PeriodCalculatedonthetotalpopulationRateper1000Comparedwithratein1870-72takenas100
1870-7236。7100。0
1880-8235。797。3
1890-9232。087。2
1900-0228。881。2
Calculatedonthefemalepopulation，aged15-45
yearsRateper1000Comparedwithratein1870-72takenas100
1870-72143。1100。0
1880-82140。698。3
1890-92124。687。1
1900-02111。477。8
Rural：112entirelyruralregistrationdistricts，withanaggregatepopulationof1，330，319personsatthedateoftheCensusof1901。
CalculatedonthetotalpopulationRateper1000Comparedwithratein1870-72takenas100
1870-7231。6100。0
1880-8230。395。6
1890-9227。888。0
1900-0226。083。3
Calculatedonthefemalepopulation，aged15-45
yearsRateper1000Comparedwithratein1870-72takenas100
1870-72158。9100。0
1880-82153。596。6
1890-92135。685。3
1900-02120。776。0
ThemovementsofthepopulationofFrancehavebeenstudiedwithexceptionalcare：andthegreatworkonthesubjectbyLevasseur，LaPopulationFran鏰ise，isamineofvaluableinformationasregardsothernationsbesidesFrance。Montesquieu，reasoningperhapsratherapriori，accusedthelawofprimogeniturewhichruledinhistimeinFranceofreducingthenumberofchildreninafamily：andlePlaybroughtthesamechargeagainstthelawofcompulsorydivision。Levasseurl。c。
Vol。iii，pp。171-7callsattentiontothecontrast。andremarkthatMalthus’expectationsoftheeffectoftheCivilCodeonpopulationwereinharmonywithMontesquieu’sratherthanlePlay’sdiagnosis。ButinfactthebirthratevariesmuchfromonepartofFrancetoanother。Itisgenerallylowerwherealargepartofthepopulationownslandthanwhereitdoesnot。IfhowevertheDepartmentsofFrancebearrangedingroupsinascendingorderofthepropertyleftatdeathvaleurssuccessoralespart阾ed’habitant，thecorrespondingbirth-ratedescendsalmostuniformly，being23perhundredmarriedwomenbetween15and50yearsforthetenDepartmentsinwhichthepropertyleftis48-57fr……and13。2fortheSeine，whereitis412fr。AndinParisitselfthearrondissementsinhabitedbythewell-to-doshowasmallerpercentageoffamilieswithmorethantwochildrenthanthepoorerarrondissementsshow。ThereismuchinterestinthecarefulanalysiswhichLevasseurgivesoftheconnectionbetweeneconomicconditionsandbirth-rate。hisgeneralconclusionbeingthatitisnotdirectbutindirect，throughthemutualinfluenceofthetwoonmannersandthehabitoflifemoeurs。Heappearstoholdthat，howevermuchthedeclineinthenumbersoftheFrenchrelativelytosurroundingnationsmayberegrettedfromthepoliticalandmilitarypointsofview，thereismuchgoodmixedwiththeevilinitsinfluencesonmaterialcomfortandevensocialprogress。
22。ThuswearetoldthataftertheBlackDeathof1349mostmarriageswereveryfertileRogers，HistoryofAgricultureandPrices，Vol。1，p。301。
23。ThereisnocertainknowledgetobehadastothedensityofpopulationinEnglandbeforetheeighteenthcentury。butthefollowingestimates，reproducedfromSteffenGeschichtederenglischenLohn-arbeiter，1，pp。463ff。，areprobablythebestasyetavailable。DomesdayBooksuggeststhatin1086thepopulationofEnglandwasbetweentwo，andtwo-and-a-halfmillions。JustbeforetheBlackDeath1348itmayhavebeenbetweenthree-and-a-half，andfour-and-a-halfmillions。andjustafterwardstwo-and-a-halfmillions。Itbegantorecoverquickly。
butmadeslowprogressbetween1400and1550：itincreasedratherfastinthenexthundredyears，andreachedfive-and-ahalfmillionsin1700。
IfwearetotrustHarrisonDescriptionofEngland，Bk。II，ch。XVI，themusterofmenableforservicein1574amountedto1，172，674。
TheBlackDeathwasEngland’sonlyverygreatcalamity。Shewasnot，liketherestofEurope，liabletodevastatingwars，suchastheThirtyYears’War，whichdestroyedmorethanhalfthepopulationofGermany，alosswhichitrequiredafullcenturytorecover。SeeR黰elin’sinstructivearticleonBev鰈kerungslehreinSch鰊berg’sHandbuch。
24。AdamSmithisjustlyindignantatthis。SeeWealthofNations，Bk。I，ch。X，PartII，andBookIV，ch。II。TheActrecites14CharlesII，c。12，A。D。1662thatbyreasonofsomedefectsinthelaw，poorpeoplearenotrestrainedfromgoingfromoneparishtoanother，andtherebydoendeavourtosettlethemselvesinthoseparisheswherethereisthebeststock，thelargestwastesorcommonstobuildcottages，andthemostwoodsforthemtoburnanddestroy：etc。anditisthereforeorderedthatuponcomplaintmade……withinfortydaysafteranysuchpersonorpersonscoming，soastosettleasaforesaid，inanytenementundertheyearlyvalueoftenpounds……itshallbelawfulforanytwojusticesofthePeace……
toremoveandconveysuchpersonorpersonstosuchparishwhereheortheywerelastlegallysettled。SeveralActspurportingtosoftenitsharshnesshadbeenpassedbeforeAdamSmith’stime。
buttheyhadbeenineffective。In1795howeveritwasorderedthatnooneshouldberemoveduntilhebecameactuallychargeable。
25。SomeinterestingremarksonthissubjectaremadebyEden，HistoryofthePoor，I，pp。560-4。
26。Butthisincreaseinthefiguresshownispartlyduetoimprovedregistrationofbirths。Farr，VitalStatistics，p。97。
27。ThefollowingtablesshowthegrowthofthepopulationofEnglandandWalesfromthebeginningoftheeighteenthcentury。
Thefiguresbefore1801arecomputedfromtheregistersofbirthsanddeaths，andthepollandhearthtaxreturns：thosesince1801
fromCensusreturns。Itwillbenoticedthatthenumbersincreasednearlyasmuchinthetwentyyearsfollowing1760asintheprecedingsixtyyears。Thepressureofthegreatwarandthehighpriceofcornisshownintheslowgrowthbetween1790and1801。andtheeffectsofindiscriminatepoorlawallowances，inspiteofgreaterpressure，isshownbytherapidincreaseinthenexttenyears，andthestillgreaterincreasewhenthatpressurewasremovedinthedecadeending1821。Thethirdcolumnshowsthepercentagewhichtheincreaseduringtheprecedingdecadewasofthepopulationatthebeginningofthatdecade。
YearPopulationIncrease000somittedpercent17005，475
17105，240-4。9
17205，5656。2
17305，7964。1
17406，0644。6
17506，4676。6
17606，7364。1
17707，42810。3
17807，9537。1
17908，6759。1
18018，8922。5
181110，16414。3
182112，00018。1
183113，89715。8
184115，90914。5
185117，92812。7
186120，06611。9
187122，71213。2
188125，97414。4
189129，02211。7
190132，52711。7
Thegreatgrowthofemigrationduringrecentyearsmakesitimportanttocorrectthefiguresforthelastthreedecadessoastoshowthenaturalincrease，viz。thatduetotheexcessofbirthsoverdeaths。ThenetemigrationfromtheUnitedKingdomduringthedecades1871-81and1881-91was1，480，000，and1，747，000respectively。
28。SeeFarr’s17thAnnualReportfor1854asRegistrar-General，ortheabstractofitinVitalStatisticspp。72-5。
29。Forinstance，representingthepriceofwheatinshillingsandthenumberofmarriagesinEnglandandWalesinthousands，wehavefor1801wheatat119andmarriagesat67，for1803wheatat59andmarriagesat94。for1805thenumbersare90and80，for1807theyare75and84，for1812theyare126and82，for1815
theyare66and100，for1917theyare97and88，for1822theyare45and99。
30。Since1820theaveragepriceofwheathasseldomexceeded60s。andnever75s。：andthesuccessiveinflationsofcommercewhichculminatedandbrokein1826，1836-9，1848，1856，1866and1873exercisedaninfluenceonthemarriagerateaboutequalwithchangesinthepriceofcorn。Whenthetwocausesacttogethertheeffectsareverystriking：thusbetween1829and1834，therewasarecoveryofprosperityaccompaniedbyasteadyfallinthepriceofwheatandmarriagesrosefromahundredandfourtoahundredandtwenty-onethousand。Themarriage-rateroseagainrapidlybetween1842and1845whenthepriceofwheatwasalittlelowerthanintheprecedingyears，andthebusinessofthecountrywasreviving。andagainundersimilarcircumstancesbetween1847and1853andbetween1862and1865。
Acomparisonofthemarriage-ratewiththeharvestsinSwedenfortheyears1749to1883isgivenbySirRawsonRawsonintheStatisticalJournalforDecember1885。Theharvestdoesnotdeclareitselftillpartoftheyear’staleofmarriagesismadeup。andfurthertheinequalitiesofharvestsaretosomeextentcompensatedforbythestorageofgrain。andthereforetheindividualharvestfiguresdonotcorrespondcloselywiththemarriage-rate。Butwhenseveralgoodorbadharvestscometogether，theeffectinincreasingordiminishingthemarriage-rateisveryclearlymarked。
31。Statisticsofexportsareamongthemostconvenientindicationsofthefluctuationsofcommercialcreditandindustrialactivity：andinthearticlealreadyquoted，Oglehasshownacorrespondencebetweenthemarriage-rateandtheexportsperhead。ComparediagramsinVol。II，p。12ofLevasseur’sLaPopulationFran鏰ise。andwithregardtoMassachusettsbyWillcoxinthePoliticalScienceQuarterly，Vol。VIII，pp。76-82。Ogle’sinquirieshavebeenextendedandcorrectedinapaperreadbyR。
H。HookerbeforetheManchesterStatisticalSociety，inJanuary1898。whopointsoutthatifthemarriage-ratefluctuates，thebirth-rateduringanascendingphaseofthemarriage-rateisapttocorrespondtothemarriage-ratenotforthatphase，butfortheprecedingphasewhenthemarriage-ratewasdeclining：andvicevers？Hencetheratioofbirthstomarriagesdeclineswhenthemarriage-rateisrisingandriseswhenthemarriage-ratefalls。Acurverepresentingtheratioofbirthstomarriageswillmoveinverselytothemarriage-rate。Hepointsoutthatthedeclineintheratioofbirthstomarriagesisnotgreat，andisaccountedforbytherapiddeclineofillegitimatebirths。Theratiooflegitimatebirthstomarriagesisnotdecliningperceptibly。
32。ThefollowingstatementsarebasedchieflyonstatisticsarrangedbythelateSignorBodio，byM。Levasseur，LaPopulationFran鏰ise，andbytheEnglishRegistrar-GeneralinhisReportfor1907。
33。MuchinstructiveandsuggestivematterconnectedwiththesubjectofthischapteriscontainedintheStatisticalMemorandaandChartsrelatingtoPublicHealthandSocialConditionspublishedbytheLocalGovernmentBoardin1909[Cd。4671]。
Chapter5
TheHealthandStrengthofthePopulation1。Wehavenexttoconsidertheconditionsonwhichdependhealthandstrength，physical，mentalandmoral。Theyarethebasisofindustrialefficiency，onwhichtheproductionofmaterialwealthdepends。whileconverselythechiefimportanceofmaterialwealthliesinthefactthat，whenwiselyused，itincreasesthehealthandstrength，physical，mentalandmoralofthehumanrace。
Inmanyoccupationsindustrialefficiencyrequireslittleelsethanphysicalvigour。thatis，muscularstrength，agoodconstitutionandenergetichabits。Inestimatingmuscular，orindeedanyotherkindofstrengthforindustrialpurposes，wemusttakeaccountofthenumberofhoursintheday，ofthenumberofdaysintheyear，andthenumberofyearsinthelifetime，duringwhichitcanbeexerted。Butwiththisprecautionwecanmeasureaman’smuscularexertionbythenumberoffeetthroughwhichhisworkwouldraiseapoundweight，ifitwereapplieddirectlytothisuse。orinotherwordsbythenumberoffootpoundsofworkthathedoes。1*
Althoughthepowerofsustaininggreatmuscularexertionseemstorestonconstitutionalstrengthandotherphysicalconditions，yetevenitdependsalsoonforceofwill，andstrengthofcharacter。Energyofthiskind，whichmayperhapsbetakentobethestrengthoftheman，asdistinguishedfromthatofhisbody，ismoralratherthanphysical。butyetitdependsonthephysicalconditionofnervousstrength。Thisstrengthofthemanhimself，thisresolution，energyandself-mastery，orinshortthisvigouristhesourceofallprogress：itshowsitselfingreatdeeds，ingreatthoughtsandinthecapacityfortruereligiousfeeling。2*
Vigourworksitselfoutinsomanyforms，thatnosimplemeasureofitispossible。Butweareallofusconstantlyestimatingvigour，andthinkingofonepersonashavingmorebackbone，morestuffinhim，orasbeingastrongerman
thananother。Businessmenevenindifferenttrades，andUniversitymenevenwhenengagedindifferentstudies，gettoestimateoneanother’sstrengthveryclosely。Itsoonbecomesknowniflessstrengthisrequiredtogetafirstclassinonestudythananother。
2。Indiscussingthegrowthofnumbersalittlehasbeensaidincidentallyofthecauseswhichdeterminelengthoflife：buttheyareinthemainthesameasthosewhichdetermineconstitutionalstrengthandvigour，andtheywilloccupyourattentionagaininthepresentchapter。
Thefirstofthesecausesistheclimate。Inwarmcountrieswefindearlymarriagesandhighbirth-rates，andinconsequencealowrespectforhumanlife：thishasprobablybeenthecauseofagreatpartofthehighmortalitythatisgenerallyattributedtotheinsalubrityoftheclimate。3*
Vigourdependspartlyonracequalities：butthese，sofarastheycanbeexplainedatall，seemtobechieflyduetoclimate。4*
3。Climatehasalsoalargeshareindeterminingthenecessariesoflife。thefirstofwhichisfood。Muchdependsontheproperpreparationoffood。andaskilledhousewifewithtenshillingsaweektospendonfoodwilloftendomoreforthehealthandstrengthofherfamilythananunskilledonewithtwenty。Thegreatmortalityofinfantsamongthepoorislargelyduetothewantofcareandjudgmentinpreparingtheirfood。andthosewhodonotentirelysuccumbtothiswantofmotherlycareoftengrowupwithenfeebledconstitutions。
Inallagesoftheworldexceptthepresent，wantoffoodhascausedwholesaledestructionofthepeople。EveninLondonintheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturiesthemortalitywaseightpercentgreaterinyearsofdearcornthaninyearsofcheapcorn。5*Butgraduallytheeffectsofincreasedwealthandimprovedmeansofcommunicationaremakingthemselvesfeltnearlyallovertheworld。theseverityoffaminesismitigatedeveninsuchacountryasIndia。andtheyareunknowninEuropeandintheNewWorld。InEnglandnowwantoffoodisscarcelyeverthedirectcauseofdeath：butitisafrequentcauseofthatgeneralweakeningofthesystemwhichrendersitunabletoresistdisease。anditisachiefcauseofindustrialinefficiency。
Wehavealreadyseenthatthenecessariesforefficiencyvarywiththenatureoftheworktobedone，butwemustnowexaminethissubjectalittlemoreclosely。
Asregardsmuscularworkinparticularthereisacloseconnectionbetweenthesupplyoffoodthatamanhas，andhisavailablestrength。Iftheworkisintermittent，asthatofsomedocklabourers，acheapbutnutritiousgraindietissufficient。
Butforveryheavycontinuousstrainsuchasisinvolvedinpuddlers’andthehardestnavvies’work，foodisrequiredwhichcanbedigestedandassimilatedevenwhenthebodyistired。Thisqualityisstillmoreessentialinthefoodofthehighergradesoflabour，whoseworkinvolvesgreatnervousstrain。thoughthequantityrequiredbythemisgenerallysmall。
Afterfood，thenextnecessariesoflifeandlabourareclothing，house-roomandfiring。Whentheyaredeficient，themindbecomestorpid，andultimatelythephysicalconstitutionisundermined。Whenclothingisveryscanty，itisgenerallywornnightandday。andtheskinisallowedtobeenclosedinacrustofdirt。Adeficiencyofhouse-room，oroffuel，causespeopletoliveinavitiatedatmospherewhichisinjurioustohealthandvigour。andnottheleastofthebenefitswhichEnglishpeoplederivefromthecheapnessofcoal，isthehabit，peculiartothem，ofhavingwell-ventilatedroomsevenincoldweather。
Badly-builthouseswithimperfectdrainagecausediseaseswhichevenintheirslighterformsweakenvitalityinawonderfulway。
andovercrowdingleadstomoralevilswhichdiminishthenumbersandlowerthecharacterofthepeople。
Restisasessentialforthegrowthofavigorouspopulationasthemorematerialnecessariesoffood，clothing，etc。Overworkofeveryformlowersvitality。whileanxiety，worry，andexcessivementalstrainhaveafatalinfluenceinunderminingtheconstitution，inimpairingfecundityanddiminishingthevigouroftherace。
4。Nextcomethreecloselyalliedconditionsofvigour，namely，hopefulness，freedom，andchange。Allhistoryisfulloftherecordofinefficiencycausedinvaryingdegreesbyslavery，serfdom，andotherformsofcivilandpoliticaloppressionandrepression。6*
Inallagescolonieshavebeenapttooutstriptheirmothercountriesinvigourandenergy。Thishasbeenduepartlytotheabundanceoflandandthecheapnessofnecessariesattheircommand。partlytothatnaturalselectionofthestrongestcharactersforalifeofadventure，andpartlytophysiologicalcausesconnectedwiththemixtureofraces：butperhapsthemostimportantcauseofallistobefoundinthehope，thefreedomandthechangefulnessoftheirlives。7*
Freedomsofarhasbeenregardedasfreedomfromexternalbonds。Butthathigherfreedom，whichcomesofself-mastery，isanevenmoreimportantconditionforthehighestwork。Theelevationoftheidealsoflifeonwhichthisdepends，isdueontheonesidetopoliticalandeconomiccauses，andontheothertopersonalandreligiousinfluences。amongwhichtheinfluenceofthemotherinearlychildhoodissupreme。
5。Bodilyandmentalhealthandstrengtharemuchinfluencedbyoccupation。8*Atthebeginningofthiscenturytheconditionsoffactoryworkwereneedlesslyunhealthyandoppressiveforall，andespeciallyforyoungchildren。ButFactoryandEducationActshaveremovedtheworstoftheseevilsfromfactories。thoughmanyofthemstilllingeraboutdomesticindustriesandthesmallerworkshops。
Thehigherwages，thegreaterintelligence，andthebettermedicalfacilitiesoftownspeopleshouldcauseinfantmortalitytobemuchloweramongthemthaninthecountry。Butitisgenerallyhigher，especiallywheretherearemanymotherswhoneglecttheirfamilydutiesinordertoearnmoneywages。
6。Inalmostallcountriesthereisaconstantmigrationtowardsthetowns。9*ThelargetownsandespeciallyLondonabsorbtheverybestbloodfromalltherestofEngland。themostenterprising，themosthighlygifted，thosewiththehighestphysique。andthestrongestcharactersgotheretofindscopefortheirabilities。Anincreasingnumberofthosewhoaremostcapableandhavemoststrengthofcharacter，liveinsuburbs，whereexcellentsystemsofdrainage，watersupplyandlighting，togetherwithgoodschoolsandopportunitiesforopenairplay，giveconditionsatleastasconducivetovigourasaretobefoundinthecountry。andthoughtherearestillmanytowndistrictsonlyalittlelessinjurioustovitalitythanwerelargetownsgenerallysometimeago，yetonthewholetheincreasingdensityofpopulationseemstobeforthepresentadiminishingsourceofdanger。Therecentrapidgrowthoffacilitiesforlivingfarfromthechiefcentresofindustryandtrademustindeedslackenintime。ButthereseemsnosignofanyslackeninginthemovementofindustriesoutwardstosuburbsandeventonewGardenCitiestoseekandtobringwiththemvigorousworkers。
Statisticalaveragesareindeedundulyfavourabletourbanconditions，partlybecausemanyofthetowninfluenceswhichlowervigourdonotmuchaffectmortality。andpartlybecausethemajorityofimmigrantsintothetownsareinthefullstrengthofyouth，andofmorethanaverageenergyandcourage。whileyoungpeoplewhoseparentsliveinthecountrygenerallygohomewhentheybecomeseriouslyill。10*
Thereisnobetteruseforpublicandprivatemoneythaninprovidingpublicparksandplaygroundsinlargecities，incontractingwithrailwaystoincreasethenumberoftheworkmen’strainsrunbythem，andinhelpingthoseoftheworkingclasseswhoarewillingtoleavethelargetownstodoso，andtotaketheirindustrieswiththem。11*
7。Andthereareyetothercausesforanxiety。Forthereissomepartialarrestofthatselectiveinfluenceofstruggleandcompetitionwhichintheearlierstagesofcivilizationcausedthosewhowerestrongestandmostvigoroustoleavethelargestprogenybehindthem。andtowhich，morethananyothersinglecause，theprogressofthehumanraceisdue。Inthelaterstagesofcivilizationtherulehasindeedlongbeenthattheupperclassesmarrylate，andinconsequencehavefewerchildrenthantheworkingclasses：butthishasbeencompensatedforbythefactthatamongtheworkingclassesthemselvestheoldrulewasheld。andthevigourofthenationthatistendingtobedampedoutamongtheupperclassesisthusreplenishedbythefreshstreamofstrengththatisconstantlywellingupfrombelow。ButinFranceforalongtime，andrecentlyinAmerica，andEngland，someoftheablerandmoreintelligentoftheworkingclasspopulationhaveshownsignsofadisinclinationtohavelargefamilies。andthisisasourceofdanger。12*
Thusthereareincreasingreasonsforfearing，thatwhiletheprogressofmedicalscienceandsanitationissavingfromdeathacontinuallyincreasingnumberofthechildrenofthosewhoarefeeblephysicallyandmentally。manyofthosewhoaremostthoughtfulandbestendowedwithenergy，enterpriseandself-controlaretendingtodefertheirmarriagesandinotherwaystolimitthenumberofchildrenwhomtheyleavebehindthem。
Themotiveissometimesselfish，andperhapsitisbestthathardandfrivolouspeopleshouldleavebutfewdescendantsoftheirowntype。Butmoreoftenitisadesiretosecureagoodsocialpositionfortheirchildren。Thisdesirecontainsmanyelementsthatfallshortofthehighestidealsofhumanaims，andinsomecases，afewthataredistinctlybase。butafterallithasbeenoneofthechieffactorsofprogress，andthosewhoareaffectedbyitincludemanyofthosewhosechildrenwouldprobablybeamongthebestandstrongestoftherace。
Itmustberememberedthatthemembersofalargefamilyeducateoneanother，theyareusuallymoregenialandbright，oftenmorevigorousineverywaythanthemembersofasmallfamily。Partly，nodoubt，thisisbecausetheirparentswereofunusualvigour。andforalikereasontheyintheirturnarelikelytohavelargeandvigorousfamilies。Theprogressoftheraceisduetoamuchgreaterextentthanappearsatfirstsighttothedescendantsofafewexceptionallylargeandvigorousfamilies。
Butontheotherhandthereisnodoubtthattheparentscanoftendobetterinmanywaysforasmallfamilythanalargeone。
Otherthingsbeingequal，anincreaseinthenumberofchildrenwhoareborncausesanincreaseofinfantilemortality。andthatisanunmixedevil。Thebirthofchildrenwhodieearlyfromwantofcareandadequatemeansisauselessstraintothemotherandaninjurytotherestofthefamily。13*
8。Thereareotherconsiderationsofwhichaccountoughttobetaken。butsofarasthepointsdiscussedinthischapterareconcerned，itseemsprimafacieadvisablethatpeopleshouldnotbringchildrenintotheworldtilltheycanseetheirwaytogivingthematleastasgoodaneducationbothphysicalandmentalastheythemselveshad。andthatitisbesttomarrymoderatelyearlyprovidedthereissufficientself-controltokeepthefamilywithintherequisiteboundswithouttransgressingmorallaws。Thegeneraladoptionoftheseprinciplesofaction，combinedwithanadequateprovisionoffreshairandofhealthyplayforourtownpopulations，couldhardlyfailtocausethestrengthandvigouroftheracetoimprove。Andweshallpresentlyfindreasonsforbelievingthatifthestrengthandvigouroftheraceimproves，theincreaseofnumberswillnotforalongtimetocomecauseadiminutionoftheaveragerealincomeofthepeople。
Thusthentheprogressofknowledge，andinparticularofmedicalscience，theever-growingactivityandwisdomofGovernmentinallmattersrelatingtohealth，andtheincreaseofmaterialwealth，alltendtolessenmortalityandtoincreasehealthandstrength，andtolengthenlife。Ontheotherhand，vitalityisloweredandthedeath-rateraisedbytherapidincreaseoftownlife，andbythetendencyofthehigherstrainsofthepopulationtomarrylaterandtohavefewerchildrenthanthelower。Iftheformersetofcauseswerealoneinaction，butsoregulatedastoavoidthedangerofover-population，itisprobablethatmanwouldquicklyrisetoaphysicalandmentalexcellencesuperiortoanythattheworldhasyetknown。whileifthelattersetactedunchecked，hewouldspeedilydegenerate。
Asitis，thetwosetsholdoneanotherverynearlyinbalance，theformerslightlypreponderating。WhilethepopulationofEnglandisgrowingnearlyasfastasever，thosewhoareoutofhealthinbodyormindarecertainlynotanincreasingpartofthewhole：therestaremuchbetterfedandclothed，and，exceptinover-crowdedindustrialdistricts，aregenerallygrowinginstrength。Theaveragedurationoflifebothformenandwomenhasbeenincreasingsteadilyformanyyears。
NOTES：
1。Thismeasurecanbeapplieddirectlytomostkindsofnavvies’
andporters’work，andindirectlytomanykindsofagriculturalwork。InacontroversythatwaswagedafterthegreatagriculturallockoutastotherelativeefficiencyofunskilledlabourintheSouthandNorthofEngland，themosttrustworthymeasurewasfoundinthenumberoftonsofmaterialthatamanwouldloadintoacartinaday。Othermeasureshavebeenfoundinthenumberofacresreapedormown，orthenumberofbushelsofcornreaped，etc。：buttheseareunsatisfactory，particularlyforcomparingdifferentconditionsofagriculture：sincetheimplementsused，thenatureofthecropandthemodeofdoingtheworkallvarywidely。Thusnearlyallcomparisonsbetweenmedievalandmodernworkandwagesbasedonthewagesofreaping，mowing，etc。arevaluelessuntilwehavefoundmeanstoallowfortheeffectsofchangesinthemethodsofagriculture。Itcostsforinstancelesslabourthanitdidtoreapbyhandacropthatyieldsahundredbushelsofcorn。becausetheimplementsusedarebetterthantheywere：butitmaynotcostlesslabourtoreapanacreofcorn。becausethecropsareheavierthantheywere。
Inbackwardcountries，particularlywherethereisnotmuchuseofhorsesorotherdraughtanimals，agreatpartofmen’sandwomen’sworkmaybemeasuredfairlywellbythemuscularexertioninvolvedinit。ButinEnglandlessthanone-sixthoftheindustrialclassesarenowengagedonworkofthiskind。whiletheforceexertedbysteam-enginesaloneismorethantwentytimesasmuchascouldbeexertedbythemusclesofallEnglishmen。
2。Thismustbedistinguishedfromnervousness，which，asarule，indicatesageneraldeficiencyofnervousstrength。thoughsometimesitproceedsfromnervousirritabilityorwantofbalance。Amanwhohasgreatnervousstrengthinsomedirectionsmayhavebutlittleinothers。theartistictemperamentinparticularoftendevelopsonesetofnervesattheexpenseofothers：butitistheweaknessofsomeofthenerves，notthestrengthoftheothers，thatleadstonervousness。Themostperfectartisticnaturesseemnottohavebeennervous：LeonardodaVinciandShakespeareforexample。Thetermnervousstrength
correspondsinsomemeasuretoHeartinEngel’sgreatdivisionoftheelementsofefficiencyintoaBody，bReason，andc
HeartLeib，VerstandundHerz。Heclassifiesactivitiesaccordingtothepermutationsa，ab，ac，abc，acb，b，ba，bc，bca，bac。c，ca，cb，cab，cba：theorderineachcasebeingthatofrelativeimportance，andaletterbeingomittedwherethecorrespondingelementplaysonlyaverysmallpart。
Inthewarof1870BerlinUniversitystudents，whoseemedtobeweakerthantheaveragesoldier，werefoundtobeabletobearfatiguebetter。
3。Awarmclimateimpairsvigour。Itisnotaltogetherhostiletohighintellectualandartisticwork：butitpreventspeoplefrombeingabletoendureveryhardexertionofanykindforalongtime。Moresustainedhardworkcanbedoneinthecoolerhalfofthetemperatezonethananywhereelse。andmostofallinplacessuchasEnglandandhercounterpartNewZealand，wheresea-breezeskeepthetemperaturenearlyuniform。ThesummerheatsandwintercoldsofmanypartsofEuropeandAmerica，wherethemeantemperatureismoderate，havetheeffectofshorteningtheyearforworkingpurposesbyabouttwomonths。Extremeandsustainedcoldisfoundtodulltheenergies，partlyperhapsbecauseitcausespeopletospendmuchoftheirtimeincloseandconfinedquarters：inhabitantsoftheArcticregionsaregenerallyincapableoflong-continuedsevereexertion。InEnglandpopularopinionhasinsistedthatawarmYuletidemakesfatchurchyard。butstatisticsprovebeyondquestionthatithastheoppositeeffect：theaveragemortalityishighestinthecoldestquarteroftheyear，andhigherincoldwintersthaninwarm。
4。Racehistoryisafascinatingbutdisappointingstudyfortheeconomist：forconqueringracesgenerallyincorporatedthewomenoftheconquered。theyoftencarriedwiththemmanyslavesofbothsexesduringtheirmigrations，andslaveswerelesslikelythanfreementobekilledinbattleortoadoptamonasticlife。
Inconsequencenearlyeveryracehadmuchservile，thatismixedbloodinit：andastheshareofservilebloodwaslargestintheindustrialclasses，aracehistoryofindustrialhabitsseemsimpossible。
5。ThiswasprovedbyFarr，whoeliminateddisturbingcausesbyaninstructivestatisticaldeviceVitalStatistics，p。139。
6。Freedomandhopeincreasenotonlyman’swillingnessbutalsohispowerforwork。physiologiststellusthatagivenexertionconsumeslessofthestoreofnervousenergyifdoneunderthestimulusofpleasurethanofpain：andwithouthopethereisnoenterprise。Securityofpersonandpropertyaretwoconditionsofthishopefulnessandfreedom。butsecurityalwaysinvolvesrestraintsonfreedom，anditisoneofthemostdifficultproblemsofcivilizationtodiscoverhowtoobtainthesecuritywhichisaconditionoffreedomwithouttoogreatasacrificeoffreedomitself。Changesofwork，ofscene，andofpersonalassociationsbringnewthoughts，callattentiontotheimperfectionsofoldmethods，stimulateadivinediscontent，
andineverywaydevelopcreativeenergy。
7。Byconversewithotherswhocomefromdifferentplaces，andhavedifferentCustoms，travellerslearntoputonitstrialmanyahabitofthoughtoractionwhichotherwisetheywouldhavealwaysacquiescedinasthoughitwerealawofnature。Moreover，ashiftingofplacesenablesthemorepowerfulandoriginalmindstofindfullscopefortheirenergiesandtorisetoimportantpositions：whereasthosewhostayathomeareoftenovermuchkeptintheirplaces。Fewmenareprophetsintheirownland。
neighboursandrelationsaregenerallythelasttopardonthefaultsandtorecognizethemeritsofthosewhoarelessdocileandmoreenterprisingthanthosearoundthem。ItisdoubtlesschieflyforthisreasonthatinalmosteverypartofEnglandadisproportionatelylargeshareofthebestenergyandenterpriseistobefoundamongthosewhowerebornelsewhere。
Butchangemaybecarriedtoexcess。andwhenpopulationshiftssorapidly，thatamanisalwaysshakinghimselfloosefromhisreputation，helosessomeofthebestexternalaidstotheformationofahighmoralcharacter。Theextremehopefulnessandrestlessnessofthosewhowandertonewcountriesleadtomuchwasteofeffortinhalfacquiringtechnicalskill，andhalffinishingtaskswhicharespeedilyabandonedinfavourofsomenewoccupation。
8。Therateofmortalityislowamongministersofreligionandschoolmasters。amongtheagriculturalclasses，andinsomeotherindustriessuchasthoseofwheelwrights，shipwrightsandcoalminers。Itishighinleadandtinmining，infile-makingandearthenwaremanufacture。ButneitherthesenoranyotherregulartradeshowashigharateofmortalityasisfoundamongLondongenerallabourersandcostermongers。whilethehighestofallisthatofservantsininns。Suchoccupationsarenotdirectlyinjurioustohealth，buttheyattractthosewhoareweakinphysiqueandincharacterandtheyencourageirregularhabits。A
goodaccountoftheinfluenceofoccupationondeath-ratesisgiveninthesupplementtotheforty-fifth1885AnnualReportoftheRegistrar-General，pp。xxv-lxiii。SeealsoFarr’sVitalStatistics，pp。392-411，Humphreys’paperonClassMortalityStatisticsintheStatisticalJournalforJune1887，andtheliteratureoftheFactoryActsgenerally。
9。DavenantBalanceofTrade，A。D。1699，p。20，followingGregoryKing，provesthataccordingtoofficialfiguresLondonhasanexcessofdeathsoverbirthsof2000ayear，butanimmigrationof5000。whichismorethanhalfofwhathecalculates，byaratherriskymethod，tobethetruenetincreaseofthepopulationofthecountry。Hereckonsthat530，000peopleliveinLondon，870，000intheothercitiesandmarkettowns，and4，100，000invillagesandhamlets。Comparethesefigureswiththecensusof1901forEnglandandWales。wherewefindLondonwithapopulationofover4，500，000。fivemoretownswithanaverageofover500，000。andsixty-ninemoreexceeding50，000withanaverageofover100，000。Noristhisall：formanysuburbswhosepopulationisnotcountedin，areoftenreallypartsofthebigtowns。andinsomecasesthesuburbsofseveraladjacenttownsrunintooneanother，makingthemallintoonegigantic，thoughratherscatteredtown。AsuburbofManchesteriscountedasalargetownwith220，000inhabitants。andthesameistrueofWestHam，asuburbofLondonwith275，000。Theboundariesofsomelargetownsareextendedatirregularintervalstoincludesuchsuburbs：andconsequentlythetruepopulationofalargetownmaybegrowingfast，whileitsnominalpopulationgrowsslowlyorevenrecedes，andthensuddenlyleapsforwards。ThusthenominalpopulationofLiverpoolwas552，000in1881。518，000in1891。and685，000in1901。
Similarchangesaretakingplaceelsewhere。ThusthepopulationofParishasgrowntwelvetimesasfastduringthenineteenthcenturyasthatofFrance。ThetownsofGermanyareincreasingattheexpenseofthecountrybyonehalfpercent。ofthepopulationyearly。IntheUnitedStatestherewasin1800notownwithmorethan75，000inhabitants。in1905therewerethreewhichtogethercontainedmorethan7，000，000andelevenmorewithabove300，000each。MorethanathirdofthepopulationofVictoriaarecollectedinMelbourne。
Itmustberecollectedthatthecharacteristicsoftownlifeincreaseinintensityforgoodandforevilwitheveryincreaseinthesizeofatown，anditssuburbs。FreshcountryairhastopassovermanymoresourcesofnoisomevapourbeforeitreachestheaverageLondonerthanbeforeitreachestheaverageinhabitantofasmalltown。TheLondonerhasgenerallytogofarbeforehecanreachthefreedomandtherestfulsoundsandsightsofthecountry。Londonthereforewith4，500，000inhabitantsaddstotheurbancharacterofEngland’slifefarmorethanahundredtimesasmuchasatownof45，000inhabitants。
10。ForreasonsofthiskindWeltonStatisticalJournal，1897
makestheextremeproposaltoomitallpersonsbetween15and35
yearsofageincomparingtheratesofmortalityindifferenttowns。ThemortalityoffemalesinLondonbetweentheagesoffifteenandthirty-fiveis，chieflyforthisreason，abnormallylow。Ifhoweveratownhasastationarypopulationitsvitalstatisticsaremoreeasilyinterpreted。andselectingCoventryasatypicaltown，Galtonhascalculatedthattheadultchildrenofartisantownsfolkarelittlemorethanhalfasnumerousasthoseoflabouringpeoplewholiveinhealthycountrydistricts。Whenaplaceisdecaying，theyoungandstrongandheartydriftawayfromit。leavingtheoldandtheinfirmbehindthem，andconsequentlythebirth-rateisgenerallylow。Ontheotherhand，acentreofindustrythatisattractingpopulationislikelytohaveaveryhighbirth-rate，becauseithasmorethanitsshareofpeopleinthefullvigouroflife。Thisisespeciallythecaseinthecoalandirontowns，partlybecausetheydonotsuffer，asthetextiletownsdo，fromadeficiencyofmales。andpartlybecauseminersasaclassmarryearly。Insomeofthem，thoughthedeath-rateishigh，theexcessofthebirth-rateoveritexceeds20perthousandofthepopulation。Thedeathrateisgenerallyhighestintownsofthesecondorder，chieflybecausetheirsanitaryarrangementsarenotyetasgoodasthoseoftheverylargesttowns。
Prof。HaycraftDarwinismandRaceProgressarguesintheoppositedirection。Helaysjuststressonthedangerstothehumanracewhichwouldresultfromadiminutionofthosediseases，suchasphthisisandscrofula，whichattackchieflypeopleofweakconstitution，andthusexerciseaselectiveinfluenceontherace，unlessitwereaccompaniedbycorrespondingimprovementsinotherdirections。Butphthisisdoesnotkillallitsvictims。thereissomenetgaininadiminutionofitspowerofweakeningthem。
11。SeeanarticleentitledWheretoHousetheLondonPoorbythepresentwriterintheContemporaryReview，Feb。1884。
12。IntheSouthernStatesofAmerica，manualworkbecamedisgracefultothewhiteman。sothat，ifunabletohaveslaveshimself，heledapaltrydegeneratelife，andseldommarried。
Again，onthePacificSlope，therewereatonetimejustgroundsforfearingthatallbuthighlyskilledworkwouldbelefttotheChinese。andthatthewhitemenwouldliveinanartificialwayinwhichafamilybecameagreatexpense。InthiscaseChineseliveswouldhavebeensubstitutedforAmerican，andtheaveragequalityofthehumanracewouldhavebeenlowered。
13。Theextentoftheinfantmortalitythatarisesfrompreventablecausesmaybeinferredfromthefactsthatthepercentageofdeathsunderoneyearofagetobirthsisgenerallyaboutathirdasmuchagaininurbanasinruraldistricts。andyetinmanyurbandistrictswhichhaveawell-to-dopopulationitislowerthantheaverageforthewholecountryRegistrarGeneral’sReportfor1905，pp。xlii-xlv。Afewyearsagoitwasfoundthat，whiletheannualdeathrateofchildrenunderfiveyearsofagewasonlyabouttwopercentinthefamiliesofpeersandwaslessthanthreepercentforthewholeoftheupperclasses，itwasbetweensixandsevenpercentforthewholeofEngland。OntheotherhandProfLeroyBeaulieusaysthatinFrancetheparentsofbutoneortwochildrenareapttoindulgethem，andbeover-carefulaboutthemtothedetrimentoftheirboldness，enterpriseandendurance。SeeStatisticalJournal，Vol。54，pp。378-9。
Chapter6
IndustrialTraining1。Havingdiscussedthecauseswhichgovernthegrowthofanumerousandvigorouspopulation，wehavenexttoconsiderthetrainingthatisrequiredtodevelopitsindustrialefficiency。
Thenaturalvigourthatenablesamantoattaingreatsuccessinanyonepursuitwouldgenerallyhaveservedhimingoodsteadinalmostanyother。Butthereareexceptions。Somepeople，forinstance，seemtobefittedfrombirthforanartisticcareer，andfornoother。andoccasionallyamanofgreatpracticalgeniusisfoundtobealmostdevoidofartisticsensibility。Butaracethathasgreatnervousstrengthseemsgenerallyable，underfavourableconditions，todevelopinthecourseofafewgenerationsabilityofalmostanykindthatitholdsinspeciallyhighesteem。Aracethathasacquiredvigourinwarorintheruderformsofindustrysometimesgainsintellectualandartisticpowerofahighorderveryquickly。andnearlyeveryliteraryandartisticepochofclassicalandmedievaltimeshasbeenduetoapeopleofgreatnervousstrength，whohavebeenbroughtintocontactwithnoblethoughtsbeforetheyhaveacquiredmuchtasteforartificialcomfortsandluxuries。
Thegrowthofthistasteinourownagehaspreventedusfromtakingfulladvantageoftheopportunitiesourlargelyincreasedresourcesgiveusofconsecratingthegreaterpartofthehighestabilitiesoftheracetothehighestaims。Butperhapstheintellectualvigouroftheageappearslessthanitreallyis，inconsequenceofthegrowthofscientificpursuits。Forinartandliteraturesuccessisoftenachievedwhilegeniusstillwearsthefascinatingaspectofyouth。butinmodernsciencesomuchknowledgeisrequiredfororiginality，thatbeforeastudentcanmakehismarkintheworld，hismindhasoftenlostthefirstbloomofitsfreshness。andfurthertherealvalueofhisworkisnotoftenpatenttothemultitudeasthatofapictureorpoemgenerallyis。1*Inthesamewaythesolidqualitiesofthemodernmachine-tendingartisanareratedmorecheaplythanthelightervirtuesofthemedievalhandicraftsman。Thisispartlybecauseweareapttoregardascommonplacethoseexcellenceswhicharecommoninourowntime。andtooverlookthefactthatthetermunskilledlabourerisconstantlychangingitsmeaning。
2。Verybackwardracesareunabletokeeponatanykindofworkforalongtime。andeventhesimplestformofwhatweregardasunskilledworkisskilledworkrelativelytothem。fortheyhavenottherequisiteassiduity，andtheycanacquireitonlybyalongcourseoftraining。Butwhereeducationisuniversal，anoccupationmayfairlybeclassedasunskilled，thoughitrequiresaknowledgeofreadingandwriting。Again，indistrictsinwhichmanufactureshavelongbeendomiciled，ahabitofresponsibility，ofcarefulnessandpromptitudeinhandlingexpensivemachineryandmaterialsbecomesthecommonpropertyofall。andthenmuchoftheworkoftendingmachineryissaidtobeentirelymechanicalandunskilled，andtocallforthnohumanfacultythatisworthyofesteem。Butinfactitisprobablethatnotone-tenthofthepresentpopulationsoftheworldhavethementalandmoralfaculties，theintelligence，and，theself-controlthatarerequiredforit：perhapsnotone-halfcouldbemadetodotheworkwellbysteadytrainingfortwogenerations。Evenofamanufacturingpopulationonlyasmallpartarecapableofdoingmanyofthetasksthatappearatfirstsighttobeentirelymonotonous。Machine-weaving，forinstance，simpleasitseems，isdividedintohigherandlowergrades。andmostofthosewhoworkinthelowergradeshavenotthestuffinthem
thatisrequiredforweavingwithseveralcolours。Andthedifferencesareevengreaterinindustriesthatdealwithhardmaterials，wood，metals，orceramics。
Somekindsofmanualworkrequirelong-continuedpracticeinonesetofoperations，butthesecasesarenotverycommon，andtheyarebecomingrarer：formachineryisconstantlytakingoverworkthatrequiresmanualskillofthiskind。Itisindeedtruethatageneralcommandovertheuseofone’sfingersisaveryimportantelementofindustrialefficiency。butthisistheresultchieflyofnervousstrength，andself-mastery。Itisofcoursedevelopedbytraining，butthegreaterpartofthismaybeofageneralcharacterandnotspecialtotheparticularoccupation。justasagoodcricketersoonlearnstoplaytenniswell，soaskilledartisancanoftenmoveintoothertradeswithoutanygreatandlastinglossofefficiency。
Manualskillthatissospecializedthatitisquiteincapableofbeingtransferredfromoneoccupationtoanotherisbecomingsteadilyalessandlessimportantfactorinproduction。
Puttingasideforthepresentthefacultiesofartisticperceptionandartisticcreation，wemaysaythatwhatmakesoneoccupationhigherthananother，whatmakestheworkersofonetownorcountrymoreefficientthanthoseofanother，ischieflyasuperiorityingeneralsagacityandenergywhicharenotspecializedtoanyoneoccupation。
Tobeabletobearinmindmanythingsatatime，tohaveeverythingreadywhenwanted，toactpromptlyandshowresourcewhenanythinggoeswrong，toaccommodateoneselfquicklytochangesindetailoftheworkdone，tobesteadyandtrustworthy，tohavealwaysareserveofforcewhichwillcomeoutinemergency，thesearethequalitieswhichmakeagreatindustrialpeople。Theyarenotpeculiartoanyoccupation，butarewantedinall。andiftheycannotalwaysbeeasilytransferredfromonetradetootherkindredtrades，thechiefreasonisthattheyrequiretobesupplementedbysomeknowledgeofmaterialsandfamiliaritywithspecialprocesses。
Wemaythenusethetermgeneralabilitytodenotethosefacultiesandthatgeneralknowledgeandintelligencewhichareinvaryingdegreesthecommonpropertyofallthehighergradesofindustry。whilethatmanualdexterityandthatacquaintancewithparticularmaterialsandprocesseswhicharerequiredforthespecialpurposesofindividualtradesmaybeclassedasspecializedability。
3。Generalabilitydependslargelyonthesurroundingsofchildhoodandyouth。Inthisthefirstandfarthemostpowerfulinfluenceisthatofthemother。2*Nextcomestheinfluenceofthefather，ofotherchildren，andinsomecasesofservants。3*
Asyearspassonthechildoftheworkingmanlearnsagreatdealfromwhatheseesandhearsgoingonaroundhim。andwhenweinquireintotheadvantagesforstartinginlifewhichchildrenofthewell-to-doclasseshaveoverthoseofartisans，andwhichtheseintheirturnhaveoverthechildrenofunskilledlabourers，weshallhavetoconsidertheseinfluencesofhomemoreindetail。Butatpresentwemaypasstoconsiderthemoregeneralinfluencesofschooleducation。
Littleneedbesaidofgeneraleducation。thoughtheinfluenceevenofthatonindustrialefficiencyisgreaterthanitappears。Itistruethat。thechildrenoftheworkingclassesmustveryoftenleaveschool，whentheyhavebutlearnttheelementsofreading，writing，arithmeticanddrawing。anditissometimesarguedthatpartofthelittletimespentonthesesubjectswouldbebettergiventopracticalwork。Buttheadvancemadeatschoolisimportantnotsomuchonitsownaccount，asforthepoweroffutureadvancewhichaschooleducationgives。
Foratrulyliberalgeneraleducationadaptsthemindtouseitsbestfacultiesinbusinessandtousebusinessitselfasameansofincreasingculture。thoughitdoesnotconcernitselfwiththedetailsofparticulartrades：thatisleftfortechnicaleducation。4*
4。Technicaleducationhasinlikemannerraiseditsaimsinrecentyears。Itusedtomeanlittlemorethanimpartingthatmanualdexterityandthatelementaryknowledgeofmachineryandprocesseswhichanintelligentladquicklypicksupforhimselfwhenhisworkhasbegun。thoughifhehaslearntitbeforehand，hecanperhapsearnafewshillingsmoreatstartingthanifhehadbeenquiteignorant。Butsuchso-callededucationdoesnotdevelopfaculties。itratherhindersthemfrombeingdeveloped。A
lad，whohaspickeduptheknowledgeforhimself，haseducatedhimselfbysodoing。andheislikelytomakebetterprogressinthefuturethanonewhohasbeentaughtinaschoolofthisold-fashionedkind。Technicaleducationishoweveroutgrowingitsmistakes。andisaiming，firstly，atgivingageneralcommandovertheuseofeyesandfingersthoughtherearesignsthatthisworkisbeingtakenoverbygeneraleducation，towhichitproperlybelongs。andsecondlyatimpartingartisticskillandknowledge，andmethodsofinvestigation，whichareusefulinparticularoccupations，butareseldomproperlyacquiredinthecourseofpracticalwork。Itishowevertoberememberedthateveryadvanceintheaccuracyandversatilityofautomaticmachinerynarrowstherangeofmanualworkinwhichcommandoverhandandeyeisatahighpremium。andthatthosefacultieswhicharetrainedbygeneraleducationinitsbestformsareeverrisinginimportance。5*
AccordingtothebestEnglishopinions，technicaleducationforthehigherranksofindustryshouldkeeptheaimofdevelopingthefacultiesalmostasconstantlybeforeitasgeneraleducationdoes。Itshouldrestonthesamebasisasathoroughgeneraleducation，butshouldgoontoworkoutindetailspecialbranchesofknowledgeforthebenefitofparticulartrades。6*OuraimshouldbetoaddthescientifictraininginwhichthecountriesofWesternEuropeareaheadofustothatdaringandrestlessenergyandthosepracticalinstincts，whichseldomflourishunlessthebestyearsofyoutharespentintheworkshop。recollectingalwaysthatwhateverayouthlearnsforhimselfbydirectexperienceinwell-conductedworks，teacheshimmoreandstimulateshismentalactivitymorethanifitweretaughthimbyamasterinatechnicalschoolwithmodelinstruments。7*
Theoldapprenticeshipsystemisnotexactlysuitedtomodernconditionsandithasfallenintodisuse。butasubstituteforitiswanted。Withinthelastfewyearsmanyoftheablestmanufacturershavebeguntosetthefashionofmakingtheirsonsworkthrougheverystageinsuccessionofthebusinesstheywillultimatelyhavetocontrol。butthissplendideducationcanbehadonlybyafew。Somanyandvariousarethebranchesofanygreatmodernindustrythatitwouldbeimpossiblefortheemployerstoundertake，astheyusedtodo，thateveryyouthcommittedtotheircareshouldlearnall。andindeedaladofordinaryabilitywouldbebewilderedbytheattempt。Butitdoesnotseemimpracticabletorevivetheapprenticeshipsysteminamodifiedform。8*
Thegreatepoch-makinginventionsinindustrycametillrecentlyalmostexclusivelyfromEngland。Butnowothernationsarejoiningintherace。TheexcellenceofthecommonschoolsoftheAmericans，thevarietyoftheirlives，theinterchangeofideasbetweendifferentracesamongthem，andthepeculiarconditionsoftheiragriculturehavedevelopedarestlessspiritofinquiry。whiletechnicaleducationisnowbeingpushedonwithgreatvigour。Ontheotherhand，thediffusionofscientificknowledgeamongthemiddleandeventheworkingclassesofGermany，combinedwiththeirfamiliaritywithmodernlanguagesandtheirhabitsoftravellinginpursuitofinstruction，hasenabledthemtokeepupwithEnglishandAmericanmechanicsandtotaketheleadinmanyoftheapplicationsofchemistrytobusiness。9*
5。Itistruethattherearemanykindsofworkwhichcanbedoneasefficientlybyanuneducatedasbyaneducatedworkman：
andthatthehigherbranchesofeducationareoflittledirectuseexcepttoemployersandforemenandacomparativelysmallnumberofartisans。Butagoodeducationconfersgreatindirectbenefitsevenontheordinaryworkman。Itstimulateshismentalactivity。itfostersinhimahabitofwiseinquisitiveness。itmakeshimmoreintelligent，moreready，moretrustworthyinhisordinarywork。itraisesthetoneofhislifeinworkinghoursandoutofworkinghours。itisthusanimportantmeanstowardstheproductionofmaterialwealth。atthesametimethat，regardedasanendinitself，itisinferiortononeofthosewhichtheproductionofmaterialwealthcanbemadetosubserve。
Wemusthoweverlookinanotherdirectionforapart，perhapsthegreaterpart，oftheimmediateeconomicgainwhichthenationmayderivefromanimprovementinthegeneralandtechnicaleducationofthemassofthepeople。Wemustlooknotsomuchatthosewhostayintherankandfileoftheworkingclasses，asatthosewhorisefromahumblebirthtojointhehigherranksofskilledartisans，tobecomeforemenoremployers，toadvancetheboundariesofscience，orpossiblytoaddtothenationalwealthinartandliterature。
Thelawswhichgovernthebirthofgeniusareinscrutable。Itisprobablethatthepercentageofchildrenoftheworkingclasseswhoareendowedwithnaturalabilitiesofthehighestorderisnotsogreatasthatofthechildrenofpeoplewhohaveattainedorhaveinheritedahigherpositioninsociety。Butsincethemanuallabourclassesarefourorfivetimesasnumerousasallotherclassesputtogether，itisnotunlikelythatmorethanhalfthebestnaturalgeniusthatisbornintothecountrybelongstothem。andofthisagreatpartisfruitlessforwantofopportunity。Thereisnoextravagancemoreprejudicialtothegrowthofnationalwealththanthatwastefulnegligencewhichallowsgeniusthathappenstobebornoflowlyparentagetoexpenditselfinlowlywork。Nochangewouldconducesomuchtoarapidincreaseofmaterialwealthasanimprovementinourschools，andespeciallythoseofthemiddlegrades，provideditbecombinedwithanextensivesystemofscholarships，whichwillenablethecleversonofaworkingmantorisegraduallyfromschooltoschooltillhehasthebesttheoreticalandpracticaleducationwhichtheagecangive。
TotheabilitiesofchildrenoftheworkingclassesmaybeascribedthegreaterpartofthesuccessofthefreetownsintheMiddleAgesandofScotlandinrecenttimes。EvenwithinEnglanditselfthereisalessonofthesamekindtobelearnt：progressismostrapidinthosepartsofthecountryinwhichthegreatestproportionoftheleadersofindustryarethesonsofworkingmen。Forinstance，thebeginningofthemanufacturingerafoundsocialdistinctionsmorecloselymarkedandmorefirmlyestablishedintheSouththanintheNorthofEngland。IntheSouthsomethingofaspiritofcastehasheldbacktheworkingmenandthesonsofworkingmenfromrisingtopostsofcommand。
andtheoldestablishedfamilieshavebeenwantinginthatelasticityandfreshnessofmindwhichnosocialadvantagescansupply，andwhichcomesonlyfromnaturalgifts。Thisspiritofcaste，andthisdeficiencyofnewbloodamongtheleadersofindustry，havemutuallysustainedoneanother。andtherearenotafewtownsintheSouthofEnglandwhosedecadencewithinlivingmemorycanbetracedinagreatmeasuretothiscause。
6。Educationinartstandsonasomewhatdifferentfootingfromeducationinhardthinking：forwhilethelatternearlyalwaysstrengthensthecharacter，theformernotunfrequentlyfailstodothis。Neverthelessthedevelopmentoftheartisticfacultiesofthepeopleisinitselfanaimoftheveryhighestimportance，andisbecomingachieffactorofindustrialefficiency。
Wearehereconcernedalmostexclusivelywiththosebranchesofartwhichappealtotheeye。Forthoughliteratureandmusiccontributeasmuchandmoretothefulnessoflife，yettheirdevelopmentdoesnotdirectlyaffect，anddoesnotdependupon，themethodsofbusiness，theprocessesofmanufactureandtheskillofartisans。
TheartisanofEuropeintheMiddleAges，andofeasterncountriesnow，hasperhapsobtainedcreditformoreoriginalitythanhehasreallypossessed。Easterncarpets，forinstance，arefullofgrandconceptions：butifweexamineagreatmanyexamplesoftheartofanyoneplace，selectedperhapsfromtheworkofseveralcenturies，weoftenfindverylittlevarietyintheirfundamentalideas。Butinthemoderneraofrapidchanges——somecausedbyfashionandsomebythebeneficialmovementsofindustrialandsocialprogress——everyonefeelsfreetomakeanewdeparture，everyonehastorelyinthemainonhisownresources：thereisnoslowlymaturedpubliccriticismtoguidehim。10*
Thisishowevernottheonly，perhapsnotthechiefdisadvantageunderwhichartisticdesignlaboursinourownage。
ThereisnogoodreasonforbelievingthatthechildrenofordinaryworkmenintheMiddleAgeshadmorepowerofartisticoriginationthanthoseofordinaryvillagecarpentersorblacksmithsofto-day。butifoneamongtenthousandhappenedtohavegenius，itfoundventinhisworkandwasstimulatedbythecompetitionofthegildsandinotherways。Butthemodernartisanisapttobeoccupiedinthemanagementofmachinery。andthoughthefacultieswhichhedevelopsmaybemoresolidandmayhelpmoreinthelongruntowardsthehighestprogressofthehumanrace，thandidthetasteandfancyofhismedievalpredecessor，yettheydonotcontributedirectlytowardstheprogressofart。Andifheshouldfindinhimselfahigherorderofabilitythanamonghisfellows，hewillprobablyendeavourtotakealeadingpartinthemanagementofatrades-unionorsomeothersociety，ortocollecttogetheralittlestoreofcapitalandtoriseoutofthattradeinwhichhewaseducated。Thesearenotignobleaims。buthisambitionwouldperhapshavebeennoblerandmorefruitfulofgoodtotheworld，ifhehadstayedinhisoldtradeandstriventocreateworksofbeautywhichshouldliveafterhehadgone。
Itmusthoweverbeadmittedthathewouldhavegreatdifficultiesindoingthis。Theshortnessofthetimewhichweallowourselvesforchangesintheartsofdecorationisscarcelyagreaterevilthanthewidthoftheareaoftheworldoverwhichtheyarespread。forthatcausesafurtherdistractionofthehastyandhurriedeffortsofthedesigner，bycompellinghimtobealwayswatchingtheworldmovementsofthesupplyofanddemandforartproducts。Thisisataskforwhichtheartisan，whoworkswithhisownhands，isnotwellfitted。andinconsequencenow-a-daystheordinaryartisanfindsitbesttofollowandnottolead。EventhesupremeskilloftheLyonsweavershowsitselfnowalmostexclusivelyinaninheritedpowerofdelicatemanipulation，andfineperceptionofcolour，thatenablehimtocarryoutperfectlytheideasofprofessionaldesigners。
Increasingwealthisenablingpeopletobuythingsofallkindstosuitthefancy，withbutasecondaryregardtotheirpowersofwearing。sothatinallkindsofclothingandfurnitureitiseverydaymoretruethatitisthepatternwhichsellsthethings。TheinfluenceofthelateWilliamMorrisandothers，combinedwiththeleadwhichmanyEnglishdesignershavederivedfromOrientalandespeciallyPersianandIndianmastersofcolourisacknowledgedbyFrenchmenthemselvestohaveattainedthefirstrankforcertainclassesofEnglishfabricsanddecorativeproducts。ButinotherdirectionsFranceissupreme。SomeEnglishmanufacturerswhoholdtheirownagainsttheworldwould，itissaid，bedrivenoutofthemarketiftheyhadtodependonEnglishpatterns。ThisispartlyduetothefactthatParishavingtheleadinfashions，astheresultofaninheritedquickandsubtletasteinwomen’sdress，aParisiandesignislikelytobeinharmonywiththecomingfashionsandtosellbetterthanadesignofequalintrinsicworthfromelsewhere。11*
Technicaleducation，then，thoughitcannotaddmuchdirectlytothesupplyofgeniusinart，anymorethanitcaninscienceorinbusiness，canyetsavemuchnaturalartisticgeniusfromrunningtowaste。anditiscalledontodothisallthemorebecausethetrainingthatwasgivenbytheolderformsofhandicraftcanneverberevivedonalargescale。12*
7。Wemaythenconcludethatthewisdomofexpendingpublicandprivatefundsoneducationisnottobemeasuredbyitsdirectfruitsalone。Itwillbeprofitableasamereinvestment，togivethemassesofthepeoplemuchgreateropportunitiesthantheycangenerallyavailthemselvesof。Forbythismeansmany，whowouldhavediedunknown，areenabledtogetthestartneededforbringingouttheirlatentabilities。Andtheeconomicvalueofonegreatindustrialgeniusissufficienttocovertheexpensesoftheeducationofawholetown。foronenewidea，suchasBessemer’schiefinvention，addsasmuchtoEngland’sproductivepowerasthelabourofahundredthousandmen。Lessdirect，butnotlessinimportance，istheaidgiventoproductionbymedicaldiscoveriessuchasthoseofJennerorPasteur，whichincreaseourhealthandworkingpower。andagainbyscientificworksuchasthatofmathematicsorbiology，eventhoughmanygenerationsmaypassawaybeforeitbearsvisiblefruitingreatermaterialwell-being。AllthatisspentduringmanyyearsinopeningthemeansofhighereducationtothemasseswouldbewellpaidforifitcalledoutonemoreNewtonorDarwin，ShakespeareorBeethoven。
TherearefewpracticalproblemsinwhichtheeconomisthasamoredirectinterestthanthoserelatingtotheprinciplesonwhichtheexpenseoftheeducationofchildrenshouldbedividedbetweentheStateandtheparents。Butwemustnowconsidertheconditionsthatdeterminethepowerandthewilloftheparentstobeartheirshareoftheexpense，whateveritmaybe。
Mostparentsarewillingenoughtodofortheirchildrenwhattheirownparentsdidforthem。andperhapseventogoalittlebeyonditiftheyfindthemselvesamongneighbourswhohappentohavearatherhigherstandard。Buttodomorethanthisrequires，inadditiontothemoralqualitiesofunselfishnessandawarmthofaffectionthatareperhapsnotrare，acertainhabitofmindwhichisasyetnotverycommon。Itrequiresthehabitofdistinctlyrealizingthefuture，ofregardingadistanteventasofnearlythesameimportanceasifitwerecloseathanddiscountingthefutureatalowrateofinterest。thishabitisatonceachiefproductandachiefcauseofcivilization，andisseldomfully。developedexceptamongthemiddleandupperclassesofthemorecultivatednations。
8。Parentsgenerallybringuptheirchildrentooccupationsintheirowngrade，andthereforethetotalsupplyoflabourinanygradeinonegenerationisinagreatmeasuredeterminedbythenumbersinthatgradeintheprecedinggeneration，yetwithinthegradeitselfthereisgreater。mobility。Iftheadvantagesofanyoneoccupationinitriseabovetheaverage，thereisaquickinfluxofyouthfromotheroccupationswithinthegrade。Theverticalmovementfromonegradetoanotherisseldomveryrapidoronaverylargescale。but，whentheadvantagesofagradehaverisenrelativelytothedifficultyoftheworkrequiredofit，manysmallstreamsoflabour，bothyouthfulandadult，willbegintoflowtowardsit。andthoughnoneofthemmaybeverylarge，theywilltogetherhaveasufficientvolumetosatisfybeforelongtheincreaseddemandforlabourinthatgrade。
Wemustdefertoalaterstageafullerdiscussionoftheobstacleswhichtheconditionsofanyplaceandtimeopposetothefreemobilityoflabour，andalsooftheinducementswhichtheyoffertoanyonetochangehisoccupationortobringuphissontoanoccupationdifferentfromhisown。Butwehaveseenenoughtoconcludethat，otherthingsbeingequal，anincreaseintheearningsthataretobegotbylabourincreasesitsrateofgrowth。or，inotherwords，ariseinitsdemandpriceincreasesthesupplyofit。Ifthestateofknowledge，andofethical，socialanddomestichabitsbegiven。thenthevigourofthepeopleasawholeifnottheirnumbers，andboththenumbersandvigourofanytradeinparticular，maybesaidtohaveasupplypriceinthissense，thatthereisacertainlevelofthedemandpricewhichwillkeepthemstationary。thatahigherpricewouldcausethemtoincrease，andthatalowerpricewouldcausethemtodecrease。Thuseconomiccausesplayapartingoverningthegrowthofpopulationasawholeaswellasthesupplyoflabourinanyparticulargrade。Buttheirinfluenceonthenumbersofthepopulationasawholeislargelyindirect。andisexertedbywayoftheethical，socialanddomestichabitsoflife。Forthesehabitsarethemselvesinfluencedbyeconomiccausesdeeply，thoughslowly，andinwayssomeofwhicharedifficulttotrace，andimpossibletopredict。13*
NOTES：
1。Inthisconnectionitisworthwhiletonoticethatthefullimportanceofanepoch-makingideaisoftennotperceivedinthegenerationinwhichitismade：itstartsthethoughtsoftheworldonanewtrack，butthechangeofdirectionisnotobviousuntiltheturning-pointhasbeenleftsomewaybehind。Inthesamewaythemechanicalinventionsofeveryageareapttobeunderratedrelativelytothoseofearliertimes。Foranewdiscoveryisseldomfullyeffectiveforpracticalpurposestillmanyminorimprovementsandsubsidiarydiscoverieshavegatheredthemselvesaroundit：aninventionthatmakesanepochisveryoftenagenerationolderthantheepochwhichitmakes。Thusitisthateachgenerationseemstobechieflyoccupiedinworkingoutthethoughtsoftheprecedingone。whilethefullimportanceofitsownthoughtsisasyetnotclearlyseen。
2。AccordingtoGaltonthestatementthatallgreatmenhavehadgreatmothersgoestoofar：butthatshowsonlythatthemother’sinfluencedoesnotoutweighallothers。notthatitisnotgreaterthananyoneofthem。Hesaysthatthemother’sinfluenceismosteasilytraceableamongtheologiansandmenofscience，becauseanearnestmotherleadsherchildtofeeldeeplyaboutgreatthings。andathoughtfulmotherdoesnotrepress，butencouragesthatchildishcuriositywhichistherawmaterialofscientifichabitsofthought。
3。Therearemanyfinenaturesamongdomesticservants。Butthosewholiveinveryrichhousesareapttogetself-indulgenthabits，tooverestimatetheimportanceofwealth，andgenerallytoputtheloweraimsoflifeabovethehigher，inawaythatisnotcommonwithindependentworkingpeople。Thecompanyinwhichthechildrenofsomeofourbesthousesspendmuchoftheirtime，islessennoblingthanthatoftheaveragecottage。Yetintheseveryhouses，noservantwhoisnotspeciallyqualified，isallowedtotakechargeofayoungretrieverorayounghorse。
4。Theabsenceofacarefulgeneraleducationforthechildrenoftheworkingclasses，hasbeenhardlylessdetrimentaltoindustrialprogressthanthenarrowrangeoftheoldgrammar-schooleducationofthemiddleclasses。Tillrecentlyindeeditwastheonlyonebywhichtheaverageschoolmastercouldinducehispupilstousetheirmindsinanythinghigherthantheabsorptionofknowledge。Itwasthereforerightlycalledliberal，becauseitwasthebestthatwastobehad。Butitfailedinitsaimoffamiliarizingthecitizenwiththegreatthoughtsofantiquity。itwasgenerallyforgottenassoonasschool-timewasover。anditraisedaninjuriousantagonismbetweenbusinessandculture。Nowhowevertheadvanceofknowledgeisenablingustousescienceandarttosupplementthecurriculumofthegrammar-school，andtogivetothosewhocanafforditaneducationthatdevelopstheirbestfaculties，andstartsthemonthetrackofthoughtswhichwillmoststimulatethehigheractivitiesoftheirmindsinafter-life。Thetimespentonlearningtospellisalmostwasted：ifspellingandpronunciationarebroughtintoharmonyintheEnglishlanguageasinmostothers，aboutayearwillbeaddedtotheeffectiveschooleducationwithoutanyadditionalcost。
5。AsNasmythsays。ifalad，havingdroppedtwopeasatrandomonatable，canreadilyputathirdpeamidwayinalinebetweenthem，heisonthewaytobecomeagoodmechanic。CommandovereyeandhandisgainedintheordinaryEnglishgames，nolessthanintheplayfulworkoftheKinder-garten。Drawinghasalwaysbeenontheborderlinebetweenworkandplay。