Thelandoftheorang-utan，andthebirdorparadise。
Anarrativeoftravel，withsketchesofmanandnature。
ToCHARLESDARWIN，AUTHOROF\"THEORIGINOFSPECIES，\"
Idedicatethisbook，NotonlyasatokenofpersonalesteemandfriendshipButalsoToexpressmydeepadmirationForHisgeniusandhisworks。
PREFACE。
MyreaderswillnaturallyaskwhyIhavedelayedwritingthisbookforsixyearsaftermyreturn；andIfeelboundtogivethemfullsatisfactiononthispoint。
WhenIreachedEnglandinthespringof1862，IfoundmyselfsurroundedbyaroomfullofpackingcasescontainingthecollectionsthatIhad，fromtimetotime，senthomeformyprivateuse。Thesecomprisednearlythreethousandbirdskinsofaboutonethousandspecies，atleasttwentythousandbeetlesandbutterfliesofaboutseventhousandspecies，andsomequadrupedsandlandshellsbesides。AlargeproportionoftheseIhadnotseenforyears，andinmythenweakenedstateofhealth，theunpacking，sorting，andarrangingofsuchamassofspecimensoccupiedalongtime。
IverysoondecidedthatuntilIhaddonesomethingtowardsnaminganddescribingthemostimportantgroupsinmycollection，andhadworkedoutsomeofthemoreinterestingproblemsofvariationandgeographicaldistributionofwhichIhadhadglimpseswhilecollectingthem，Iwouldnotattempttopublishmytravels。Indeed，Icouldhaveprintedmynotesandjournalsatonce，leavingallreferencetoquestionsofnaturalhistoryforafuturework；but，Ifeltthatthiswouldbeasunsatisfactorytomyselfasitwouldbedisappointingtomyfriends，anduninstructivetothepublic。
Sincemyreturn，uptothisdate，Ihavepublishedeighteenpapersinthe\"Transactions\"or\"ProceedingsoftheLinneanZoologicalandEntomologicalSocieties\"，describingorcataloguingportionsofmycollections，alongwithtwelveothersinvariousscientificperiodicalsonmoregeneralsubjectsconnectedwiththem。
NearlytwothousandofmyColeoptera，andmanyhundredsofmybutterflies，havebeenalreadydescribedbyvariouseminentnaturalists，Britishandforeign；butamuchlargernumberremainsundescribed。Amongthosetowhomscienceismostindebtedforthislaboriouswork，ImustnameMr。F。P。Pascoe，latePresidentoftheEntomologicalSocietyofLondon，whohadalmostcompletedtheclassificationanddescriptionofmylargecollectionofLongicornbeetlesnowinhispossession，comprisingmorethanathousandspecies，ofwhichatleastninehundredwerepreviouslyundescribedandnewtoEuropeancabinets。
Theremainingordersofinsects，comprisingprobablymorethantwothousandspecies，areinthecollectionofMr。WilliamWilsonSaunders，whohascausedthelargerportionofthemtobedescribedbygoodentomologists。TheHymenopteraaloneamountedtomorethanninehundredspecies，amongwhichweretwohundredandeightydifferentkindsofants，ofwhichtwohundredwerenew。
Thesixyears\'delayinpublishingmytravelsthusenablesmetogivewhatIhopemaybeaninterestingandinstructivesketchofthemainresultsyetarrivedatbythestudyofmycollections；
andasthecountriesIhavetodescribearenotmuchvisitedorwrittenabout，andtheirsocialandphysicalconditionsarenotliabletorapidchange，Ibelieveandhopethatmyreaderswillgainmuchmorethantheywilllosebynothavingreadmybooksixyearsago，andbythistimeperhapsforgottenallaboutit。
Imustnowsayafewwordsontheplanofmywork。
Myjourneystothevariousislandswereregulatedbytheseasonsandthemeansofconveyance。Ivisitedsomeislandstwoorthreetimesatdistantintervals，andinsomecaseshadtomakethesamevoyagefourtimesover。Achronologicalarrangementwouldhavepuzzledmyreaders。Theywouldneverhaveknownwheretheywere，andmyfrequentreferencestothegroupsofislands，classedinaccordancewiththepeculiaritiesoftheiranimalproductionsandoftheirhumaninhabitants，wouldhavebeenhardlyintelligible。Ihaveadopted，therefore，ageographical，zoological，andethnologicalarrangement，passingfromislandtoislandinwhatseemsthemostnaturalsuccession，whileI
transgresstheorderinwhichImyselfvisitedthem，aslittleaspossible。
IdividetheArchipelagointofivegroupsofislands，asfollows：
I。THEINDO-MALAYISLANDS：comprisingtheMalayPeninsulaandSingapore，Borneo，Java，andSumatra。
II。THETIMORGROUP：comprisingtheislandsofTimor，Flores，Sumbawa，andLombock，withseveralsmallerones。
III。CELEBES：comprisingalsotheSulaIslandsandBouton。
IV。THEMOLUCCANGROUP：comprisingBouru，Ceram，Batchian，Gilolo，andMorty；withthesmallerislandsofTernate，Tidore，Makian，Kaióa，Amboyna，Banda，Goram，andMatabello。
V。THEPAPUANGROUP：comprisingthegreatislandofNewGuinea，withtheAruIslands，Mysol，Salwatty，Waigiou，andseveralothers。TheKeIslandsaredescribedwiththisgrouponaccountoftheirethnology，thoughzoologicallyandgeographicallytheybelongtotheMoluccas。
ThechaptersrelatingtotheseparateislandsofeachofthesegroupsarefollowedbyoneontheNaturalHistoryofthatgroup；
andtheworkmaythusbedividedintofiveparts，eachtreatingoneofthenaturaldivisionsoftheArchipelago。
Thefirstchapterisanintroductoryone，onthePhysicalGeographyofthewholeregion；andthelastisageneralsketchofthepacesofmanintheArchipelagoandthesurroundingcountries。Withthisexplanation，andareferencetothemapswhichillustratethework，Itrustthatmyreaderswillalwaysknowwheretheyare，andinwhatdirectiontheyaregoing。
Iamwellawarethatmybookisfartoosmallfortheextentofthesubjectsittouchesupon。Itisameresketch；butsofarasitgoes，Ihaveendeavouredtomakeitanaccurateone。Almostthewholeofthenarrativeanddescriptiveportionswerewrittenonthespot，andhavehadlittlemorethanverbalalterations。
ThechaptersonNaturalHistory，aswellasmanypassagesinotherpartsofthework，havebeenwritteninthehopeofexcitinganinterestinthevariousquestionsconnectedwiththeoriginofspeciesandtheirgeographicaldistribution。InsomecasesIhavebeenabletoexplainmyviewsindetail；whileinothers，owingtothegreatercomplexityofthesubject，Ihavethoughtitbettertoconfinemyselftoastatementofthemoreinterestingfactsoftheproblem，whosesolutionistobefoundintheprinciplesdevelopedbyMr。Darwininhisvariousworks。
Thenumerousillustrationswill，itisbelieved，addmuchtotheinterestandvalueofthebook。Theyhavebeenmadefrommyownsketches，fromphotographs，orfromspecimens——andsuch，onlysubjectsthatwouldreallyillustratethenarrativeorthedescriptions，havebeenchosen。
IhavetothankMessrs。WalterandHenryWoodbury，whoseacquaintanceIhadthepleasureofmakinginJava，foranumberofphotographsofsceneryandofnatives，whichhavebeenofthegreatestassistancetome。Mr。WilliamWilsonSaundershaskindlyallowedmetofigurethecurioushornedflies；andtoMr。PascoeIamindebtedforaloanoftwooftheveryrareLongicornswhichappearintheplateofBorneanbeetles。Alltheotherspecimensfiguredareinmyowncollection。
Asthemainobjectofallmyjourneyswastoobtainspecimensofnaturalhistory，bothformyprivatecollectionandtosupplyduplicatestomuseumsandamateurs，IwillgiveageneralstatementofthenumberofspecimensIcollected，andwhichreachedhomeingoodcondition。ImustpremisethatIgenerallyemployedoneortwo，andsometimesthreeMalayservantstoassistme；andfornearlyhalfthetimehadtheservicesofanEnglishlad，CharlesAllen。IwasjusteightyearsawayfromEngland，butasItravelledaboutfourteenthousandmileswithintheArchipelago，andmadesixtyorseventyseparatejourneys，eachinvolvingsomepreparationandlossoftime，Idonotthinkthatmorethansixyearswerereallyoccupiedincollecting。
IfindthatmyEasterncollectionsamountedto：
310specimensofMammalia。
100specimensofReptiles。
8，050specimensofBirds。
7，500specimensofShells。
13，100specimensofLepidoptera。
83，200specimensofColeoptera。
13，400specimensofotherInsects。
125，660specimensofnaturalhistoryinall。
ItnowonlyremainsformetothankallthosefriendstowhomI
amindebtedforassistanceorinformation。MythanksaremoreespeciallyduetotheCounciloftheRoyalGeographicalSociety，throughwhosevaluablerecommendationsIobtainedimportantaidfromourownGovernmentandfromthatofHolland；andtoMr。
WilliamWilsonSaunders，whosekindandliberalencouragementintheearlyportionofmyjourneywasofgreatservicetome。IamalsogreatlyindebtedtoMr。SamuelStevenswhoactedasmyagent，bothforthecarehetookofmycollections，andfortheuntiringassiduitywithwhichhekeptmesupplied，bothwithusefulinformationandwithwhatevernecessariesIrequired。
Itrustthatthese，andallotherfriendswhohavebeeninanywayinterestedinmytravelsandcollections，mayderivefromtheperusalofmybook，somefaintreflexionofthepleasuresI
myselfenjoyedamidthescenesandobjectsitdescribes。
THEMALAYARCHIPELAGO。
CHAPTERI。
PHYSICALGEOGRAPHY。
FromalookataglobeoramapoftheEasternhemisphere，weshallperceivebetweenAsiaandAustraliaanumberoflargeandsmallislandsformingaconnectedgroupdistinctfromthosegreatmassesofland，andhavinglittleconnectionwitheitherofthem。
SituatedupontheEquator，andbathedbythetepidwaterofthegreattropicaloceans，thisregionenjoysaclimatemoreuniformlyhotandmoistthanalmostanyotherpartoftheglobe，andteemswithnaturalproductionswhichareelsewhereunknown。
TherichestoffruitsandthemostpreciousofspicesareIndigenoushere。ItproducesthegiantflowersoftheRafflesia，thegreatgreen-wingedOrnithopteraprincesamongthebutterflytribes，theman-likeOrangutan，andthegorgeousBirdsofParadise。Itisinhabitedbyapeculiarandinterestingraceofmankind——theMalay，foundnowherebeyondthelimitsofthisinsulartract，whichhashencebeennamedtheMalayArchipelago。
TotheordinaryEnglishmanthisisperhapstheleastknownpartoftheglobe。Ourpossessionsinitarefewandscanty；scarcelyanyofourtravellersgotoexploreit；andinmanycollectionsofmapsitisalmostignored，beingdividedbetweenAsiaandthePacificIslands。Itthushappensthatfewpersonsrealizethat，asawhole，itiscomparablewiththeprimarydivisionsoftheglobe，andthatsomeofitsseparateislandsarelargerthanFranceortheAustrianEmpire。Thetraveller，however，soonacquiresdifferentideas。Hesailsfordaysorevenweeksalongtheshoresofoneofthesegreatislands，oftensogreatthatitsinhabitantsbelieveittobeavastcontinent。Hefindsthatvoyagesamongtheseislandsarecommonlyreckonedbyweeksandmonths，andthattheirseveralinhabitantsareoftenaslittleknowntoeachotherasarethenativeracesofthenortherntothoseofthesoutherncontinentofAmerica。Hesooncomestolookuponthisregionasoneapartfromtherestoftheworld，withitsownracesofmenanditsownaspectsofnature；withitsownideas，feelings，customs，andmodesofspeech，andwithaclimate，vegetation，andanimatedlifealtogetherpeculiartoitself。
Frommanypointsofviewtheseislandsformonecompactgeographicalwhole，andassuchtheyhavealwaysbeentreatedbytravellersandmenofscience；but，amorecarefulanddetailedstudyofthemundervariousaspectsrevealstheunexpectedfactthattheyaredivisibleintotwoportionsnearlyequalinextentwhichdifferwidelyintheirnaturalproducts，andreallyformtwopartsoftheprimarydivisionsoftheearth。IhavebeenabletoprovethisinconsiderabledetailbymyobservationsonthenaturalhistoryofthevariouspartsoftheArchipelago；and，asinthedescriptionofmytravelsandresidenceintheseveralislandsIshallhavetorefercontinuallytothisview，andadducefactsinsupportofit，IhavethoughtitadvisabletocommencewithageneralsketchofthemainfeaturesoftheMalayanregionaswillrenderthefactshereafterbroughtforwardmoreinteresting，andtheirbearinguponthegeneralquestionmoreeasilyunderstood。Iproceed，therefore，tosketchthelimitsandextentoftheArchipelago，andtopointoutthemorestrikingfeaturesofitsgeology，physicalgeography，vegetation，andanimallife。
DefinitionandBoundaries——Forreasonswhichdependmainlyonthedistributionofanimallife，IconsidertheMalayArchipelagotoincludetheMalayPeninsulaasfarasTenasserimandtheNicobarIslandsonthewest，thePhilippinesonthenorth，andtheSolomonIslands，beyondNewGuinea，ontheeast。Allthegreatislandsincludedwithintheselimitsareconnectedtogetherbyinnumerablesmallerones，sothatnooneofthemseemstobedistinctlyseparatedfromtherest。Withbutfewexceptionsallenjoyanuniformandverysimilarclimate，andarecoveredwithaluxuriantforestvegetation。Whetherwestudytheirformanddistributiononmaps，oractuallytravelfromislandtoisland，ourfirstimpressionwillbethattheyformaconnectedwhole，allthepartsofwhichareintimatelyrelatedtoeachother。
ExtentoftheArchipelagoandIslands——TheMalayArchipelagoextendsformorethan4，000milesinlengthfromeasttowest，andisabout1，300inbreadthfromnorthtosouth。ItwouldstretchoveranexpanseequaltothatofallEuropefromtheextremewestfarintoCentralAsia，orwouldcoverthewidestpartsofSouthAmerica，andextendfarbeyondthelandintothePacificandAtlanticoceans。ItincludesthreeislandslargerthanGreatBritain；andinoneofthem，Borneo，thewholeoftheBritishIslesmightbesetdown，andwouldbesurroundedbyaseaofforests。NewGuinea，thoughlesscompactinshape，isprobablylargerthanBorneo。SumatraisaboutequalinextenttoGreatBritain；Java，Luzon，andCelebesareeachaboutthesizeofIreland。Eighteenmoreislandsare，ontheaverage，aslargeasJamaica；morethanahundredareaslargeastheIsleofWight；
whiletheislesandisletsofsmallersizeareinnumerable。
TheabsoluteextentoflandintheArchipelagoisnotgreaterthanthatcontainedbyWesternEuropefromHungarytoSpain；but，owingtothemannerinwhichthelandisbrokenupanddivided，thevarietyofitsproductionsisratherinproportiontotheimmensesurfaceoverwhichtheislandsarespread，thantothequantityoflandwhichtheycontain。
GeologicalContrasts——OneofthechiefvolcanicbeltsupontheglobepassesthroughtheArchipelago，andproducesastrikingcontrastinthesceneryofthevolcanicandnon-volcanicislands。
Acurvingline，markedoutbyscoresofactive，andhundredsofextinct，volcanoesmaybetracedthroughthewholelengthofSumatraandJava，andthencebytheislandsofBali，Lombock，Sumbawa，Flores，theSerwattyIslands，Banda，Amboyna，Batchian，Makian，Tidore，Ternate，andGilolo，toMortyIsland。Herethereisaslightbutwell-markedbreak，orshift，ofabout200milestothewestward，wherethevolcanicbeltbeginsagaininNorthCelebes，andpassesbySianandSanguirtothePhilippineIslandsalongtheeasternsideofwhichitcontinues，inacurvingline，totheirnorthernextremity。FromtheextremeeasternbendofthisbeltatBanda，wepassonwardsfor1，000milesoveranon-
volcanicdistricttothevolcanoesobservedbyDampier，in1699，onthenorth-easterncoastofNewGuinea，andcantheretraceanothervolcanicbeltthroughNewBritain，NewIreland，andtheSolomonIslands，totheeasternlimitsoftheArchipelago。
Inthewholeregionoccupiedbythisvastlineofvolcanoes，andforaconsiderablebreadthoneachsideofit，earthquakesareofcontinualrecurrence，slightshocksbeingfeltatintervalsofeveryfewweeksormonths，whilemoresevereones，shakingdownwholevillages，anddoingmoreorlessinjurytolifeandproperty，aresuretohappen，inonepartoranotherofthisdistrict，almosteveryyear。Onmanyoftheislandstheyearsofthegreatearthquakesformthechronologicalepochsofthenativeinhabitants，bytheaidofwhichtheagesoftheirchildrenareremembered，andthedatesofmanyimportanteventsaredetermined。
Icanonlybrieflyalludetothemanyfearfuleruptionsthathavetakenplaceinthisregion。Intheamountofinjurytolifeandproperty，andinthemagnitudeoftheireffects，theyhavenotbeensurpassedbyanyuponrecord。FortyvillagesweredestroyedbytheeruptionofPapandayanginJava，in1772，whenthewholemountainwasblownupbyrepeatedexplosions，andalargelakeleftinitsplace。BythegreateruptionofTomboroinSumbawa，in1815，12，000peopleweredestroyed，andtheashesdarkenedtheairandfellthicklyupontheearthandseafor300milesaround。
Evenquiterecently，sinceIleftthecountry，amountainwhichhadbeenquiescentformorethan200yearssuddenlyburstintoactivity。TheislandofMakian，oneoftheMoluccas，wasrentopenin1646byaviolenteruptionwhichleftahugechasmononeside，extendingintotheheartofthemountain。Itwas，whenI
lastvisiteditin1860，clothedwithvegetationtothesummit，andcontainedtwelvepopulousMalayvillages。Onthe29thofDecember，1862，after215yearsofperfectinaction，itagainsuddenlyburstforth，blowingupandcompletelyalteringtheappearanceofthemountain，destroyingthegreaterpartoftheinhabitants，andsendingforthsuchvolumesofashesastodarkentheairatTernate，fortymilesoff，andtoalmostentirelydestroythegrowingcropsonthatandthesurroundingislands。
TheislandofJavacontainsmorevolcanoes，activeandextinct，thananyotherknowndistrictofequalextent。Theyareaboutforty-fiveinnumber，andmanyofthemexhibitmostbeautifulexamplesofthevolcanicconeonalargescale，singleordouble，withentireortruncatedsummits，andaveraging10，000feethigh。
Itisnowwellascertainedthatalmostallvolcanoeshavebeenslowlybuiltupbytheaccumulationofmatter——mud，ashes，andlava——ejectedbythemselves。Theopeningsorcraters，however，frequentlyshifttheirposition，sothatacountrymaybecoveredwithamoreorlessirregularseriesofhillsinchainsandmasses，onlyhereandthererisingintoloftycones，andyetthewholemaybeproducedbytruevolcanicaction。InthismannerthegreaterpartofJavahasbeenformed。Therehasbeensomeelevation，especiallyonthesouthcoast，whereextensivecliffsofcorallimestonearefound；andtheremaybeasubstratumofolderstratifiedrocks；butstillessentiallyJavaisvolcanic，andthatnobleandfertileisland——theverygardenoftheEast，andperhapsuponthewholetherichest，thebestcultivated，andthebestgovernedtropicalislandintheworld——owesitsveryexistencetothesameintensevolcanicactivitywhichstilloccasionallydevastatesitssurface。
ThegreatislandofSumatraexhibits，inproportiontoitsextent，amuchsmallernumberofvolcanoes，andaconsiderableportionofithasprobablyanon-volcanicorigin。
Totheeastward，thelongstringofislandsfromJava，passingbythenorthofTimorandawaytoPanda，areprobablyallduetovolcanicaction。Timoritselfconsistsofancientstratifiedrocks，butissaidtohaveonevolcanonearitscentre。
Goingnorthward，Amboyna，apartofBouru，andthewestendofCeram，thenorthpartofGilolo，andallthesmallislandsaroundit，thenorthernextremityofCelebes，andtheislandsofSianandSang-air，arewhollyvolcanic。ThePhilippineArchipelagocontainsmanyactiveandextinctvolcanoes，andhasprobablybeenreducedtoitspresentfragmentaryconditionbysubsidencesattendingonvolcanicaction。
Allalongthisgreatlineofvolcanoesaretobefoundmoreorlesspalpablesignsofupheavalanddepressionofland。TherangeofislandssouthofSumatra，apartofthesouthcoastofJavaandoftheislandseastofit，thewestandeastendofTimor，portionsofalltheMoluccas，theKeandAruIslands，Waigiou，andthewholesouthandeastofGilolo，consistinagreatmeasureofupraisedcoral-rock，exactlycorrespondingtothatnowformingintheadjacentseas。InmanyplacesIhaveobservedtheunalteredsurfacesoftheelevatedreefs，withgreatmassesofcoralstandingupintheirnaturalposition，andhundredsofshellssofresh-lookingthatitwashardtobelievethattheyhadbeenmorethanafewyearsoutofthewater；and，infact，itisveryprobablethatsuchchangeshaveoccurredwithinafewcenturies。
Theunitedlengthsofthesevolcanicbeltsisaboutninetydegrees，orone-fourthoftheentirecircumferenceoftheglobe。
Theirwidthisaboutfiftymiles；but，foraspaceoftwohundredmilesoneachsideofthem，evidencesofsubterraneanactionaretobefoundinrecentlyelevatedcoral-rock，orinbarriercoral-
reefs，indicatingrecentsubmergence。IntheverycentreorfocusofthegreatcurveofvolcanoesisplacedthelargeislandofBorneo，inwhichnosignofrecentvolcanicactionhasyetbeenobserved，andwhereearthquakes，socharacteristicofthesurroundingregions，areentirelyunknown。TheequallylargeislandofNewGuineaoccupiesanotherquiescentarea，onwhichnosignofvolcanicactionhasyetbeendiscovered。Withtheexceptionoftheeasternendofitsnorthernpeninsula，thelargeandcuriously-shapedislandofCelebesisalsoentirelyfreefromvolcanoes；andthereissomereasontobelievethatthevolcanicportionhasonceformedaseparateisland。TheMalayPeninsulaisalsonon-volcanic。
ThefirstandmostobviousdivisionoftheArchipelagowouldthereforebeintoquiescentandvolcanicregions，anditmight，perhaps，beexpectedthatsuchadivisionwouldcorrespondtosomedifferencesinthecharacterofthevegetationandtheformsoflife。Thisisthecase，however，toaverylimitedextent；andweshallpresentlyseethat，althoughthisdevelopmentofsubterraneanfiresisonsovastascale——haspiledupchainsofmountainstenortwelvethousandfeethigh——hasbrokenupcontinentsandraisedupislandsfromtheocean——yetithasallthecharacterofarecentactionwhichhasnotyetsucceededinobliteratingthetracesofamoreancientdistributionoflandandwater。
ContrastsofVegetation——PlacedimmediatelyupontheEquatorandsurroundedbyextensiveoceans，itisnotsurprisingthatthevariousislandsoftheArchipelagoshouldbealmostalwaysclothedwithaforestvegetationfromtheleveloftheseatothesummitsoftheloftiestmountains。Thisisthegeneralrule。
Sumatra，NewGuinea，Borneo，thePhilippinesandtheMoluccas，andtheuncultivatedpartsofJavaandCelebes，areallforestcountries，exceptafewsmallandunimportanttracts，dueperhaps，insomecases，toancientcultivationoraccidentalfires。Tothis，however，thereisoneimportantexceptionintheislandofTimorandallthesmallerislandsaroundit，inwhichthereisabsolutelynoforestsuchasexistsintheotherislands，andthischaracterextendsinalesserdegreetoFlores，Sumbawa，Lombock，andBali。
InTimorthemostcommontreesareEucalyptiofseveralspecies，alsocharacteristicofAustralia，withsandalwood，acacia，andothersortsinlessabundance。Thesearescatteredoverthecountrymoreorlessthickly，but，neversoastodeservethenameofaforest。Coarseandscantygrassesgrowbeneaththemonthemorebarrenhills，andaluxuriantherbageinthemoisterlocalities。IntheislandsbetweenTimorandJavathereisoftenamorethicklywoodedcountryaboundinginthornyandpricklytrees。Theseseldomreachanygreatheight，andduringtheforceofthedryseasontheyalmostcompletelylosetheirleaves，allowingthegroundbeneaththemtobeparchedup，andcontrastingstronglywiththedamp，gloomy，ever-verdantforestsoftheotherislands。Thispeculiarcharacter，whichextendsinalessdegreetothesouthernpeninsulaofCelebesandtheeastendofJava，ismostprobablyowingtotheproximityofAustralia。
Thesouth-eastmonsoon，whichlastsforabouttwo-thirdsoftheyearfromMarchtoNovember，blowingoverthenorthernpartsofthatcountry，producesadegreeofheatanddrynesswhichassimilatesthevegetationandphysicalaspectoftheadjacentislandstoitsown。AlittlefurthereastwardinTimorandtheKeIslands，amoisterclimateprevails；thesoutheastwindsblowingfromthePacificthroughTorresStraitsandoverthedampforestsofNewGuinea，andasaconsequence，everyrockyisletisclothedwithverduretoitsverysummit。Furtherwestagain，asthesamedrywindsblowoverawiderandwiderextentofocean，theyhavetimetoabsorbfreshmoisture，andweaccordinglyfindtheislandofJavapossessingalessandlessaridclimate，untilintheextremewestnearBatavia，rainoccursmoreorlessalltheyearround，andthemountainsareeverywhereclothedwithforestsofunexampledluxuriance。
ContrastsinDepthofSea——ItwasfirstpointedoutbyMr。
GeorgeWindsorEarl，inapaperreadbeforetheRoyalGeographicalSocietyin1845，andsubsequentlyinapamphlet\"OnthePhysicalGeographyofSouth-EasternAsiaandAustralia\"，dated1855，thatashallowseaconnectedthegreatislandsofSumatra，Java，andBorneowiththeAsiaticcontinent，withwhichtheirnaturalproductionsgenerallyagreed；whileasimilarshallowseaconnectedNewGuineaandsomeoftheadjacentislandstoAustralia，allbeingcharacterisedbythepresenceofmarsupials。
WehavehereacluetothemostradicalcontrastintheArchipelago，andbyfollowingitoutindetailIhavearrivedattheconclusionthatwecandrawalineamongtheislands，whichshallsodividethemthatone-halfshalltrulybelongtoAsia，whiletheothershallnolesscertainlybealliedtoAustralia。I
termtheserespectivelytheIndo-MalayanandtheAustro-MalayandivisionsoftheArchipelago。
Onreferringtopages12，13，and36ofMr。Earl\'spamphlet，itwillbeseenthathemaintainstheformerconnectionofAsiaandAustraliaasanimportantpartofhisview；whereas，Idwellmainlyontheirlongcontinuedseparation。Notwithstandingthisandotherimportantdifferencesbetweenus，tohimundoubtedlybelongsthemeritoffirstindicatingthedivisionoftheArchipelagointoanAustralianandanAsiaticregion，whichithasbeenmygoodfortunetoestablishbymoredetailedobservations。
ContrastsinNaturalProductions——Tounderstandtheimportanceofthisclassoffacts，anditsbearingupontheformerdistributionoflandandsea，itisnecessarytoconsidertheresultsarrivedatbygeologistsandnaturalistsinotherpartsoftheworld。
Itisnowgenerallyadmittedthatthepresentdistributionoflivingthingsonthesurfaceoftheearthismainlytheresultofthelastseriesofchangesthatithasundergone。Geologyteachesusthatthesurfaceoftheland，andthedistributionoflandandwater，iseverywhereslowlychanging。Itfurtherteachesusthattheformsoflifewhichinhabitthatsurfacehave，duringeveryperiodofwhichwepossessanyrecord，beenalsoslowlychanging。
Itisnotnownecessarytosayanythingabouthoweitherofthosechangestookplace；astothat，opinionsmaydiffer；butastothefactthatthechangesthemselveshaveoccurred，fromtheearliestgeologicalagesdowntothepresentday，andarestillgoingon，thereisnodifferenceofopinion。Everysuccessivestratumofsedimentaryrock，sand，orgravel，isaproofthatchangesoflevelhavetakenplace；andthedifferentspeciesofanimalsandplants，whoseremainsarefoundinthesedeposits，provethatcorrespondingchangesdidoccurintheorganicworld。
Taking，therefore，thesetwoseriesofchangesforgranted，mostofthepresentpeculiaritiesandanomaliesinthedistributionofspeciesmaybedirectlytracedtothem。Inourownislands，withaveryfewtriflingexceptions，everyquadruped，bird，reptile，insect，andplant，isfoundalsoontheadjacentcontinent。InthesmallislandsofSardiniaandCorsica，therearesomequadrupedsandinsects，andmanyplants，quitepeculiar。InCeylon，morecloselyconnectedtoIndiathanBritainistoEurope，manyanimalsandplantsaredifferentfromthosefoundinIndia，andpeculiartotheisland。IntheGalapagosIslands，almosteveryindigenouslivingthingispeculiartothem，thoughcloselyresemblingotherkindsfoundinthenearestpartsoftheAmericancontinent。
Mostnaturalistsnowadmitthatthesefactscanonlybeexplainedbythegreaterorlesslapseoftimesincetheislandswereupraisedfrombeneaththeocean，orwereseparatedfromthenearestland；andthiswillbegenerallythoughnotalways
indicatedbythedepthoftheinterveningsea。Theenormousthicknessofmanymarinedepositsthroughwideareasshowsthatsubsidencehasoftencontinuedwithintermittingperiodsofreposeduringepochsofimmenseduration。Thedepthofseaproducedbysuchsubsidencewillthereforegenerallybeameasureoftime；andinlikemanner，thechangewhichorganicformshaveundergoneisameasureoftime。WhenwemakeproperallowanceforthecontinuedintroductionofnewanimalsandplantsfromsurroundingcountriesbythosenaturalmeansofdispersalwhichhavebeensowellexplainedbySirCharlesLyellandMr。Darwin，itisremarkablehowcloselythesetwomeasurescorrespond。
Britainisseparatedfromthecontinentbyaveryshallowsea，andonlyinaveryfewcaseshaveouranimalsorplantsbeguntoshowadifferencefromthecorrespondingcontinentalspecies。
CorsicaandSardinia，dividedfromItalybyamuchdeepersea，presentamuchgreaterdifferenceintheirorganicforms。Cuba，separatedfromYucatanbyawideranddeeperstrait，differsmoremarkedly，sothatmostofitsproductionsareofdistinctandpeculiarspecies；whileMadagascar，dividedfromAfricabyadeepchannelthreehundredmileswide，possessessomanypeculiarfeaturesastoindicateseparationataveryremoteantiquity，oreventorenderitdoubtfulwhetherthetwocountrieshaveeverbeenabsolutelyunited。
ReturningnowtotheMalayArchipelago，wefindthatallthewideexpanseofseawhichdividesJava，Sumatra，andBorneofromeachother，andfromMalaccaandSiam，issoshallowthatshipscananchorinanypartofit，sinceitrarelyexceedsfortyfathomsindepth；andifwegoasfarasthelineofahundredfathoms，weshallincludethePhilippineIslandsandBali，eastofJava。
If，therefore，theseislandshavebeenseparatedfromeachotherandthecontinentbysubsidenceoftheinterveningtractsofland，weshouldconcludethattheseparationhasbeencomparativelyrecent，sincethedepthtowhichthelandhassubsidedissosmall。ItisalsotoberemarkedthatthegreatchainofactivevolcanoesinSumatraandJavafurnishesuswithasufficientcauseforsuchsubsidence，sincetheenormousmassesofmattertheyhavethrownoutwouldtakeawaythefoundationsofthesurroundingdistrict；andthismaybethetrueexplanationoftheoften-noticedfactthatvolcanoesandvolcanicchainsarealwaysnearthesea。Thesubsidencetheyproducearoundthemwill，intime，makeasea，ifonedoesnotalreadyexist。
But，itiswhenweexaminethezoologyofthesecountriesthatwefindwhatwemostrequire——evidenceofaverystrikingcharacterthatthesegreatislandsmusthaveonceformedapartofthecontinent，andcouldonlyhavebeenseparatedataveryrecentgeologicalepoch。TheelephantandtapirofSumatraandBorneo，therhinocerosofSumatraandthealliedspeciesofJava，thewildcattleofBorneoandthekindlongsupposedtobepeculiartoJava，arenowallknowntoinhabitsomepartorotherofSouthernAsia。Noneoftheselargeanimalscouldpossiblyhavepassedoverthearmsoftheseawhichnowseparatethesecountries，andtheirpresenceplainlyindicatesthatalandcommunicationmusthaveexistedsincetheoriginofthespecies。
Amongthesmallermammals，aconsiderableportionarecommontoeachislandandthecontinent；butthevastphysicalchangesthatmusthaveoccurredduringthebreakingupandsubsidenceofsuchextensiveregionshaveledtotheextinctionofsomeinoneormoreoftheislands，andinsomecasesthereseemsalsotohavebeentimeforachangeofspeciestohavetakenplace。Birdsandinsectsillustratethesameview，foreveryfamilyandalmosteverygenusofthesegroupsfoundinanyoftheislandsoccursalsoontheAsiaticcontinent，andinagreatnumberofcasesthespeciesareexactlyidentical。Birdsofferusoneofthebestmeansofdeterminingthelawofdistribution；forthoughatfirstsightitwouldappearthatthewateryboundarieswhichkeepoutthelandquadrupedscouldbeeasilypassedoverbybirds，yetpracticallyitisnotso；forifweleaveouttheaquatictribeswhicharepreeminentlywanderers，itisfoundthattheothersandespeciallythePasseres，ortrueperching-birds，whichformthevastmajorityaregenerallyasstrictlylimitedbystraitsandarmsoftheseaasarequadrupedsthemselves。Asaninstance，amongtheislandsofwhichIamnowspeaking，itisaremarkablefactthatJavapossessesnumerousbirdswhichneverpassovertoSumatra，thoughtheyareseparatedbyastraitonlyfifteenmileswide，andwithislandsinmid-channel。Java，infact，possessesmorebirdsandinsectspeculiartoitselfthaneitherSumatraorBorneo，andthiswouldindicatethatitwasearliestseparatedfromthecontinent；nextinorganicindividualityisBorneo，whileSumatraissonearlyidenticalinallitsanimalformswiththepeninsulaofMalacca，thatwemaysafelyconcludeittohavebeenthemostrecentlydismemberedisland。
Thegeneralresulttherefore，atwhichwearrive，isthatthegreatislandsofJava，Sumatra，andBorneoresembleintheirnaturalproductionstheadjacentpartsofthecontinent，almostasmuchassuchwidely-separateddistrictscouldbeexpectedtodoeveniftheystillformedapartofAsia；andthiscloseresemblance，joinedwiththefactofthewideextentofseawhichseparatesthembeingsouniformlyandremarkablyshallow，andlastly，theexistenceoftheextensiverangeofvolcanoesinSumatraandJava，whichhavepouredoutvastquantitiesofsubterraneanmatterandhavebuiltupextensiveplateauxandloftymountainranges，thusfurnishingaveracausaforaparallellineofsubsidence——allleadirresistiblytotheconclusionthatataveryrecentgeologicalepoch，thecontinentofAsiaextendedfarbeyonditspresentlimitsinasouth-
easterlydirection，includingtheislandsofJava，Sumatra，andBorneo，andprobablyreachingasfarasthepresent100-fathomlineofsoundings。
ThePhilippineIslandsagreeinmanyrespectswithAsiaandtheotherislands，butpresentsomeanomalies，whichseemtoindicatethattheywereseparatedatanearlierperiod，andhavesincebeensubjecttomanyrevolutionsintheirphysicalgeography。
TurningourattentionnowtotheremainingportionoftheArchipelago，weshallfindthatalltheislandsfromCelebesandLombockeastwardexhibitalmostasclosearesemblancetoAustraliaandNewGuineaastheWesternIslandsdotoAsia。ItiswellknownthatthenaturalproductionsofAustraliadifferfromthoseofAsiamorethanthoseofanyofthefourancientquartersoftheworlddifferfromeachother。Australia，infact，standsalone：itpossessesnoapesormonkeys，nocatsortigers，wolves，bears，orhyenas；nodeerorantelopes，sheeporoxen；noelephant，horse，squirrel，orrabbit；none，inshort，ofthosefamiliartypesofquadrupedwhicharemetwithineveryotherpartoftheworld。Insteadofthese，ithasMarsupialsonly：
kangaroosandopossums；wombatsandtheduckbilledPlatypus。Inbirdsitisalmostaspeculiar。Ithasnowoodpeckersandnopheasants——familieswhichexistineveryotherpartoftheworld；butinsteadofthemithasthemound-makingbrush-turkeys，thehoneysuckers，thecockatoos，andthebrush-tonguedlories，whicharefoundnowhereelseupontheglobe。AllthesestrikingpeculiaritiesarefoundalsointhoseislandswhichformtheAustro-MalayandivisionoftheArchipelago。
ThegreatcontrastbetweenthetwodivisionsoftheArchipelagoisnowheresoabruptlyexhibitedasonpassingfromtheislandofBalitothatofLombock，wherethetworegionsareinclosestproximity。InBaliwehavebarbets，fruit-thrushes，andwoodpeckers；onpassingovertoLombocktheseareseennomore，butwehaveabundanceofcockatoos，honeysuckers，andbrush-
turkeys，whichareequallyunknowninBali，oranyislandfurtherwest。[Iwasinformed，however，thattherewereafewcockatoosatonespotonthewestofBali，showingthattheinterminglingoftheproductionsoftheseislandsisnowgoingon。]Thestraitisherefifteenmileswide，sothatwemaypassintwohoursfromonegreatdivisionoftheearthtoanother，differingasessentiallyintheiranimallifeasEuropedoesfromAmerica。IfwetravelfromJavaorBorneotoCelebesortheMoluccas，thedifferenceisstillmorestriking。Inthefirst，theforestsaboundinmonkeysofmanykinds，wildcats，deer，civets，andotters，andnumerousvarietiesofsquirrelsareconstantlymetwith。Inthelatternoneoftheseoccur；buttheprehensile-
tailedCuscusisalmosttheonlyterrestrialmammalseen，exceptwildpigs，whicharefoundinalltheislands，anddeerwhichhaveprobablybeenrecentlyintroducedinCelebesandtheMoluccas。ThebirdswhicharemostabundantintheWesternIslandsarewoodpeckers，barbets，trogons，fruit-thrushes，andleaf-thrushes；theyareseendaily，andformthegreatornithologicalfeaturesofthecountry。IntheEasternIslandstheseareabsolutelyunknown，honeysuckersandsmallloriesbeingthemostcommonbirds，sothatthenaturalistfeelshimselfinanewworld，andcanhardlyrealizethathehaspassedfromtheoneregiontotheotherinafewdays，withouteverbeingoutofsightofland。
Theinferencethatwemustdrawfromthesefactsis，undoubtedly，thatthewholeoftheislandseastwardsbeyondJavaandBorneodoessentiallyformapartofaformerAustralianorPacificcontinent，althoughsomeofthemmayneverhavebeenactuallyjoinedtoit。ThiscontinentmusthavebeenbrokenupnotonlybeforetheWesternIslandswereseparatedfromAsia，butprobablybeforetheextremesoutheasternportionofAsiawasraisedabovethewatersoftheocean；foragreatpartofthelandofBorneoandJavaisknowntobegeologicallyofquiterecentformation，whiletheverygreatdifferenceofspecies，andinmanycasesofgeneraalso，betweentheproductionsoftheEasternMalayIslandsandAustralia，aswellasthegreatdepthoftheseanowseparatingthem，allpointtoacomparativelylongperiodofisolation。
Itisinterestingtoobserveamongtheislandsthemselveshowashallowseaalwaysintimatesarecentlandconnexion。TheAruIslands，Mysol，andWaigiou，aswellasJobie，agreewithNewGuineaintheirspeciesofmammaliaandbirdsmuchmorecloselythantheydowiththeMoluccas，andwefindthattheyareallunitedtoNewGuineabyashallowsea。Infact，the100-fathomlineroundNewGuineamarksoutaccuratelytherangeofthetrueParadisebirds。
Itisfurthertobenoted——andthisisaveryinterestingpointinconnectionwiththeoriesofthedependenceofspecialformsoflifeonexternalconditions——thatthisdivisionoftheArchipelagointotworegionscharacterisedbyastrikingdiversityintheirnaturalproductionsdoesnotinanywaycorrespondtothemainphysicalorclimataldivisionsofthesurface。Thegreatvolcanicchainrunsthroughbothparts，andappearstoproducenoeffectinassimilatingtheirproductions。
BorneocloselyresemblesNewGuineanotonlyinitsvastsizeanditsfreedomfromvolcanoes，butinitsvarietyofgeologicalstructure，itsuniformityofclimate，andthegeneralaspectoftheforestvegetationthatclothesitssurface。TheMoluccasarethecounterpartofthePhilippinesintheirvolcanicstructure，theirextremefertility，theirluxuriantforests，andtheirfrequentearthquakes；andBaliwiththeeastendofJavahasaclimatealmostasdryandasoilalmostasaridasthatofTimor。
Yetbetweenthesecorrespondinggroupsofislands，constructedasitwereafterthesamepattern，subjectedtothesameclimate，andbathedbythesameoceans，thereexiststhegreatestpossiblecontrastwhenwecomparetheiranimalproductions。Nowheredoestheancientdoctrine——thatdifferencesorsimilaritiesinthevariousformsoflifethatinhabitdifferentcountriesareduetocorrespondingphysicaldifferencesorsimilaritiesinthecountriesthemselves——meetwithsodirectandpalpableacontradiction。BorneoandNewGuinea，asalikephysicallyastwodistinctcountriescanbe，arezoologicallywideasthepolesasunder；whileAustralia，withitsdrywinds，itsopenplains，itsstonydeserts，anditstemperateclimate，yetproducesbirdsandquadrupedswhicharecloselyrelatedtothoseinhabitingthehotdampluxuriantforests，whicheverywhereclothetheplainsandmountainsofNewGuinea。
InordertoillustratemoreclearlythemeansbywhichIsupposethisgreatcontrasthasbeenbroughtabout，letusconsiderwhatwouldoccuriftwostronglycontrasteddivisionsoftheearthwere，bynaturalmeans，broughtintoproximity。NotwopartsoftheworlddiffersoradicallyintheirproductionsasAsiaandAustralia，butthedifferencebetweenAfricaandSouthAmericaisalsoverygreat，andthesetworegionswillwellservetoillustratethequestionweareconsidering。Ontheonesidewehavebaboons，lions，elephants，buffaloes，andgiraffes；ontheotherspider-monkeys，pumas，tapirs，anteaters，andsloths；whileamongbirds，thehornbills，turacos，orioles，andhoneysuckersofAfricacontraststronglywiththetoucans，macaws，chatterers，andhummingbirdsofAmerica。
NowletusendeavourtoimaginewhatitisveryprobablemayoccurinfutureagesthataslowupheavalofthebedoftheAtlanticshouldtakeplace，whileatthesametimeearthquake-
shocksandvolcanicactiononthelandshouldcauseincreasedvolumesofsedimenttobepoureddownbytherivers，sothatthetwocontinentsshouldgraduallyspreadoutbytheadditionofnewly-formedlands，andthusreducetheAtlanticwhichnowseparatesthem，toanarmoftheseaafewhundredmileswide。Atthesametimewemaysupposeislandstobeupheavedinmid-
channel；and，asthesubterraneanforcesvariedinintensity，andshiftedtheirpointsofgreatestaction，theseislandswouldsometimesbecomeconnectedwiththelandononesideorotherofthestrait，andatothertimesagainbeseparatedfromit。
Severalislandswouldatonetimebejoinedtogether，atanotherwouldbebrokenupagain，untilatlast，aftermanylongagesofsuchintermittentaction，wemighthaveanirregulararchipelagoofislandsfillinguptheoceanchanneloftheAtlantic，inwhoseappearanceandarrangementwecoulddiscovernothingtotelluswhichhadbeenconnectedwithAfricaandwhichwithAmerica。Theanimalsandplantsinhabitingtheseislandswould，however，certainlyrevealthisportionoftheirformerhistory。OnthoseislandswhichhadeverformedapartoftheSouthAmericancontinent，weshouldbesuretofindsuchcommonbirdsaschatterersandtoucansandhummingbirds，andsomeofthepeculiarAmericanquadrupeds；whileonthosewhichhadbeenseparatedfromAfrica，hornbills，orioles，andhoneysuckerswouldascertainlybefound。Someportionoftheupraisedlandmightatdifferenttimeshavehadatemporaryconnectionwithbothcontinents，andwouldthencontainacertainamountofmixtureinitslivinginhabitants。SuchseemstohavebeenthecasewiththeislandsofCelebesandthePhilippines。Otherislands，again，thoughinsuchcloseproximityasBaliandLombock，mighteachexhibitanalmostunmixedsampleoftheproductionsofthecontinentsofwhichtheyhaddirectlyorindirectlyonceformedapart。
IntheMalayArchipelagowehave，Ibelieve，acaseexactlyparalleltothatwhichIhaveheresupposed。Wehaveindicationsofavastcontinent，withapeculiarfaunaandflorahavingbeengraduallyandirregularlybrokenup；theislandofCelebesprobablymarkingitsfurthestwestwardextension，beyondwhichwasawideocean。AtthesametimeAsiaappearstohavebeenextendingitslimitsinasoutheastdirection，firstinanunbrokenmass，thenseparatedintoislandsaswenowseeit，andalmostcomingintoactualcontactwiththescatteredfragmentsofthegreatsouthernland。
Fromthisoutlineofthesubject，itwillbeevidenthowimportantanadjunctNaturalHistoryistoGeology；notonlyininterpretingthefragmentsofextinctanimalsfoundintheearth\'scrust，butindeterminingpastchangesinthesurfacewhichhaveleftnogeologicalrecord。Itiscertainlyawonderfulandunexpectedfactthatanaccurateknowledgeofthedistributionofbirdsandinsectsshouldenableustomapoutlandsandcontinentswhichdisappearedbeneaththeoceanlongbeforetheearliesttraditionsofthehumanrace。Whereverthegeologistcanexploretheearth\'ssurface，hecanreadmuchofitspasthistory，andcandetermineapproximatelyitslatestmovementsaboveandbelowthesea-level；butwhereveroceansandseasnowextend，hecandonothingbutspeculateontheverylimiteddataaffordedbythedepthofthewaters。Herethenaturaliststepsin，andenableshimtofillupthisgreatgapinthepasthistoryoftheearth。
Oneofthechiefobjectsofmytravelswastoobtainevidenceofthisnature；andmysearchaftersuchevidencehasbeenrewardedbygreatsuccess，sothatIhavebeenabletotraceoutwithsomeprobabilitythepastchangeswhichoneofthemostinterestingpartsoftheearthhasundergone。Itmaybethoughtthatthefactsandgeneralizationsheregivenwouldhavebeenmoreappropriatelyplacedattheendratherthanatthebeginningofanarrativeofthetravelswhichsuppliedthefacts。Insomecasesthismightbeso，butIhavefounditimpossibletogivesuchanaccountasIdesireofthenaturalhistoryofthenumerousislandsandgroupsofislandsintheArchipelago，withoutconstantreferencetothesegeneralizationswhichaddsomuchtotheirinterest。Havinggiventhisgeneralsketchofthesubject，Ishallbeabletoshowhowthesameprinciplescanbeappliedtotheindividualislandsofagroup，astothewholeArchipelago；
andtherebymakemyaccountofthemanynewandcuriousanimalswhichinhabitthemboth，moreinterestingandmoreinstructivethaniftreatedasmereisolatedfacts。
ContrastsofRaces——BeforeIhadarrivedattheconvictionthattheeasternandwesternhalvesoftheArchipelagobelongedtodistinctprimaryregionsoftheearth，IhadbeenledtogroupthenativesoftheArchipelagoundertworadicallydistinctraces。InthisIdifferedfrommostethnologistswhohadbeforewrittenonthesubject；forithadbeenthealmostuniversalcustomtofollowWilliamvonHumboldtandPritchard，inclassingalltheOceanicracesasmodificationsofonetype。Observationsoonshowedme，however，thatMalaysandPapuansdifferedradicallyineveryphysical，mental，andmoralcharacter；andmoredetailedresearch，continuedforeightyears，satisfiedmethatunderthesetwoforms，astypes，thewholeofthepeoplesoftheMalayArchipelagoandPolynesiacouldbeclassified。Ondrawingthelinewhichseparatestheseraces，itisfoundtocomeneartothatwhichdividesthezoologicalregions，butsomewhateastwardofit；acircumstancewhichappearstomeverysignificantofthesamecauseshavinginfluencedthedistributionofmankindthathavedeterminedtherangeofotheranimalforms。
Thereasonwhyexactlythesamelinedoesnotlimitbothissufficientlyintelligible。Manhasmeansoftraversingtheseawhichanimalsdonotpossess；andasuperiorracehaspowertopressoutorassimilateaninferiorone。ThemaritimeenterpriseandhighercivilizationoftheMalayraceshaveenabledthemtooverrunaportionoftheadjacentregion，inwhichtheyhaveentirelysupplantedtheindigenousinhabitantsifiteverpossessedany；andtospreadmuchoftheirlanguage，theirdomesticanimals，andtheircustomsfaroverthePacific，intoislandswheretheyhavebutslightly，ornotatall，modifiedthephysicalormoralcharacteristicsofthepeople。
Ibelieve，therefore，thatallthepeoplesofthevariousislandscanbegroupedeitherwiththeMalaysorthePapuans；andthatthesetwohavenotraceableaffinitytoeachother。Ibelieve，further，thatalltheraceseastofthelineIhavedrawnhavemoreaffinityforeachotherthantheyhaveforanyoftheraceswestofthatline；that，infact，theAsiaticracesincludetheMalays，andallhaveacontinentalorigin，whilethePacificraces，includingalltotheeastoftheformerexceptperhapssomeintheNorthernPacific，arederived，notfromanyexistingcontinent，butfromlandswhichnowexistorhaverecentlyexistedinthePacificOcean。ThesepreliminaryobservationswillenablethereaderbettertoapprehendtheimportanceIattachtothedetailsofphysicalformormoralcharacter，whichIshallgiveindescribingtheinhabitantsofmanyoftheislands。
CHAPTERII。
SINGAPORE。
ASKETCHOFTHETOWNANDISLANDASSEENDURINGSEVERALVISITS
FROM1854TO1862。
FEWplacesaremoreinterestingtoatravellerfromEuropethanthetownandislandofSingapore，furnishing，asitdoes，examplesofavarietyofEasternraces，andofmanydifferentreligionsandmodesoflife。Thegovernment，thegarrison，andthechiefmerchantsareEnglish；butthegreatmassofthepopulationisChinese，includingsomeofthewealthiestmerchants，theagriculturistsoftheinterior，andmostofthemechanicsandlabourers。ThenativeMalaysareusuallyfishermenandboatmen，andtheyformthemainbodyofthepolice。ThePortugueseofMalaccasupplyalargenumberoftheclerksandsmallermerchants。TheKlingsofWesternIndiaareanumerousbodyofMahometans，and，withmanyArabs，arepettymerchantsandshopkeepers。ThegroomsandwashermenareallBengalees，andthereisasmallbuthighlyrespectableclassofParseemerchants。Besidesthese，therearenumbersofJavanesesailorsanddomesticservants，aswellastradersfromCelebes，Bali，andmanyotherislandsoftheArchipelago。Theharbouriscrowdedwithmen-of-warandtradingvesselsofmanyEuropeannations，andhundredsofMalayprausandChinesejunks，fromvesselsofseveralhundredtonsburthendowntolittlefishingboatsandpassengersampans；andthetowncompriseshandsomepublicbuildingsandchurches，Mahometanmosques，Hindutemples，Chinesejoss-houses，goodEuropeanhouses，massivewarehouses，queeroldKlingandChinabazaars，andlongsuburbsofChineseandMalaycottages。
ByfarthemostconspicuousofthevariouskindsofpeopleinSingapore，andthosewhichmostattractthestranger\'sattention，aretheChinese，whosenumbersandincessantactivitygivetheplaceverymuchtheappearanceofatowninChina。TheChinesemerchantisgenerallyafatround-facedmanwithanimportantandbusiness-likelook。Hewearsthesamestyleofclothingloosewhitesmock，andblueorblacktrousersasthemeanestcoolie，butoffinermaterials，andisalwayscleanandneat；andhislongtailtippedwithredsilkhangsdowntohisheels。Hehasahandsomewarehouseorshopintownandagoodhouseinthecountry。Hekeepsafinehorseandgig，andeveryeveningmaybeseentakingadrivebareheadedtoenjoythecoolbreeze。Heisrich——heownsseveralretailshopsandtradingschooners，helendsmoneyathighinterestandongoodsecurity，hemakeshardbargains，andgetsfatterandrichereveryyear。
IntheChinesebazaararehundredsofsmallshopsinwhichamiscellaneouscollectionofhardwareanddrygoodsaretobefound，andwheremanythingsaresoldwonderfullycheap。Youmaybuygimletsatapennyeach，whitecottonthreadatfourballsforahalfpenny，andpenknives，corkscrews，gunpowder，writing-
paper，andmanyotherarticlesascheaporcheaperthanyoucanpurchasetheminEngland。Theshopkeeperisverygood-natured；hewillshowyoueverythinghehas，anddoesnotseemtomindifyoubuynothing。Hebatesalittle，butnotsomuchastheKlings，whoalmostalwaysasktwicewhattheyarewillingtotake。Ifyoubuyafewthingsfromhim，hewillspeaktoyouafterwardseverytimeyoupasshisshop，askingyoutowalkinandsitdown，ortakeacupoftea；andyouwonderhowhecangetalivingwheresomanysellthesametriflingarticles。
Thetailorssitatatable，notonone；andboththeyandtheshoemakersworkwellandcheaply。Thebarbershaveplentytodo，shavingheadsandcleaningears；forwhichlatteroperationtheyhaveagreatarrayoflittletweezers，picks，andbrushes。Intheoutskirtsofthetownarescoresofcarpentersandblacksmiths。
Theformerseemchieflytomakecoffinsandhighlypaintedanddecoratedclothes-boxes。Thelatteraremostlygun-makers，andborethebarrelsofgunsbyhandoutofsolidbarsofiron。Atthistediousoperationtheymaybeseeneveryday，andtheymanagetofinishoffagunwithaflintlockveryhandsomely。Allaboutthestreetsaresellersofwater，vegetables，fruit，soup，andagar-agarajellymadeofseaweed，whohavemanycriesasunintelligibleasthoseofLondon。Otherscarryaportablecooking-apparatusonapolebalancedbyatableattheotherend，andserveupamealofshellfish，rice，andvegetablesfortwoorthreehalfpence——whilecooliesandboatmenwaitingtobehiredareeverywheretobemetwith。
IntheinterioroftheislandtheChinesecutdownforesttreesinthejungle，andsawthemupintoplanks；theycultivatevegetables，whichtheybringtomarket；andtheygrowpepperandgambir，whichformimportantarticlesofexport。TheFrenchJesuitshaveestablishedmissionsamongtheseinlandChinese，whichseemverysuccessful。IlivedforseveralweeksatatimewiththemissionaryatBukit-tima，aboutthecentreoftheisland，whereaprettychurchhasbeenbuiltandthereareabout300converts。Whilethere，ImetamissionarywhohadjustarrivedfromTonquin，wherehehadbeenlivingformanyyears。
TheJesuitsstilldotheirworkthoroughlyasofold。InCochinChina，Tonquin，andChina，whereallChristianteachersareobligedtoliveinsecret，andareliabletopersecution，expulsion，andsometimesdeath，everyprovince——eventhosefarthestintheinterior——hasapermanentJesuitmissionestablishmentconstantlykeptupbyfreshaspirants，whoaretaughtthelanguagesofthecountriestheyaregoingtoatPenangorSingapore。InChinatherearesaidtobenearamillionconverts；inTonquinandCochinChina，morethanhalfamillion。
Onesecretofthesuccessofthesemissionsistherigideconomypractisedintheexpenditureofthefunds。Amissionaryisallowedabout￡30。ayear，onwhichhelivesinwhatevercountryhemaybe。Thisrendersitpossibletosupportalargenumberofmissionarieswithverylimitedmeans；andthenatives，seeingtheirteacherslivinginpovertyandwithnoneoftheluxuriesoflife，areconvincedthattheyaresincereinwhattheyteach，andhavereallygivenuphomeandfriendsandeaseandsafety，forthegoodofothers。Nowondertheymakeconverts，foritmustbeagreatblessingtothepoorpeopleamongwhomtheylabourtohaveamanamongthemtowhomtheycangoinanytroubleordistress，whowillcomfortandadvisethem，whovisitstheminsickness，whorelievestheminwant，andwhotheyseelivingfromday-to-dayindangerofpersecutionanddeath——entirelyfortheirsakes。
MyfriendatBukit-timawastrulyafathertohisflock。HepreachedtotheminChineseeverySunday，andhadeveningsfordiscussionandconversationonreligionduringtheweek。Hehadaschooltoteachtheirchildren。Hishousewasopentothemdayandnight。Ifamancametohimandsaid，\"Ihavenoriceformyfamilytoeattoday，\"hewouldgivehimhalfofwhathehadinthehouse，howeverlittlethatmightbe。Ifanothersaid，\"Ihavenomoneytopaymydebt，\"hewouldgivehimhalfthecontentsofhispurse，wereithislastdollar。So，whenhewashimselfinwant，hewouldsendtosomeofthewealthiestamonghisflock，andsay，\"Ihavenoriceinthehouse，\"or\"Ihavegivenawaymymoney，andaminwantofsuchandsucharticles。\"Theresultwasthathisflocktrustedandlovedhim，fortheyfeltsurethathewastheirtruefriend，andhadnoulteriordesignsinlivingamongthem。
TheislandofSingaporeconsistsofamultitudeofsmallhills，threeorfourhundredfeethigh，thesummitsofmanyofwhicharestillcoveredwithvirginforest。Themission-houseatBukit-timawassurroundedbyseveralofthesewood-toppedhills，whichweremuchfrequentedbywoodcuttersandsawyers，andofferedmeanexcellentcollectinggroundforinsects。Hereandthere，too，weretigerpits，carefullycoveredoverwithsticksandleaves，andsowellconcealed，thatinseveralcasesIhadanarrowescapefromfallingintothem。Theyareshapedlikeanironfurnace，wideratthebottomthanthetop，andareperhapsfifteenortwentyfeetdeepsothatitwouldbealmostimpossibleforapersonunassistedtogetoutofone。Formerlyasharpstakewasstuckerectinthebottom；butafteranunfortunatetravellerhadbeenkilledbyfallingonone，itsusewasforbidden。TherearealwaysafewtigersroamingaboutSingapore，andtheykillonanaverageaChinamaneveryday，principallythosewhoworkinthegambirplantations，whicharealwaysmadeinnewly-clearedjungle。Weheardatigerroaronceortwiceintheevening，anditwasrathernervousworkhuntingforinsectsamongthefallentrunksandoldsawpitswhenoneofthesesavageanimalsmightbelurkingcloseby，awaitinganopportunitytospringuponus。
Severalhoursinthemiddleofeveryfinedaywerespentinthesepatchesofforest，whichweredelightfullycoolandshadybycontrastwiththebareopencountrywehadtowalkovertoreachthem。Thevegetationwasmostluxuriant，comprisingenormousforesttrees，aswellasavarietyofferns，caladiums，andotherundergrowth，andabundanceofclimbingrattanpalms。Insectswereexceedinglyabundantandveryinteresting，andeverydayfurnishedscoresofnewandcuriousforms。
InabouttwomonthsIobtainednolessthan700speciesofbeetles，alargeproportionofwhichwerequitenew，andamongthemwere130distinctkindsoftheelegantLongicornsCerambycidae，somuchesteemedbycollectors。Almostallthesewerecollectedinonepatchofjungle，notmorethanasquaremileinextent，andinallmysubsequenttravelsintheEastI
rarelyifevermetwithsoproductiveaspot。Thisexceedingproductivenesswasdueinpartnodoubttosomefavourableconditionsinthesoil，climate，andvegetation，andtotheseasonbeingverybrightandsunny，withsufficientshowerstokeepeverythingfresh。Butitwasalsoinagreatmeasuredependent，Ifeelsure，onthelaboursoftheChinesewood-
cutters。Theyhadbeenatworkhereforseveralyears，andduringallthattimehadfurnishedacontinualsupplyofdryanddeadanddecayingleavesandbark，togetherwithabundanceofwoodandsawdust，forthenourishmentofinsectsandtheirlarvae。Thishadledtotheassemblageofagreatvarietyofspeciesinalimitedspace，andIwasthefirstnaturalistwhohadcometoreaptheharvesttheyhadprepared。Inthesameplace，andduringmywalksinotherdirections，Iobtainedafaircollectionofbutterfliesandofotherordersofinsects，sothatonthewholeIwasquitesatisfiedwiththese——myfirstattemptstogainaknowledgeoftheNaturalHistoryoftheMalayArchipelago。
CHAPTERIII。
MALACCAANDMOUNTOPHIR。
JULYTOSEPTEMBER，1854。
BIRDSandmostotherkindsofanimalsbeingscarceatSingapore，IleftitinJulyforMalacca，whereIspentmorethantwomonthsintheinterior，andmadeanexcursiontoMountOphir。TheoldandpicturesquetownofMalaccaiscrowdedalongthebanksofthesmallriver，andconsistsofnarrowstreetsofshopsanddwellinghouses，occupiedbythedescendantsofthePortuguese，andbyChinamen。InthesuburbsarethehousesoftheEnglishofficialsandofafewPortuguesemerchants，embeddedingrovesofpalmsandfruit-trees，whosevariedandbeautifulfoliagefurnishesapleasingrelieftotheeye，aswellasmostgratefulshade。
Theoldfort，thelargeGovernmentHouse，andtheruinsofacathedralattesttheformerwealthandimportanceofthisplace，whichwasonceasmuchthecentreofEasterntradeasSingaporeisnow。ThefollowingdescriptionofitbyLinschott，whowrotetwohundredandseventyyearsago，strikinglyexhibitsthechangeithasundergone：
\"MalaccaisinhabitedbythePortugueseandbynativesofthecountry，calledMalays。ThePortuguesehavehereafortress，asatMozambique，andthereisnofortressinalltheIndies，afterthoseofMozambiqueandOrmuz，wherethecaptainsperformtheirdutybetterthaninthisone。ThisplaceisthemarketofallIndia，ofChina，oftheMoluccas，andofotherislandsaroundabout——fromallwhichplaces，aswellasfromBanda，Java，Sumatra，Siam，Pegu，Bengal，Coromandel，andIndia——arriveshipswhichcomeandgoincessantly，chargedwithaninfinityofmerchandises。TherewouldbeinthisplaceamuchgreaternumberofPortugueseifitwerenotfortheinconvenience，andunhealthinessoftheair，whichishurtfulnotonlytostrangers，butalsotonativesofthecountry。Thenceitisthatallwholiveinthecountrypaytributeoftheirhealth，sufferingfromacertaindisease，whichmakesthemloseeithertheirskinortheirhair。Andthosewhoescapeconsideritamiracle，whichoccasionsmanytoleavethecountry，whiletheardentdesireofgaininducesotherstorisktheirhealth，andendeavourtoenduresuchanatmosphere。Theoriginofthistown，asthenativessay，wasverysmall，onlyhavingatthebeginning，byreasonoftheunhealthinessoftheair，butsixorsevenfishermenwhoinhabitedit。ButthenumberwasincreasedbythemeetingoffishermenfromSiam，Pegu，andBengal，whocameandbuiltacity，andestablishedapeculiarlanguage，drawnfromthemostelegantnodesofspeakingofothernations，sothatinfactthe，languageoftheMalaysisatpresentthemostrefined，exact，andcelebratedofalltheEast。ThenameofMalaccawasgiventothistown，which，bytheconvenienceofitssituation，inashorttimegrewtosuchwealth，thatitdoesnotyieldtothemostpowerfultownsandregionsaroundabout。Thenatives，bothmenandwomen，areverycourteousandarereckonedthemostskillfulintheworldincompliments，andstudymuchtocomposeandrepeatversesandlove-songs。TheirlanguageisinvoguethroughtheIndies，astheFrenchishere。
Atpresent，avesseloverahundredtonshardlyeverentersitsport，andthetradeisentirelyconfinedtoafewpettyproductsoftheforests，andtothefruit，whichthetrees，plantedbytheoldPortuguese，nowproducefortheenjoymentoftheinhabitantsofSingapore。Althoughrathersubjecttofevers，itisnotatpresentconsideredveryunhealthy。
ThepopulationofMalaccaconsistsofseveralraces。TheubiquitousChineseareperhapsthemostnumerous，keepinguptheirmanners，customs，andlanguage；theindigenousMalaysarenextinpointofnumbers，andtheirlanguageistheLingua-francaoftheplace。NextcomethedescendantsofthePortuguese——amixed，degraded，anddegeneraterace，butwhostillkeepuptheuseoftheirmothertongue，thoughruefullymutilatedingrammar；
andthentherearetheEnglishrulers，andthedescendantsoftheDutch，whoallspeakEnglish。ThePortuguesespokenatMalaccaisausefulphilologicalphenomenon。Theverbshavemostlylosttheirinflections，andoneformdoesforallmoods，tenses，numbers，andpersons。Euvai，servesfor\"Igo，\"\"Iwent，\"or，\"I
willgo。\"Adjectives，too，havebeendeprivedoftheirfeminineandpluralterminations，sothatthelanguageisreducedtoamarvelloussimplicity，and，withtheadmixtureofafewMalaywords，becomesratherpuzzlingtoonewhohasheardonlythepureLusitanian。
Incostumetheseseveralpeoplesareasvariedasintheirspeech。TheEnglishpreservethetight-fittingcoat，waistcoat，andtrousers，andtheabominablehatandcravat；thePortuguesepatronisealightjacket，or，morefrequently，shirtandtrousersonly；theMalaysweartheirnationaljacketandsarongakindofkilt，withloosedrawers；whiletheChineseneverdepartintheleastfromtheirnationaldress，which，indeed，itisimpossibletoimproveforatropicalclimate，whetherasregardscomfortorappearance。Theloosely-hangingtrousers，andneatwhitehalf-
shirthalfjacket，areexactlywhatadressshouldbeinthislowlatitude。
IengagedtwoPortuguesetoaccompanymeintotheinterior；oneasacook，theothertoshootandskinbirds，whichisquiteatradeinMalacca。IfirststayedafortnightatavillagecalledGading，whereIwasaccommodatedinthehouseofsomeChineseconverts，towhomIwasrecommendedbytheJesuitmissionaries。
Thehousewasamereshed，butitwaskeptclean，andImademyselfsufficientlycomfortable。Myhostswereformingapepperandgambirplantation，andintheimmediateneighbourhoodwereextensivetin-washings，employingoverathousandChinese。Thetinisobtainedintheformofblackgrainsfrombedsofquartzosesand，andismeltedintoingotsinrudeclayfurnaces。
Thesoilseemedpoor，andtheforestwasverydensewithundergrowth，andnotatallproductiveofinsects；but，ontheotherhand，birdswereabundant，andIwasatonceintroducedtotherichornithologicaltreasuresoftheMalayanregion。
TheveryfirsttimeIfiredmygunIbroughtdownoneofthemostcuriousandbeautifuloftheMalaccabirds，theblue-billedgaperCymbirhynchusmacrorhynchus，calledbytheMalaysthe\"Rainbird。\"Itisaboutthesizeofastarling，blackandrichclaretcolourwithwhiteshoulderstripes，andaverylargeandbroadbillofthemostpurecobaltblueaboveandorangebelow，whiletheirisisemeraldgreen。Astheskinsdrythebillturnsdullblack，buteventhenthebirdishandsome。Whenfreshkilled，thecontrastofthevividbluewiththerichcoloursoftheplumageisremarkablystrikingandbeautiful。ThelovelyEasterntrogons，withtheirrich-brownbacks，beautifullypencilledwings，andcrimsonbreasts，werealsosoonobtained，aswellasthelargegreenbarbetsMegalaemaversicolor——fruit-
eatingbirds，somethinglikesmalltoucans，withashort，straightbristlybill，andwhoseheadandneckarevariegatedwithpatchesofthemostvividblueandcrimson。Adayortwoafter，myhunterbroughtmeaspecimenofthegreengaperCalyptomenaviridis，whichislikeasmallcock-of-the-rock，butentirelyofthemostvividgreen，delicatelymarkedonthewingswithblackbars。Handsomewoodpeckersandgaykingfishers，greenandbrowncuckooswithvelvetyredfacesandgreenbeaks，red-breasteddovesandmetallichoneysuckers，werebroughtindayafterday，andkeptmeinacontinualstateofpleasurableexcitement。Afterafortnightoneofmyservantswasseizedwithfever，andonreturningtoMalacca，thesamedisease，attackedtheotheraswellasmyself。Byaliberaluseofquinine，Isoonrecovered，andobtainingothermen，wenttostayattheGovernmentbungalowofAyer-panas，accompaniedbyayounggentleman，anativeoftheplace，whohadatastefornaturalhistory。
AtAyer-panaswehadacomfortablehousetostayin，andplentyofroomtodryandpreserveourspecimens；but，owingtotherebeingnoindustriousChinesetocutdowntimber，insectswerecomparativelyscarce，withtheexceptionofbutterflies，ofwhichIformedaveryfinecollection。ThemannerinwhichIobtainedonefineinsectwascurious，andindicatesbowfragmentaryandimperfectatraveller\'scollectionmustnecessarilybe。Iwasoneafternoonwalkingalongafavouriteroadthroughtheforest，withmygun，whenIsawabutterflyontheground。Itwaslarge，handsome，andquitenewtome，andIgotclosetoitbeforeitflewaway。Ithenobservedthatithadbeensettlingonthedungofsomecarnivorousanimal。Thinkingitmightreturntothesamespot，Inextdayafterbreakfasttookmynet，andasIapproachedtheplacewasdelightedtoseethesamebutterflysittingonthesamepieceofdung，andsucceededincapturingit。Itwasanentirelynewspeciesofgreatbeauty，andhasbeennamedbyMr。
Hewitson——Nymphaliscalydona。Ineversawanotherspecimenofit，anditwasonlyaftertwelveyearshadelapsedthatasecondindividualreachedthiscountryfromthenorthwesternpartofBorneo。