthesetwothings，matterorform。Theydemandaveryclosescrutiny，especiallyasitisnoteasytorecognizethemapart。
Butitisatanyratenotdifficulttoseethatplacecannotbeeitherofthem。Theformandthematterarenotseparatefromthething，whereastheplacecanbeseparated。Aswepointedout，whereairwas，waterinturncomestobe，theonereplacingtheother；andsimilarlywithotherbodies。Hencetheplaceofathingisneitherapartnorastateofit，butisseparablefromit。Forplaceissupposedtobesomethinglikeavessel-thevesselbeingatransportableplace。Butthevesselisnopartofthething。
Insofarthenasitisseparablefromthething，itisnottheform:quacontaining，itisdifferentfromthematter。
Alsoitisheldthatwhatisanywhereisbothitselfsomethingandthatthereisadifferentthingoutsideit。Platoofcourse，ifwemaydigress，oughttotelluswhytheformandthenumbersarenotinplace，if\'whatparticipates\'isplace-whetherwhatparticipatesistheGreatandtheSmallorthematter，ashecalleditinwritingintheTimaeus。
Further，howcouldabodybecarriedtoitsownplace，ifplacewasthematterortheform?Itisimpossiblethatwhathasnoreferencetomotionorthedistinctionofupanddowncanbeplace。Soplacemustbelookedforamongthingswhichhavethesecharacteristics。
Iftheplaceisinthethingitmustbeifitiseithershapeormatterplacewillhaveaplace:forboththeformandtheindeterminateundergochangeandmotionalongwiththething，andarenotalwaysinthesameplace，butarewherethethingis。Hencetheplacewillhaveaplace。
Further，whenwaterisproducedfromair，theplacehasbeendestroyed，fortheresultingbodyisnotinthesameplace。Whatsortofdestructionthenisthat?
Thisconcludesmystatementofthereasonswhyspacemustbesomething，andagainofthedifficultiesthatmayberaisedaboutitsessentialnature。
3
Thenextstepwemusttakeistoseeinhowmanysensesonethingissaidtobe\'in\'another。
1Asthefingeris\'in\'thehandandgenerallythepart\'in\'thewhole。
2Asthewholeis\'in\'theparts:forthereisnowholeoverandabovetheparts。
3Asmanis\'in\'animalandgenerallyspecies\'in\'genus。
4Asthegenusis\'in\'thespeciesandgenerallythepartofthespecificform\'in\'thedefinitionofthespecificform。
5Ashealthis\'in\'thehotandthecoldandgenerallytheform\'in\'thematter。
6AstheaffairsofGreececentre\'in\'theking，andgenerallyeventscentre\'in\'theirprimarymotiveagent。
7Astheexistenceofathingcentres\'initsgoodandgenerally\'in\'itsend，i。e。in\'thatforthesakeofwhich\'itexists。
8Inthestrictestsenseofall，asathingis\'in\'avessel，andgenerally\'in\'place。
Onemightraisethequestionwhetherathingcanbeinitself，orwhethernothingcanbeinitself-everythingbeingeithernowhereorinsomethingelse。
Thequestionisambiguous；wemaymeanthethingquaitselforquasomethingelse。
Whentherearepartsofawhole-theonethatinwhichathingis，theotherthethingwhichisinit-thewholewillbedescribedasbeinginitself。Forathingisdescribedintermsofitsparts，aswellasintermsofthethingasawhole，e。g。amanissaidtobewhitebecausethevisiblesurfaceofhimiswhite，ortobescientificbecausehisthinkingfacultyhasbeentrained。Thejarthenwillnotbeinitselfandthewinewillnotbeinitself。Butthejarofwinewill:forthecontentsandthecontainerarebothpartsofthesamewhole。
Inthissensethen，butnotprimarily，athingcanbeinitself，namely，as\'white\'isinbodyforthevisiblesurfaceisinbody，andscienceisinthemind。
Itisfromthese，whichare\'parts\'inthesenseatleastofbeing\'in\'theman，thatthemaniscalledwhite，&c。Butthejarandthewineinseparationarenotpartsofawhole，thoughtogethertheyare。Sowhenthereareparts，athingwillbeinitself，as\'white\'isinmanbecauseitisinbody，andinbodybecauseitresidesinthevisiblesurface。Wecannotgofurtherandsaythatitisinsurfaceinvirtueofsomethingotherthanitself。Yetitisnotinitself:thoughtheseareinawaythesamething，theydifferinessence，eachhavingaspecialnatureandcapacity，\'surface\'and\'white\'。
Thusifwelookatthematterinductivelywedonotfindanythingtobe\'in\'itselfinanyofthesensesthathavebeendistinguished；
anditcanbeseenbyargumentthatitisimpossible。Foreachoftwothingswillhavetobeboth，e。g。thejarwillhavetobebothvesselandwine，andthewinebothwineandjar，ifitispossibleforathingtobeinitself；sothat，howevertrueitmightbethattheywereineachother，thejarwillreceivethewineinvirtuenotofitsbeingwinebutofthewine\'sbeingwine，andthewinewillbeinthejarinvirtuenotofitsbeingajarbutofthejar\'sbeingajar。Nowthattheyaredifferentinrespectoftheiressenceisevident；for\'thatinwhichsomethingis\'and\'thatwhichisinit\'wouldbedifferentlydefined。
Norisitpossibleforathingtobeinitselfevenincidentally:
fortwothingswouldatthesametimeinthesamething。Thejarwouldbeinitself-ifathingwhosenatureitistoreceivecanbeinitself；andthatwhichitreceives，namelyifwinewine，willbeinit。
Obviouslythenathingcannotbeinitselfprimarily。
Zeno\'sproblem-thatifPlaceissomethingitmustbeinsomething-isnotdifficulttosolve。Thereisnothingtopreventthefirstplacefrombeing\'in\'somethingelse-notindeedinthatas\'in\'place，butashealthis\'in\'thehotasapositivedeterminationofitorasthehotis\'in\'bodyasanaffection。Soweescapetheinfiniteregress。
Anotherthingisplain:sincethevesselisnopartofwhatisinitwhatcontainsinthestrictsenseisdifferentfromwhatiscontained，placecouldnotbeeitherthematterortheformofthethingcontained，butmustdifferent-forthelatter，boththematterandtheshape，arepartsofwhatiscontained。
Thisthenmayserveasacriticalstatementofthedifficultiesinvolved。
4
Whatthenafterallisplace?Theanswertothisquestionmaybeelucidatedasfollows。
Letustakeforgrantedaboutitthevariouscharacteristicswhicharesupposedcorrectlytobelongtoitessentially。Weassumethen-
1Placeiswhatcontainsthatofwhichitistheplace。
2Placeisnopartofthething。
3Theimmediateplaceofathingisneitherlessnorgreaterthanthething。
4Placecanbeleftbehindbythethingandisseparable。Inaddition:
5Allplaceadmitsofthedistinctionofupanddown，andeachofthebodiesisnaturallycarriedtoitsappropriateplaceandreststhere，andthismakestheplaceeitherupordown。
Havinglaidthesefoundations，wemustcompletethetheory。Weoughttotrytomakeourinvestigationsuchaswillrenderanaccountofplace，andwillnotonlysolvethedifficultiesconnectedwithit，butwillalsoshowthattheattributessupposedtobelongtoitdoreallybelongtoit，andfurtherwillmakeclearthecauseofthetroubleandofthedifficultiesaboutit。Suchisthemostsatisfactorykindofexposition。
Firstthenwemustunderstandthatplacewouldnothavebeenthoughtof，iftherehadnotbeenaspecialkindofmotion，namelythatwithrespecttoplace。Itischieflyforthisreasonthatwesupposetheheavenalsotobeinplace，becauseitisinconstantmovement。Ofthiskindofchangetherearetwospecies-locomotionontheonehandand，ontheother，increaseanddiminution。Forthesetooinvolvevariationofplace:whatwastheninthisplacehasnowinturnchangedtowhatislargerorsmaller。
Again，whenwesayathingis\'moved\'，thepredicateeither1
belongstoitactually，invirtueofitsownnature，or2invirtueofsomethingconjoinedwithit。Inthelattercaseitmaybeeitherasomethingwhichbyitsownnatureiscapableofbeingmoved，e。g。thepartsofthebodyorthenailintheship，orb
somethingwhichisnotinitselfcapableofbeingmoved，butisalwaysmovedthroughitsconjunctionwithsomethingelse，as\'whiteness\'or\'science\'。Thesehavechangedtheirplaceonlybecausethesubjectstowhichtheybelongdoso。
Wesaythatathingisintheworld，inthesenseofinplace，becauseitisintheair，andtheairisintheworld；andwhenwesayitisintheair，wedonotmeanitisineverypartoftheair，butthatitisintheairbecauseoftheoutersurfaceoftheairwhichsurroundsit；forifalltheairwereitsplace，theplaceofathingwouldnotbeequaltothething-whichitissupposedtobe，andwhichtheprimaryplaceinwhichathingisactuallyis。
Whenwhatsurrounds，then，isnotseparatefromthething，butisincontinuitywithit，thethingissaidtobeinwhatsurroundsit，notinthesenseofinplace，butasapartinawhole。Butwhenthethingisseparateandincontact，itisimmediately\'in\'theinnersurfaceofthesurroundingbody，andthissurfaceisneitherapartofwhatisinitnoryetgreaterthanitsextension，butequaltoit；fortheextremitiesofthingswhichtoucharecoincident。
Further，ifonebodyisincontinuitywithanother，itisnotmovedinthatbutwiththat。Ontheotherhanditismovedinthatifitisseparate。Itmakesnodifferencewhetherwhatcontainsismovedornot。
Again，whenitisnotseparateitisdescribedasapartinawhole，asthepupilintheeyeorthehandinthebody:whenitisseparate，asthewaterinthecaskorthewineinthejar。Forthehandismovedwiththebodyandthewaterinthecask。
Itwillnowbeplainfromtheseconsiderationswhatplaceis。
Therearejustfourthingsofwhichplacemustbeone-theshape，orthematter，orsomesortofextensionbetweentheboundingsurfacesofthecontainingbody，orthisboundaryitselfifitcontainsnoextensionoverandabovethebulkofthebodywhichcomestobeinit。
Threeoftheseitobviouslycannotbe:
1Theshapeissupposedtobeplacebecauseitsurrounds，fortheextremitiesofwhatcontainsandofwhatiscontainedarecoincident。Boththeshapeandtheplace，itistrue，areboundaries。Butnotofthesamething:theformistheboundaryofthething，theplaceistheboundaryofthebodywhichcontainsit。
2Theextensionbetweentheextremitiesisthoughttobesomething，becausewhatiscontainedandseparatemayoftenbechangedwhilethecontainerremainsthesameaswatermaybepouredfromavessel-theassumptionbeingthattheextensionissomethingoverandabovethebodydisplaced。Butthereisnosuchextension。Oneofthebodieswhichchangeplacesandarenaturallycapableofbeingincontactwiththecontainerfallsinwhicheveritmaychancetobe。
Iftherewereanextensionwhichweresuchastoexistindependentlyandbepermanent，therewouldbeaninfinityofplacesinthesamething。Forwhenthewaterandtheairchangeplaces，alltheportionsofthetwotogetherwillplaythesamepartinthewholewhichwaspreviouslyplayedbyallthewaterinthevessel；atthesametimetheplacetoowillbeundergoingchange；sothattherewillbeanotherplacewhichistheplaceoftheplace，andmanyplaceswillbecoincident。Thereisnotadifferentplaceofthepart，inwhichitismoved，whenthewholevesselchangesitsplace:itisalwaysthesame:foritisintheproximateplacewheretheyarethattheairandthewaterorthepartsofthewatersucceedeachother，notinthatplaceinwhichtheycometobe，whichispartoftheplacewhichistheplaceofthewholeworld。
3Thematter，too，mightseemtobeplace，atleastifweconsideritinwhatisatrestandisthusseparatebutincontinuity。Forjustasinchangeofqualitythereissomethingwhichwasformerlyblackandisnowwhite，orformerlysoftandnowhard-thisisjustwhywesaythatthematterexists-soplace，becauseitpresentsasimilarphenomenon，isthoughttoexist-onlyintheonecasewesaysobecausewhatwasairisnowwater，intheotherbecausewhereairformerlywasthereaisnowwater。Butthematter，aswesaidbefore，isneitherseparablefromthethingnorcontainsit，whereasplacehasbothcharacteristics。
Well，then，ifplaceisnoneofthethree-neithertheformnorthematternoranextensionwhichisalwaysthere，differentfrom，andoverandabove，theextensionofthethingwhichisdisplaced-placenecessarilyistheoneofthefourwhichisleft，namely，theboundaryofthecontainingbodyatwhichitisincontactwiththecontainedbody。Bythecontainedbodyismeantwhatcanbemovedbywayoflocomotion。
Placeisthoughttobesomethingimportantandhardtograsp，bothbecausethematterandtheshapepresentthemselvesalongwithit，andbecausethedisplacementofthebodythatismovedtakesplaceinastationarycontainer，foritseemspossiblethatthereshouldbeanintervalwhichisotherthanthebodieswhicharemoved。Theair，too，whichisthoughttobeincorporeal，contributessomethingtothebelief:itisnotonlytheboundariesofthevesselwhichseemtobeplace，butalsowhatisbetweenthem，regardedasempty。Just，infact，asthevesselistransportableplace，soplaceisanon-portablevessel。Sowhenwhatiswithinathingwhichismoved，ismovedandchangesitsplace，asaboatonariver，whatcontainsplaysthepartofavesselratherthanthatofplace。Placeontheotherhandisratherwhatismotionless:soitisratherthewholeriverthatisplace，becauseasawholeitismotionless。
Henceweconcludethattheinnermostmotionlessboundaryofwhatcontainsisplace。
Thisexplainswhythemiddleoftheheavenandthesurfacewhichfacesusoftherotatingsystemareheldtobe\'up\'and\'down\'inthestrictandfullestsenseforallmen:fortheoneisalwaysatrest，whiletheinnersideoftherotatingbodyremainsalwayscoincidentwithitself。Hencesincethelightiswhatisnaturallycarriedup，andtheheavywhatiscarrieddown，theboundarywhichcontainsinthedirectionofthemiddleoftheuniverse，andthemiddleitself，aredown，andthatwhichcontainsinthedirectionoftheoutermostpartoftheuniverse，andtheoutermostpartitself，areup。
Forthisreason，too，placeisthoughttobeakindofsurface，andasitwereavessel，i。e。acontainerofthething。
Further，placeiscoincidentwiththething，forboundariesarecoincidentwiththebounded。
5
Ifthenabodyhasanotherbodyoutsideitandcontainingit，itisinplace，andifnot，not。Thatiswhy，evenifthereweretobewaterwhichhadnotacontainer，thepartsofit，ontheonehand，willbemovedforonepartiscontainedinanother，while，ontheotherhand，thewholewillbemovedinonesense，butnotinanother。Forasawholeitdoesnotsimultaneouslychangeitsplace，thoughitwillbemovedinacircle:forthisplaceistheplaceofitsparts。Somethingsaremoved，notupanddown，butinacircle；
othersupanddown，suchthingsnamelyasadmitofcondensationandrarefaction。
Aswasexplained，somethingsarepotentiallyinplace，othersactually。So，whenyouhaveahomogeneoussubstancewhichiscontinuous，thepartsarepotentiallyinplace:whenthepartsareseparated，butincontact，likeaheap，theyareactuallyinplace。
Again，1somethingsareperseinplace，namelyeverybodywhichismovableeitherbywayoflocomotionorbywayofincreaseispersesomewhere，buttheheaven，ashasbeensaid，isnotanywhereasawhole，norinanyplace，ifatleast，aswemustsuppose，nobodycontainsit。Onthelineonwhichitismoved，itspartshaveplace:
foreachiscontiguousthenext。
But2otherthingsareinplaceindirectly，throughsomethingconjoinedwiththem，asthesoulandtheheaven。Thelatteris，inaway，inplace，forallitspartsare:forontheorbonepartcontainsanother。Thatiswhytheupperpartismovedinacircle，whiletheAllisnotanywhere。Forwhatissomewhereisitselfsomething，andtheremustbealongsideitsomeotherthingwhereinitisandwhichcontainsit。ButalongsidetheAllortheWholethereisnothingoutsidetheAll，andforthisreasonallthingsareintheheaven；fortheheaven，wemaysay，istheAll。Yettheirplaceisnotthesameastheheaven。Itispartofit，theinnermostpartofit，whichisincontactwiththemovablebody；andforthisreasontheearthisinwater，andthisintheair，andtheairintheaether，andtheaetherinheaven，butwecannotgoonandsaythattheheavenisinanythingelse。
Itisclear，too，fromtheseconsiderationsthatalltheproblemswhichwereraisedaboutplacewillbesolvedwhenitisexplainedinthisway:
1Thereisnonecessitythattheplaceshouldgrowwiththebodyinit，2Northatapointshouldhaveaplace，3Northattwobodiesshouldbeinthesameplace，4Northatplaceshouldbeacorporealinterval:forwhatisbetweentheboundariesoftheplaceisanybodywhichmaychancetobethere，notanintervalinbody。
Further，5placeisalsosomewhere，notinthesenseofbeinginaplace，butasthelimitisinthelimited；fornoteverythingthatisisinplace，butonlymovablebody。
Also6itisreasonablethateachkindofbodyshouldbecarriedtoitsownplace。Forabodywhichisnextintheseriesandincontactnotbycompulsionisakin，andbodieswhichareuniteddonotaffecteachother，whilethosewhichareincontactinteractoneachother。
Nor7isitwithoutreasonthateachshouldremainnaturallyinitsproperplace。Forthisparthasthesamerelationtoitsplace，asaseparableparttoitswhole，aswhenonemovesapartofwaterorair:so，too，airisrelatedtowater，fortheoneislikematter，theotherform-wateristhematterofair，airasitweretheactualityofwater，forwaterispotentiallyair，whileairispotentiallywater，thoughinanotherway。
Thesedistinctionswillbedrawnmorecarefullylater。Onthepresentoccasionitwasnecessarytorefertothem:whathasnowbeenstatedobscurelywillthenbemademoreclear。Ifthematterandthefulfilmentarethesamethingforwaterisboth，theonepotentially，theothercompletely，waterwillberelatedtoairinawayasparttowhole。Thatiswhythesehavecontact:itisorganicunionwhenbothbecomeactuallyone。
Thisconcludesmyaccountofplace-bothofitsexistenceandofitsnature。
6
Theinvestigationofsimilarquestionsaboutthevoid，also，mustbeheldtobelongtothephysicist-namelywhetheritexistsornot，andhowitexistsorwhatitis-justasaboutplace。Theviewstakenofitinvolveargumentsbothforandagainst，inmuchthesamesortofway。Forthosewhoholdthatthevoidexistsregarditasasortofplaceorvesselwhichissupposedtobe\'full\'whenitholdsthebulkwhichitiscapableofcontaining，\'void\'whenitisdeprivedofthat-asif\'void\'and\'full\'and\'place\'denotedthesamething，thoughtheessenceofthethreeisdifferent。
Wemustbegintheinquirybyputtingdowntheaccountgivenbythosewhosaythatitexists，thentheaccountofthosewhosaythatitdoesnotexist，andthirdthecurrentviewonthesequestions。
Thosewhotrytoshowthatthevoiddoesnotexistdonotdisprovewhatpeoplereallymeanbyit，butonlytheirerroneouswayofspeaking；thisistrueofAnaxagorasandofthosewhorefutetheexistenceofthevoidinthisway。Theymerelygiveaningeniousdemonstrationthatairissomething——bystrainingwine-skinsandshowingtheresistanceoftheair，andbycuttingitoffinclepsydras。Butpeoplereallymeanthatthereisanemptyintervalinwhichthereisnosensiblebody。Theyholdthateverythingwhichisinbodyisbodyandsaythatwhathasnothinginitatallisvoidsowhatisfullofairisvoid。Itisnotthentheexistenceofairthatneedstobeproved，butthenon-existenceofaninterval，differentfromthebodies，eitherseparableoractual-anintervalwhichdividesthewholebodysoastobreakitscontinuity，asDemocritusandLeucippushold，andmanyotherphysicists-orevenperhapsassomethingwhichisoutsidethewholebody，whichremainscontinuous。
Thesepeople，then，havenotreachedeventhethresholdoftheproblem，butratherthosewhosaythatthevoidexists。
1Theyargue，foronething，thatchangeinplacei。e。locomotionandincreasewouldnotbe。Foritismaintainedthatmotionwouldseemnottoexist，iftherewerenovoid，sincewhatisfullcannotcontainanythingmore。Ifitcould，andthereweretwobodiesinthesameplace，itwouldalsobetruethatanynumberofbodiescouldbetogether；foritisimpossibletodrawalineofdivisionbeyondwhichthestatementwouldbecomeuntrue。Ifthiswerepossible，itwouldfollowalsothatthesmallestbodywouldcontainthegreatest；for\'manyalittlemakesamickle\':thusifmanyequalbodiescanbetogether，soalsocanmanyunequalbodies。
Melissus，indeed，infersfromtheseconsiderationsthattheAllisimmovable；forifitweremovedtheremust，hesays，bevoid，butvoidisnotamongthethingsthatexist。
Thisargument，then，isonewayinwhichtheyshowthatthereisavoid。
2Theyreasonfromthefactthatsomethingsareobservedtocontractandbecompressed，aspeoplesaythatacaskwillholdthewinewhichformerlyfilledit，alongwiththeskinsintowhichthewinehasbeendecanted，whichimpliesthatthecompressedbodycontractsintothevoidspresentinit。
Again3increase，too，isthoughttotakealwaysbymeansofvoid，fornutrimentisbody，anditisimpossiblefortwobodiestobetogether。Aproofofthistheyfindalsoinwhathappenstoashes，whichabsorbasmuchwaterastheemptyvessel。
ThePythagoreans，too，4heldthatvoidexistsandthatitenterstheheavenitself，whichasitwereinhalesit，fromtheinfiniteair。Furtheritisthevoidwhichdistinguishesthenaturesofthings，asifitwerelikewhatseparatesanddistinguishesthetermsofaseries。Thisholdsprimarilyinthenumbers，forthevoiddistinguishestheirnature。
These，then，andsomany，arethemaingroundsonwhichpeoplehavearguedforandagainsttheexistenceofthevoid。
7
Asasteptowardssettlingwhichviewistrue，wemustdeterminethemeaningofthename。
Thevoidisthoughttobeplacewithnothinginit。Thereasonforthisisthatpeopletakewhatexiststobebody，andholdthatwhileeverybodyisinplace，voidisplaceinwhichthereisnobody，sothatwherethereisnobody，theremustbevoid。
Everybody，again，theysupposetobetangible；andofthisnatureiswhateverhasweightorlightness。
Hence，byasyllogism，whathasnothingheavyorlightinit，isvoid。
Thisresult，then，asIhavesaid，isreachedbysyllogism。Itwouldbeabsurdtosupposethatthepointisvoid；forthevoidmustbeplacewhichhasinitanintervalintangiblebody。
Butatalleventsweobservethenthatinonewaythevoidisdescribedaswhatisnotfullofbodyperceptibletotouch；andwhathasheavinessandlightnessisperceptibletotouch。Sowewouldraisethequestion:whatwouldtheysayofanintervalthathascolourorsound-isitvoidornot?Clearlytheywouldreplythatifitcouldreceivewhatistangibleitwasvoid，andifnot，not。
Inanotherwayvoidisthatinwhichthereisno\'this\'orcorporealsubstance。Sosomesaythatthevoidisthematterofthebodytheyidentifytheplace，too，withthis，andinthistheyspeakincorrectly；forthematterisnotseparablefromthethings，buttheyareinquiringaboutthevoidasaboutsomethingseparable。
Sincewehavedeterminedthenatureofplace，andvoidmust，ifitexists，beplacedeprivedofbody，andwehavestatedbothinwhatsenseplaceexistsandinwhatsenseitdoesnot，itisplainthatonthisshowingvoiddoesnotexist，eitherunseparatedorseparated；thevoidismeanttobe，notbodybutratheranintervalinbody。Thisiswhythevoidisthoughttobesomething，viz。becauseplaceis，andforthesamereasons。Forthefactofmotioninrespectofplacecomestotheaidbothofthosewhomaintainthatplaceissomethingoverandabovethebodiesthatcometooccupyit，andofthosewhomaintainthatthevoidissomething。Theystatethatthevoidistheconditionofmovementinthesenseofthatinwhichmovementtakesplace；andthiswouldbethekindofthingthatsomesayplaceis。
Butthereisnonecessityfortherebeingavoidifthereismovement。Itisnotintheleastneededasaconditionofmovementingeneral，forareasonwhich，incidentally，escapedMelissus；viz。
thatthefullcansufferqualitativechange。
Butnotevenmovementinrespectofplaceinvolvesavoid；forbodiesmaysimultaneouslymakeroomforoneanother，thoughthereisnointervalseparateandapartfromthebodiesthatareinmovement。
Andthisisplainevenintherotationofcontinuousthings，asinthatofliquids。
Andthingscanalsobecompressednotintoavoidbutbecausetheysqueezeoutwhatiscontainedinthemas，forinstance，whenwateriscompressedtheairwithinitissqueezedout；andthingscanincreaseinsizenotonlybytheentranceofsomethingbutalsobyqualitativechange；e。g。ifwaterweretobetransformedintoair。
Ingeneral，boththeargumentaboutincreaseofsizeandthataboutwaterpouredontotheashesgetintheirownway。Foreithernotanyandeverypartofthebodyisincreased，orbodiesmaybeincreasedotherwisethanbytheadditionofbody，ortheremaybetwobodiesinthesameplaceinwhichcasetheyareclaimingtosolveaquitegeneraldifficulty，butarenotprovingtheexistenceofvoid，orthewholebodymustbevoid，ifitisincreasedineverypartandisincreasedbymeansofvoid。Thesameargumentappliestotheashes。
Itisevident，then，thatitiseasytorefutetheargumentsbywhichtheyprovetheexistenceofthevoid。
8
Letusexplainagainthatthereisnovoidexistingseparately，assomemaintain。Ifeachofthesimplebodieshasanaturallocomotion，e。g。fireupwardandearthdownwardandtowardsthemiddleoftheuniverse，itisclearthatitcannotbethevoidthatistheconditionoflocomotion。What，then，willthevoidbetheconditionof?Itisthoughttobetheconditionofmovementinrespectofplace，anditisnottheconditionofthis。
Again，ifvoidisasortofplacedeprivedofbody，whenthereisavoidwherewillabodyplacedinitmoveto?Itcertainlycannotmoveintothewholeofthevoid。Thesameargumentappliesasagainstthosewhothinkthatplaceissomethingseparate，intowhichthingsarecarried；viz。howwillwhatisplacedinitmove，orrest?Muchthesameargumentwillapplytothevoidastothe\'up\'and\'down\'inplace，asisnaturalenoughsincethosewhomaintaintheexistenceofthevoidmakeitaplace。
Andinwhatwaywillthingsbepresenteitherinplace-orinthevoid?Fortheexpectedresultdoesnottakeplacewhenabodyisplacedasawholeinaplaceconceivedofasseparateandpermanent；
forapartofit，unlessitbeplacedapart，willnotbeinaplacebutinthewhole。Further，ifseparateplacedoesnotexist，neitherwillvoid。
Ifpeoplesaythatthevoidmustexist，asbeingnecessaryifthereistobemovement，whatratherturnsouttobethecase，ifonethematter，istheopposite，thatnotasinglethingcanbemovedifthereisavoid；foraswiththosewhoforalikereasonsaytheearthisatrest，so，too，inthevoidthingsmustbeatrest；
forthereisnoplacetowhichthingscanmovemoreorlessthantoanother；sincethevoidinsofarasitisvoidadmitsnodifference。
Thesecondreasonisthis:allmovementiseithercompulsoryoraccordingtonature，andifthereiscompulsorymovementtheremustalsobenaturalforcompulsorymovementiscontrarytonature，andmovementcontrarytonatureisposteriortothataccordingtonature，sothatifeachofthenaturalbodieshasnotanaturalmovement，noneoftheothermovementscanexist；buthowcantherebenaturalmovementifthereisnodifferencethroughoutthevoidortheinfinite?Forinsofarasitisinfinite，therewillbenoupordownormiddle，andinsofarasitisavoid，updiffersnowhitfromdown；forasthereisnodifferenceinwhatisnothing，thereisnoneinthevoidforthevoidseemstobeanon-existentandaprivationofbeing，butnaturallocomotionseemstobedifferentiated，sothatthethingsthatexistbynaturemustbedifferentiated。Either，then，nothinghasanaturallocomotion，orelsethereisnovoid。
Further，inpointoffactthingsthatarethrownmovethoughthatwhichgavethemtheirimpulseisnottouchingthem，eitherbyreasonofmutualreplacement，assomemaintain，orbecausetheairthathasbeenpushedpushesthemwithamovementquickerthanthenaturallocomotionoftheprojectilewherewithitmovestoitsproperplace。
Butinavoidnoneofthesethingscantakeplace，norcananythingbemovedsaveasthatwhichiscarriedismoved。
Further，noonecouldsaywhyathingoncesetinmotionshouldstopanywhere；forwhyshoulditstophereratherthanhere?Sothatathingwilleitherbeatrestormustbemovedadinfinitum，unlesssomethingmorepowerfulgetinitsway。
Further，thingsarenowthoughttomoveintothevoidbecauseityields；butinavoidthisqualityispresentequallyeverywhere，sothatthingsshouldmoveinalldirections。
Further，thetruthofwhatweassertisplainfromthefollowingconsiderations。Weseethesameweightorbodymovingfasterthananotherfortworeasons，eitherbecausethereisadifferenceinwhatitmovesthrough，asbetweenwater，air，andearth，orbecause，otherthingsbeingequal，themovingbodydiffersfromtheotherowingtoexcessofweightoroflightness。
Nowthemediumcausesadifferencebecauseitimpedesthemovingthing，mostofallifitismovingintheoppositedirection，butinasecondarydegreeevenifitisatrest；andespeciallyamediumthatisnoteasilydivided，i。e。amediumthatissomewhatdense。A，then，willmovethroughBintimeG，andthroughD，whichisthinner，intimeEifthelengthofBisegualtoD，inproportiontothedensityofthehinderingbody。ForletBbewaterandDair；
thenbysomuchasairisthinnerandmoreincorporealthanwater，A
willmovethroughDfasterthanthroughB。Letthespeedhavethesameratiotothespeed，then，thatairhastowater。Thenifairistwiceasthin，thebodywilltraverseBintwicethetimethatitdoesD，andthetimeGwillbetwicethetimeE。Andalways，bysomuchasthemediumismoreincorporealandlessresistantandmoreeasilydivided，thefasterwillbethemovement。
Nowthereisnoratioinwhichthevoidisexceededbybody，asthereisnoratioof0toanumber。Forif4exceeds3by1，and2
bymorethan1，and1bystillmorethanitexceeds2，stillthereisnoratiobywhichitexceeds0；forthatwhichexceedsmustbedivisibleintotheexcessthatwhichisexceeded，sothatwillbewhatitexceeds0by0。Forthisreason，too，alinedoesnotexceedapointunlessitiscomposedofpoints！Similarlythevoidcanbearnoratiotothefull，andthereforeneithercanmovementthroughtheonetomovementthroughtheother，butifathingmovesthroughthethickestmediumsuchandsuchadistanceinsuchandsuchatime，itmovesthroughthevoidwithaspeedbeyondanyratio。ForletZbevoid，equalinmagnitudetoBandtoD。ThenifAistotraverseandmovethroughitinacertaintime，H，atimelessthanE，however，thevoidwillbearthisratiotothefull。ButinatimeequaltoH，A
willtraversethepartOofA。AnditwillsurelyalsotraverseinthattimeanysubstanceZwhichexceedsairinthicknessintheratiowhichthetimeEbearstothetimeH。ForifthebodyZbeasmuchthinnerthanDasEexceedsH，A，ifitmovesthroughZ，willtraverseitinatimeinversetothespeedofthemovement，i。e。inatimeequaltoH。If，then，thereisnobodyinZ，AwilltraverseZstillmorequickly。ButwesupposedthatitstraverseofZwhenZ
wasvoidoccupiedthetimeH。SothatitwilltraverseZinanequaltimewhetherZbefullorvoid。Butthisisimpossible。Itisplain，then，thatifthereisatimeinwhichitwillmovethroughanypartofthevoid，thisimpossibleresultwillfollow:itwillbefoundtotraverseacertaindistance，whetherthisbefullorvoid，inanequaltime；fortherewillbesomebodywhichisinthesameratiototheotherbodyasthetimeistothetime。
Tosumthematterup，thecauseofthisresultisobvious，viz。thatbetweenanytwomovementsthereisaratiofortheyoccupytime，andthereisaratiobetweenanytwotimes，solongasbotharefinite，butthereisnoratioofvoidtofull。
Thesearetheconsequencesthatresultfromadifferenceinthemedia；thefollowingdependuponanexcessofonemovingbodyoveranother。Weseethatbodieswhichhaveagreaterimpulseeitherofweightoroflightness，iftheyarealikeinotherrespects，movefasteroveranequalspace，andintheratiowhichtheirmagnitudesbeartoeachother。Thereforetheywillalsomovethroughthevoidwiththisratioofspeed。Butthatisimpossible；forwhyshouldonemovefaster?Inmovingthroughplenaitmustbeso；forthegreaterdividesthemfasterbyitsforce。Foramovingthingcleavesthemediumeitherbyitsshape，orbytheimpulsewhichthebodythatiscarriedalongorisprojectedpossesses。Thereforeallwillpossessequalvelocity。Butthisisimpossible。
Itisevidentfromwhathasbeensaid，then，that，ifthereisavoid，aresultfollowswhichistheveryoppositeofthereasonforwhichthosewhobelieveinavoidsetitup。Theythinkthatifmovementinrespectofplaceistoexist，thevoidcannotexist，separatedallbyitself；butthisisthesameastosaythatplaceisaseparatecavity；andthishasalreadybeenstatedtobeimpossible。
Butevenifweconsideritonitsownmeritstheso-calledvacuumwillbefoundtobereallyvacuous。Foras，ifoneputsacubeinwater，anamountofwaterequaltothecubewillbedisplaced；sotooinair；buttheeffectisimperceptibletosense。Andindeedalwaysinthecaseofanybodythatcanbedisplaced，must，ifitisnotcompressed，bedisplacedinthedirectioninwhichitisitsnaturetobedisplaced-alwayseitherdown，ifitslocomotionisdownwardsasinthecaseofearth，orup，ifitisfire，orinbothdirections-whateverbethenatureoftheinsertedbody。Nowinthevoidthisisimpossible；foritisnotbody；thevoidmusthavepenetratedthecubetoadistanceequaltothatwhichthisportionofvoidformerlyoccupiedinthevoid，justasifthewaterorairhadnotbeendisplacedbythewoodencube，buthadpenetratedrightthroughit。
Butthecubealsohasamagnitudeequaltothatoccupiedbythevoid；amagnitudewhich，ifitisalsohotorcold，orheavyorlight，isnonethelessdifferentinessencefromallitsattributes，evenifitisnotseparablefromthem；Imeanthevolumeofthewoodencube。
Sothatevenifitwereseparatedfromeverythingelseandwereneitherheavynorlight，itwilloccupyanequalamountofvoid，andfillthesameplace，asthepartofplaceorofthevoidequaltoitself。Howthenwillthebodyofthecubedifferfromthevoidorplacethatisequaltoit?Andiftherecanbetwosuchthings，whycannottherebeanynumbercoinciding?
This，then，isoneabsurdandimpossibleimplicationofthetheory。Itisalsoevidentthatthecubewillhavethissamevolumeevenifitisdisplaced，whichisanattributepossessedbyallotherbodiesalso。Thereforeifthisdiffersinnorespectfromitsplace，whyneedweassumeaplaceforbodiesoverandabovethevolumeofeach，iftheirvolumebeconceivedofasfreefromattributes?Itcontributesnothingtothesituationifthereisanequalintervalattachedtoitaswell。[Furtheritoughttobeclearbythestudyofmovingthingswhatsortofthingvoidis。Butinfactitisfoundnowhereintheworld。Forairissomething，thoughitdoesnotseemtobeso-nor，forthatmatter，wouldwater，iffishesweremadeofiron；forthediscriminationofthetangibleisbytouch。]
Itisclear，then，fromtheseconsiderationsthatthereisnoseparatevoid。
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Therearesomewhothinkthattheexistenceofrarityanddensityshowsthatthereisavoid。Ifrarityanddensitydonotexist，theysay，neithercanthingscontractandbecompressed。Butifthiswerenottotakeplace，eithertherewouldbenomovementatall，ortheuniversewouldbulge，asXuthussaid，orairandwatermustalwayschangeintoequalamountse。g。ifairhasbeenmadeoutofacupfulofwater，atthesametimeoutofanequalamountofairacupfulofwatermusthavebeenmade，orvoidmustnecessarilyexist；forcompressionandexpansioncannottakeplaceotherwise。
Now，iftheymeanbytherarethatwhichhasmanyvoidsexistingseparately，itisplainthatifvoidcannotexistseparateanymorethanaplacecanexistwithanextensionalltoitself，neithercantherareexistinthissense。Butiftheymeanthatthereisvoid，notseparatelyexistent，butstillpresentintherare，thisislessimpossible，yet，first，thevoidturnsoutnottobeaconditionofallmovement，butonlyofmovementupwardsfortherareislight，whichisthereasonwhytheysayfireisrare；second，thevoidturnsouttobeaconditionofmovementnotasthatinwhichittakesplace，butinthatthevoidcarriesthingsupasskinsbybeingcarriedupthemselvescarryupwhatiscontinuouswiththem。Yethowcanvoidhavealocalmovementoraplace?Forthusthatintowhichvoidmovesistillthenvoidofavoid。
Again，howwilltheyexplain，inthecaseofwhatisheavy，itsmovementdownwards?Anditisplainthatiftherarerandmorevoidathingisthequickeritwillmoveupwards，ifitwerecompletelyvoiditwouldmovewithamaximumspeed！Butperhapseventhisisimpossible，thatitshouldmoveatall；thesamereasonwhichshowedthatinthevoidallthingsareincapableofmovingshowsthatthevoidcannotmove，viz。thefactthatthespeedsareincomparable。
Sincewedenythatavoidexists，butfortheresttheproblemhasbeentrulystated，thateithertherewillbenomovement，ifthereisnottobecondensationandrarefaction，ortheuniversewillbulge，oratransformationofwaterintoairwillalwaysbebalancedbyanequaltransformationofairintowaterforitisclearthattheairproducedfromwaterisbulkierthanthewater:itisnecessarytherefore，ifcompressiondoesnotexist，eitherthatthenextportionwillbepushedoutwardsandmaketheoutermostpartbulge，orthatsomewhereelsetheremustbeanequalamountofwaterproducedoutofair，sothattheentirebulkofthewholemaybeequal，orthatnothingmoves。Forwhenanythingisdisplacedthiswillalwayshappen，unlessitcomesroundinacircle；butlocomotionisnotalwayscircular，butsometimesinastraightline。
Thesethenarethereasonsforwhichtheymightsaythatthereisavoid；ourstatementisbasedontheassumptionthatthereisasinglematterforcontraries，hotandcoldandtheothernaturalcontrarieties，andthatwhatexistsactuallyisproducedfromapotentialexistent，andthatmatterisnotseparablefromthecontrariesbutitsbeingisdifferent，andthatasinglemattermayserveforcolourandheatandcold。
Thesamematteralsoservesforbothalargeandasmallbody。
Thisisevident；forwhenairisproducedfromwater，thesamematterhasbecomesomethingdifferent，notbyacquiringanadditiontoit，buthasbecomeactuallywhatitwaspotentially，and，again，waterisproducedfromairinthesameway，thechangebeingsometimesfromsmallnesstogreatness，andsometimesfromgreatnesstosmallness。Similarly，therefore，ifairwhichislargeinextentcomestohaveasmallervolume，orbecomesgreaterfrombeingsmaller，itisthematterwhichispotentiallyboththatcomestobeeachofthetwo。
Forasthesamematterbecomeshotfrombeingcold，andcoldfrombeinghot，becauseitwaspotentiallyboth，sotoofromhotitcanbecomemorehot，thoughnothinginthematterhasbecomehotthatwasnothotwhenthethingwaslesshot；justas，ifthearcorcurveofagreatercirclebecomesthatofasmaller，whetheritremainsthesameorbecomesadifferentcurve，convexityhasnotcometoexistinanythingthatwasnotconvexbutstraightfordifferencesofdegreedonotdependonanintermissionofthequality；norcanwegetanyportionofaflame，inwhichbothheatandwhitenessarenotpresent。Sotoo，then，istheearlierheatrelatedtothelater。Sothatthegreatnessandsmallness，also，ofthesensiblevolumeareextended，notbythematter\'sacquiringanythingnew，butbecausethematterispotentiallymatterforbothstates；sothatthesamethingisdenseandrare，andthetwoqualitieshaveonematter。
Thedenseisheavy，andtherareislight。[Again，asthearcofacirclewhencontractedintoasmallerspacedoesnotacquireanewpartwhichisconvex，butwhatwastherehasbeencontracted；andasanypartoffirethatonetakeswillbehot；so，too，itisallaquestionofcontractionandexpansionofthesamematter。]Therearetwotypesineachcase，bothinthedenseandintherare；forboththeheavyandthehardarethoughttobedense，andcontrariwiseboththelightandthesoftarerare；andweightandhardnessfailtocoincideinthecaseofleadandiron。
Fromwhathasbeensaiditisevident，then，thatvoiddoesnotexisteitherseparateeitherabsolutelyseparateorasaseparateelementintherareorpotentially，unlessoneiswillingtocalltheconditionofmovementvoid，whateveritmaybe。Atthatratethematteroftheheavyandthelight，quamatterofthem，wouldbethevoid；forthedenseandtherareareproductiveoflocomotioninvirtueofthiscontrariety，andinvirtueoftheirhardnessandsoftnessproductiveofpassivityandimpassivity，i。e。notoflocomotionbutratherofqualitativechange。
Somuch，then，forthediscussionofthevoid，andofthesenseinwhichitexistsandthesenseinwhichitdoesnotexist。
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NextfordiscussionafterthesubjectsmentionedisTime。Thebestplanwillbetobeginbyworkingoutthedifficultiesconnectedwithit，makinguseofthecurrentarguments。First，doesitbelongtotheclassofthingsthatexistortothatofthingsthatdonotexist?
Thensecondly，whatisitsnature?Tostart，then:thefollowingconsiderationswouldmakeonesuspectthatiteitherdoesnotexistatallorbarely，andinanobscureway。Onepartofithasbeenandisnot，whiletheotherisgoingtobeandisnotyet。Yettime-bothinfinitetimeandanytimeyouliketotake-ismadeupofthese。Onewouldnaturallysupposethatwhatismadeupofthingswhichdonotexistcouldhavenoshareinreality。
Further，ifadivisiblethingistoexist，itisnecessarythat，whenitexists，allorsomeofitspartsmustexist。Butoftimesomepartshavebeen，whileothershavetobe，andnopartofitisthoughitisdivisible。Forwhatis\'now\'isnotapart:apartisameasureofthewhole，whichmustbemadeupofparts。Time，ontheotherhand，isnotheldtobemadeupof\'nows\'。
Again，the\'now\'whichseemstoboundthepastandthefuture-doesitalwaysremainoneandthesameorisitalwaysotherandother?
Itishardtosay。
1Ifitisalwaysdifferentanddifferent，andifnoneofthepartsintimewhichareotherandotheraresimultaneousunlesstheonecontainsandtheotheriscontained，astheshortertimeisbythelonger，andifthe\'now\'whichisnot，butformerlywas，musthaveceased-to-beatsometime，the\'nows\'toocannotbesimultaneouswithoneanother，buttheprior\'now\'mustalwayshaveceased-to-be。
Buttheprior\'now\'cannothaveceased-to-beinitselfsinceitthenexisted；yetitcannothaveceased-to-beinanother\'now\'。Forwemaylayitdownthatone\'now\'cannotbenexttoanother，anymorethanpointtopoint。Ifthenitdidnotcease-to-beinthenext\'now\'butinanother，itwouldexistsimultaneouslywiththeinnumerable\'nows\'betweenthetwo-whichisimpossible。
Yes，but2neitherisitpossibleforthe\'now\'toremainalwaysthesame。Nodeterminatedivisiblethinghasasingletermination，whetheritiscontinuouslyextendedinoneorinmorethanonedimension:butthe\'now\'isatermination，anditispossibletocutoffadeterminatetime。Further，ifcoincidenceintimei。e。beingneitherpriornorposteriormeanstobe\'inoneandthesame“now“\'，then，ifbothwhatisbeforeandwhatisafterareinthissame\'now\'，thingswhichhappenedtenthousandyearsagowouldbesimultaneouswithwhathashappenedto-day，andnothingwouldbebeforeorafteranythingelse。
Thismayserveasastatementofthedifficultiesabouttheattributesoftime。
Astowhattimeisorwhatisitsnature，thetraditionalaccountsgiveusaslittlelightasthepreliminaryproblemswhichwehaveworkedthrough。
Someassertthatitis1themovementofthewhole，othersthatitis2thesphereitself。
1Yetpart，too，oftherevolutionisatime，butitcertainlyisnotarevolution:forwhatistakenispartofarevolution，notarevolution。Besides，ifthereweremoreheavensthanone，themovementofanyofthemequallywouldbetime，sothattherewouldbemanytimesatthesametime。
2Thosewhosaidthattimeisthesphereofthewholethoughtso，nodoubt，onthegroundthatallthingsareintimeandallthingsareinthesphereofthewhole。Theviewistoonaiveforittobeworthwhiletoconsidertheimpossibilitiesimpliedinit。
Butastimeismostusuallysupposedtobe3motionandakindofchange，wemustconsiderthisview。
Nowathechangeormovementofeachthingisonlyinthethingwhichchangesorwherethethingitselfwhichmovesorchangesmaychancetobe。Buttimeispresentequallyeverywhereandwithallthings。
Again，bchangeisalwaysfasterorslower，whereastimeisnot:
for\'fast\'and\'slow\'aredefinedbytime-\'fast\'iswhatmovesmuchinashorttime，\'slow\'whatmoveslittleinalongtime；buttimeisnotdefinedbytime，bybeingeitheracertainamountoracertainkindofit。
Clearlythenitisnotmovement。Weneednotdistinguishatpresentbetween\'movement\'and\'change\'。
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Butneitherdoestimeexistwithoutchange；forwhenthestateofourownmindsdoesnotchangeatall，orwehavenotnoticeditschanging，wedonotrealizethattimehaselapsed，anymorethanthosewhoarefabledtosleepamongtheheroesinSardiniadowhentheyareawakened；fortheyconnecttheearlier\'now\'withthelaterandmakethemone，cuttingouttheintervalbecauseoftheirfailuretonoticeit。So，justas，ifthe\'now\'werenotdifferentbutoneandthesame，therewouldnothavebeentime，sotoowhenitsdifferenceescapesournoticetheintervaldoesnotseemtobetime。If，then，thenon-realizationoftheexistenceoftimehappenstouswhenwedonotdistinguishanychange，butthesoulseemstostayinoneindivisiblestate，andwhenweperceiveanddistinguishwesaytimehaselapsed，evidentlytimeisnotindependentofmovementandchange。
Itisevident，then，thattimeisneithermovementnorindependentofmovement。
Wemusttakethisasourstarting-pointandtrytodiscover-sincewewishtoknowwhattimeis-whatexactlyithastodowithmovement。
Nowweperceivemovementandtimetogether:forevenwhenitisdarkandwearenotbeingaffectedthroughthebody，ifanymovementtakesplaceinthemindweatoncesupposethatsometimealsohaselapsed；andnotonlythatbutalso，whensometimeisthoughttohavepassed，somemovementalsoalongwithitseemstohavetakenplace。
Hencetimeiseithermovementorsomethingthatbelongstomovement。
Sincethenitisnotmovement，itmustbetheother。
Butwhatismovedismovedfromsomethingtosomething，andallmagnitudeiscontinuous。Thereforethemovementgoeswiththemagnitude。Becausethemagnitudeiscontinuous，themovementtoomustbecontinuous，andifthemovement，thenthetime；forthetimethathaspassedisalwaysthoughttobeinproportiontothemovement。
Thedistinctionof\'before\'and\'after\'holdsprimarily，then，inplace；andthereinvirtueofrelativeposition。Sincethen\'before\'
and\'after\'holdinmagnitude，theymustholdalsoinmovement，thesecorrespondingtothose。Butalsointimethedistinctionof\'before\'and\'after\'musthold，fortimeandmovementalwayscorrespondwitheachother。The\'before\'and\'after\'inmotionisidenticalinsubstratumwithmotionyetdiffersfromitindefinition，andisnotidenticalwithmotion。
Butweapprehendtimeonlywhenwehavemarkedmotion，markingitby\'before\'and\'after\'；anditisonlywhenwehaveperceived\'before\'
and\'after\'inmotionthatwesaythattimehaselapsed。NowwemarkthembyjudgingthatAandBaredifferent，andthatsomethirdthingisintermediatetothem。Whenwethinkoftheextremesasdifferentfromthemiddleandthemindpronouncesthatthe\'nows\'
aretwo，onebeforeandoneafter，itisthenthatwesaythatthereistime，andthisthatwesayistime。Forwhatisboundedbythe\'now\'isthoughttobetime-wemayassumethis。
When，therefore，weperceivethe\'now\'one，andneitherasbeforeandafterinamotionnorasanidentitybutinrelationtoa\'before\'
andan\'after\'，notimeisthoughttohaveelapsed，becausetherehasbeennomotioneither。Ontheotherhand，whenwedoperceivea\'before\'andan\'after\'，thenwesaythatthereistime。Fortimeisjustthis-numberofmotioninrespectof\'before\'and\'after\'。
Hencetimeisnotmovement，butonlymovementinsofarasitadmitsofenumeration。Aproofofthis:wediscriminatethemoreorthelessbynumber，butmoreorlessmovementbytime。Timethenisakindofnumber。Number，wemustnote，isusedintwosenses-bothofwhatiscountedorthecountableandalsoofthatwithwhichwecount。Timeobviouslyiswhatiscounted，notthatwithwhichwecount:therearedifferentkindsofthing。Justasmotionisaperpetualsuccession，soalsoistime。Buteverysimultaneoustimeisself-identical；forthe\'now\'asasubjectisanidentity，butitacceptsdifferentattributes。The\'now\'measurestime，insofarastimeinvolvesthe\'beforeandafter\'。
The\'now\'inonesenseisthesame，inanotheritisnotthesame。
Insofarasitisinsuccession，itisdifferentwhichisjustwhatitsbeingwassupposedtomean，butitssubstratumisanidentity:formotion，aswassaid，goeswithmagnitude，andtime，aswemaintain，withmotion。Similarly，then，therecorrespondstothepointthebodywhichiscarriedalong，andbywhichweareawareofthemotionandofthe\'beforeandafter\'involvedinit。Thisisanidenticalsubstratumwhetherapointorastoneorsomethingelseofthekind，butithasdifferentattributesasthesophistsassumethatCoriscus\'beingintheLyceumisadifferentthingfromCoriscus\'
beinginthemarket-place。Andthebodywhichiscarriedalongisdifferent，insofarasitisatonetimehereandatanotherthere。
Butthe\'now\'correspondstothebodythatiscarriedalong，astimecorrespondstothemotion。Foritisbymeansofthebodythatiscarriedalongthatwebecomeawareofthe\'beforeandafter\'themotion，andifweregardtheseascountablewegetthe\'now\'。Henceinthesealsothe\'now\'assubstratumremainsthesameforitiswhatisbeforeandafterinmovement，butwhatispredicatedofitisdifferent；foritisinsofarasthe\'beforeandafter\'isnumerablethatwegetthe\'now\'。Thisiswhatismostknowable:for，similarly，motionisknownbecauseofthatwhichismoved，locomotionbecauseofthatwhichiscarried。whatiscarriedisarealthing，themovementisnot。Thuswhatiscalled\'now\'inonesenseisalwaysthesame；inanotheritisnotthesame:forthisistruealsoofwhatiscarried。
Clearly，too，iftherewerenotime，therewouldbeno\'now\'，andviceversa。justasthemovingbodyanditslocomotioninvolveeachothermutually，sotoodothenumberofthemovingbodyandthenumberofitslocomotion。Forthenumberofthelocomotionistime，whilethe\'now\'correspondstothemovingbody，andisliketheunitofnumber。
Time，then，alsoisbothmadecontinuousbythe\'now\'anddividedatit。Forheretoothereisacorrespondencewiththelocomotionandthemovingbody。Forthemotionorlocomotionismadeonebythethingwhichismoved，becauseitisone-notbecauseitisoneinitsownnaturefortheremightbepausesinthemovementofsuchathing-butbecauseitisoneindefinition:forthisdeterminesthemovementas\'before\'and\'after\'。Here，toothereisacorrespondencewiththepoint；forthepointalsobothconnectsandterminatesthelength-itisthebeginningofoneandtheendofanother。Butwhenyoutakeitinthisway，usingtheonepointastwo，apauseisnecessary，ifthesamepointistobethebeginningandtheend。The\'now\'ontheotherhand，sincethebodycarriedismoving，isalwaysdifferent。
Hencetimeisnotnumberinthesenseinwhichthereis\'number\'
ofthesamepointbecauseitisbeginningandend，butratherastheextremitiesofalineformanumber，andnotasthepartsofthelinedoso，bothforthereasongivenforwecanusethemiddlepointastwo，sothatonthatanalogytimemightstandstill，andfurtherbecauseobviouslythe\'now\'isnopartoftimenorthesectionanypartofthemovement，anymorethanthepointsarepartsoftheline-foritistwolinesthatarepartsofoneline。
Insofarthenasthe\'now\'isaboundary，itisnottime，butanattributeofit；insofarasitnumbers，itisnumber；forboundariesbelongonlytothatwhichtheybound，butnumbere。g。tenisthenumberofthesehorses，andbelongsalsoelsewhere。
Itisclear，then，thattimeis\'numberofmovementinrespectofthebeforeandafter\'，andiscontinuoussinceitisanattributeofwhatiscontinuous。
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Thesmallestnumber，inthestrictsenseoftheword\'number\'，istwo。Butofnumberasconcrete，sometimesthereisaminimum，sometimesnot:e。g。ofa\'line\'，thesmallestinrespectofmultiplicityistwoor，ifyoulike，one，butinrespectofsizethereisnominimum；foreverylineisdividedadinfinitum。Henceitissowithtime。Inrespectofnumbertheminimumisoneortwo；inpointofextentthereisnominimum。
Itisclear，too，thattimeisnotdescribedasfastorslow，butasmanyorfewandaslongorshort。Forascontinuousitislongorshortandasanumbermanyorfew，butitisnotfastorslow-anymorethananynumberwithwhichwenumberisfastorslow。
Further，thereisthesametimeeverywhereatonce，butnotthesametimebeforeandafter，forwhilethepresentchangeisone，thechangewhichhashappenedandthatwhichwillhappenaredifferent。Timeisnotnumberwithwhichwecount，butthenumberofthingswhicharecounted，andthisaccordingasitoccursbeforeorafterisalwaysdifferent，forthe\'nows\'aredifferent。Andthenumberofahundredhorsesandahundredmenisthesame，butthethingsnumberedaredifferent-thehorsesfromthemen。Further，asamovementcanbeoneandthesameagainandagain，sotoocantime，e。g。ayearoraspringoranautumn。
Notonlydowemeasurethemovementbythetime，butalsothetimebythemovement，becausetheydefineeachother。Thetimemarksthemovement，sinceitisitsnumber，andthemovementthetime。Wedescribethetimeasmuchorlittle，measuringitbythemovement，justasweknowthenumberbywhatisnumbered，e。g。thenumberofthehorsesbyonehorseastheunit。Forweknowhowmanyhorsestherearebytheuseofthenumber；andagainbyusingtheonehorseasunitweknowthenumberofthehorsesitself。Soitiswiththetimeandthemovement；forwemeasurethemovementbythetimeandviceversa。Itisnaturalthatthisshouldhappen；forthemovementgoeswiththedistanceandthetimewiththemovement，becausetheyarequantaandcontinuousanddivisible。Themovementhastheseattributesbecausethedistanceisofthisnature，andthetimehasthembecauseofthemovement。Andwemeasureboththedistancebythemovementandthemovementbythedistance；forwesaythattheroadislong，ifthejourneyislong，andthatthisislong，iftheroadislong-thetime，too，ifthemovement，andthemovement，ifthetime。
Timeisameasureofmotionandofbeingmoved，anditmeasuresthemotionbydeterminingamotionwhichwillmeasureexactlythewholemotion，asthecubitdoesthelengthbydetermininganamountwhichwillmeasureoutthewhole。Further\'tobeintime\'meansformovement，thatbothitanditsessencearemeasuredbytimeforsimultaneouslyitmeasuresboththemovementanditsessence，andthisiswhatbeingintimemeansforit，thatitsessenceshouldbemeasured。
Clearlythen\'tobeintime\'hasthesamemeaningforotherthingsalso，namely，thattheirbeingshouldbemeasuredbytime。\'Tobeintime\'isoneoftwothings:1toexistwhentimeexists，2aswesayofsomethingsthattheyare\'innumber\'。Thelattermeanseitherwhatisapartormodeofnumber-ingeneral，somethingwhichbelongstonumber-orthatthingshaveanumber。
Now，sincetimeisnumber，the\'now\'andthe\'before\'andthelikeareintime，justas\'unit\'and\'odd\'and\'even\'areinnumber，i。e。
inthesensethattheonesetbelongstonumber，theothertotime。
Butthingsareintimeastheyareinnumber。Ifthisisso，theyarecontainedbytimeasthingsinplacearecontainedbyplace。
Plainly，too，tobeintimedoesnotmeantoco-existwithtime，anymorethantobeinmotionorinplacemeanstoco-existwithmotionorplace。Forif\'tobeinsomething\'istomeanthis，thenallthingswillbeinanything，andtheheavenwillbeinagrain；forwhenthegrainis，thenalsoistheheaven。Butthisisamerelyincidentalconjunction，whereastheotherisnecessarilyinvolved:thatwhichisintimenecessarilyinvolvesthatthereistimewhenitis，andthatwhichisinmotionthatthereismotionwhenitis。
Sincewhatis\'intime\'issointhesamesenseaswhatisinnumberisso，atimegreaterthaneverythingintimecanbefound。Soitisnecessarythatallthethingsintimeshouldbecontainedbytime，justlikeotherthingsalsowhichare\'inanything\'，e。g。thethings\'inplace\'byplace。
Athing，then，willbeaffectedbytime，justasweareaccustomedtosaythattimewastesthingsaway，andthatallthingsgrowoldthroughtime，andthatthereisoblivionowingtothelapseoftime，butwedonotsaythesameofgettingtoknoworofbecomingyoungorfair。Fortimeisbyitsnaturethecauseratherofdecay，sinceitisthenumberofchange，andchangeremoveswhatis。
Hence，plainly，thingswhicharealwaysarenot，assuch，intime，fortheyarenotcontainedtime，noristheirbeingmeasuredbytime。Aproofofthisisthatnoneofthemisaffectedbytime，whichindicatesthattheyarenotintime。
Sincetimeisthemeasureofmotion，itwillbethemeasureofresttoo-indirectly。Forallrestisintime。Foritdoesnotfollowthatwhatisintimeismoved，thoughwhatisinmotionisnecessarilymoved。Fortimeisnotmotion，but\'numberofmotion\':andwhatisatrest，also，canbeinthenumberofmotion。Noteverythingthatisnotinmotioncanbesaidtobe\'atrest\'-butonlythatwhichcanbemoved，thoughitactuallyisnotmoved，aswassaidabove。
\'Tobeinnumber\'meansthatthereisanumberofthething，andthatitsbeingismeasuredbythenumberinwhichitis。Henceifathingis\'intime\'itwillbemeasuredbytime。Buttimewillmeasurewhatismovedandwhatisatrest，theonequamoved，theotherquaatrest；foritwillmeasuretheirmotionandrestrespectively。
Hencewhatismovedwillnotbemeasurablebythetimesimplyinsofarasithasquantity，butinsofarasitsmotionhasquantity。
Thusnoneofthethingswhichareneithermovednoratrestareintime:for\'tobeintime\'is\'tobemeasuredbytime\'，whiletimeisthemeasureofmotionandrest。
Plainly，then，neitherwilleverythingthatdoesnotexistbeintime，i。e。thosenon-existentthingsthatcannotexist，asthediagonalcannotbecommensuratewiththeside。
Generally，iftimeisdirectlythemeasureofmotionandindirectlyofotherthings，itisclearthatathingwhoseexistenceismeasuredbyitwillhaveitsexistenceinrestormotion。Thosethingsthereforewhicharesubjecttoperishingandbecoming-generally，thosewhichatonetimeexist，atanotherdonot-arenecessarilyintime:forthereisagreatertimewhichwillextendbothbeyondtheirexistenceandbeyondthetimewhichmeasurestheirexistence。Ofthingswhichdonotexistbutarecontainedbytimesomewere，e。g。Homeroncewas，somewillbe，e。g。afutureevent；thisdependsonthedirectioninwhichtimecontainsthem；ifonboth，theyhavebothmodesofexistence。Astosuchthingsasitdoesnotcontaininanyway，theyneitherwerenorarenorwillbe。Thesearethosenonexistentswhoseoppositesalwaysare，astheincommensurabilityofthediagonalalwaysis-andthiswillnotbeintime。Norwillthecommensurability，therefore；hencethiseternallyisnot，becauseitiscontrarytowhateternallyis。Athingwhosecontraryisnoteternalcanbeandnotbe，anditisofsuchthingsthatthereiscomingtobeandpassingaway。
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The\'now\'isthelinkoftime，ashasbeensaidforitconnectspastandfuturetime，anditisalimitoftimeforitisthebeginningoftheoneandtheendoftheother。Butthisisnotobviousasitiswiththepoint，whichisfixed。Itdividespotentially，andinsofarasitisdividingthe\'now\'isalwaysdifferent，butinsofarasitconnectsitisalwaysthesame，asitiswithmathematicallines。Fortheintellectitisnotalwaysoneandthesamepoint，sinceitisotherandotherwhenonedividestheline；
butinsofarasitisone，itisthesameineveryrespect。
Sothe\'now\'alsoisinonewayapotentialdividingoftime，inanothertheterminationofbothparts，andtheirunity。Andthedividingandtheunitingarethesamethingandinthesamereference，butinessencetheyarenotthesame。
Soonekindof\'now\'isdescribedinthisway:anotheriswhenthetimeisnearthiskindof\'now\'。\'Hewillcomenow\'becausehewillcometo-day；\'hehascomenow\'becausehecameto-day。ButthethingsintheIliadhavenothappened\'now\'，noristheflood\'now\'-notthatthetimefromnowtothemisnotcontinuous，butbecausetheyarenotnear。
\'Atsometime\'meansatimedeterminedinrelationtothefirstofthetwotypesof\'now\'，e。g。\'atsometime\'Troywastaken，and\'atsometime\'therewillbeaflood；foritmustbedeterminedwithreferencetothe\'now\'。Therewillthusbeadeterminatetimefromthis\'now\'tothat，andtherewassuchinreferencetothepastevent。
Butiftherebenotimewhichisnot\'sometime\'，everytimewillbedetermined。
Willtimethenfail?Surelynot，ifmotionalwaysexists。Istimethenalwaysdifferentordoesthesametimerecur?Clearlytimeis，inthesamewayasmotionis。Forifoneandthesamemotionsometimesrecurs，itwillbeoneandthesametime，andifnot，not。
Sincethe\'now\'isanendandabeginningoftime，notofthesametimehowever，buttheendofthatwhichispastandthebeginningofthatwhichistocome，itfollowsthat，asthecirclehasitsconvexityanditsconcavity，inasense，inthesamething，sotimeisalwaysatabeginningandatanend。Andforthisreasonitseemstobealwaysdifferent；forthe\'now\'isnotthebeginningandtheendofthesamething；ifitwere，itwouldbeatthesametimeandinthesamerespecttwoopposites。Andtimewillnotfail；foritisalwaysatabeginning。
\'Presently\'or\'just\'referstothepartoffuturetimewhichisneartheindivisiblepresent\'now\'\'Whendoyouwalk?\'Presently\'，becausethetimeinwhichheisgoingtodosoisnear，andtothepartofpasttimewhichisnotfarfromthe\'now\'\'Whendoyouwalk?\'
\'Ihavejustbeenwalking\'。ButtosaythatTroyhasjustbeentaken-wedonotsaythat，becauseitistoofarfromthe\'now\'。
\'Lately\'，too，referstothepartofpasttimewhichisnearthepresent\'now\'。\'Whendidyougo?\'\'Lately\'，ifthetimeisneartheexistingnow。\'Longago\'referstothedistantpast。
\'Suddenly\'referstowhathasdepartedfromitsformerconditioninatimeimperceptiblebecauseofitssmallness；butitisthenatureofallchangetoalterthingsfromtheirformercondition。Intimeallthingscomeintobeingandpassaway；forwhichreasonsomecalleditthewisestofallthings，butthePythagoreanParoncalleditthemoststupid，becauseinitwealsoforget；andhiswasthetruerview。
Itisclearthenthatitmustbeinitself，aswesaidbefore，theconditionofdestructionratherthanofcomingintobeingforchange，initself，makesthingsdepartfromtheirformercondition，andonlyincidentallyofcomingintobeing，andofbeing。Asufficientevidenceofthisisthatnothingcomesintobeingwithoutitselfmovingsomehowandacting，butathingcanbedestroyedevenifitdoesnotmoveatall。Andthisiswhat，asarule，wechieflymeanbyathing\'sbeingdestroyedbytime。Still，timedoesnotworkeventhischange；eventhissortofchangetakesplaceincidentallyintime。
Wehavestated，then，thattimeexistsandwhatitis，andinhowmanysenseswespeakofthe\'now\'，andwhat\'atsometime\'，\'lately\'，\'presently\'or\'just\'，\'longago\'，and\'suddenly\'mean。