INTRODUCTIONANDPLANOFTHEWORK
THEannuallabourofeverynationisthefundwhichoriginallysuppliesitwithallthenecessariesandconveniencesoflifewhichitannuallyconsumes，andwhichconsistalwayseitherintheimmediateproduceofthatlabour，orinwhatispurchasedwiththatproducefromothernations。
Accordingthereforeasthisproduce，orwhatispurchasedwithit，bearsagreaterorsmallerproportiontothenumberofthosewhoaretoconsumeit，thenationwillbebetterorworsesuppliedwithallthenecessariesandconveniencesforwhichithasoccasion。
Butthisproportionmustineverynationberegulatedbytwodifferentcircumstances;first，bytheskill，dexterity，andjudgmentwithwhichitslabourisgenerallyapplied;and，secondly，bytheproportionbetweenthenumberofthosewhoareemployedinusefullabour，andthatofthosewhoarenotsoemployed。Whateverbethesoil，climate，orextentofterritoryofanyparticularnation，theabundanceorscantinessofitsannualsupplymust，inthatparticularsituation，dependuponthosetwocircumstances。
Theabundanceorscantinessofthissupply，too，seemstodependmoreupontheformerofthosetwocircumstancesthanuponthelatter。Amongthesavagenationsofhuntersandfishers，everyindividualwhoisabletowork，ismoreorlessemployedinusefullabour，andendeavourstoprovide，aswellashecan，thenecessariesandconveniencesoflife，forhimself，orsuchofhisfamilyortribeasareeithertooold，ortooyoung，ortooinfirmtogoahuntingandfishing。Suchnations，however，aresomiserablypoorthat，frommerewant，theyarefrequentlyreduced，or，atleast，thinkthemselvesreduced，tothenecessitysometimesofdirectlydestroying，andsometimesofabandoningtheirinfants，theiroldpeople，andthoseafflictedwithlingeringdiseases，toperishwithhunger，ortobedevouredbywildbeasts。Amongcivilisedandthrivingnations，onthecontrary，thoughagreatnumberofpeopledonotlabouratall，manyofwhomconsumetheproduceoftentimes，frequentlyofahundredtimesmorelabourthanthegreaterpartofthosewhowork;yettheproduceofthewholelabourofthesocietyissogreatthatallareoftenabundantlysupplied，andaworkman，evenofthelowestandpoorestorder，ifheisfrugalandindustrious，mayenjoyagreatershareofthenecessariesandconveniencesoflifethanitispossibleforanysavagetoacquire。
Thecausesofthisimprovement，intheproductivepowersoflabour，andtheorder，accordingtowhichitsproduceisnaturallydistributedamongthedifferentranksandconditionsofmeninthesociety，makethesubjectofthefirstbookofthisInquiry。
Whateverbetheactualstateoftheskill，dexterity，andjudgmentwithwhichlabourisappliedinanynation，theabundanceorscantinessofitsannualsupplymustdepend，duringthecontinuanceofthatstate，upontheproportionbetweenthenumberofthosewhoareannuallyemployedinusefullabour，andthatofthosewhoarenotsoemployed。Thenumberofusefulandproductivelabourers，itwillhereafterappear，iseverywhereinproportiontothequantityofcapitalstockwhichisemployedinsettingthemtowork，andtotheparticularwayinwhichitissoemployed。Thesecondbook，therefore，treatsofthenatureofcapitalstock，ofthemannerinwhichitisgraduallyaccumulated，andofthedifferentquantitiesoflabourwhichitputsintomotion，accordingtothedifferentwaysinwhichitisemployed。
Nationstolerablywelladvancedastoskill，dexterity，andjudgment，intheapplicationoflabour，havefollowedverydifferentplansinthegeneralconductordirectionofit;thoseplanshavenotallbeenequallyfavourabletothegreatnessofitsproduce。Thepolicyofsomenationshasgivenextraordinaryencouragementtotheindustryofthecountry;thatofotherstotheindustryoftowns。Scarceanynationhasdealtequallyandimpartiallywitheverysortofindustry。SincethedownfalloftheRomanempire，thepolicyofEuropehasbeenmorefavourabletoarts，manufactures，andcommerce，theindustryoftowns，thantoagriculture，theindustryofthecountry。Thecircumstanceswhichseemtohaveintroducedandestablishedthispolicyareexplainedinthethirdbook。
Thoughthosedifferentplanswere，perhaps，firstintroducedbytheprivateinterestsandprejudicesofparticularordersofmen，withoutanyregardto，orforesightof，theirconsequencesuponthegeneralwelfareofthesociety;yettheyhavegivenoccasiontoverydifferenttheoriesofpoliticaleconomy;ofwhichsomemagnifytheimportanceofthatindustrywhichiscarriedonintowns，othersofthatwhichiscarriedoninthecountry。Thosetheorieshavehadaconsiderableinfluence，notonlyupontheopinionsofmenoflearning，butuponthepublicconductofprincesandsovereignstates。Ihaveendeavoured，inthefourthbook，toexplain，asfullyanddistinctlyasIcan，thosedifferenttheories，andtheprincipaleffectswhichtheyhaveproducedindifferentagesandnations。
Toexplaininwhathasconsistedtherevenueofthegreatbodyofthepeople，orwhathasbeenthenatureofthosefundswhich，indifferentagesandnations，havesuppliedtheirannualconsumption，istheobjectofthesefourfirstbooks。Thefifthandlastbooktreatsoftherevenueofthesovereign，orcommonwealth。InthisbookIhaveendeavouredtoshow，first，whatarethenecessaryexpensesofthesovereign，orcommonwealth;whichofthoseexpensesoughttobedefrayedbythegeneralcontributionofthewholesociety;andwhichofthembythatofsomeparticularpartonly，orofsomeparticularmembersofit:secondly，whatarethedifferentmethodsinwhichthewholesocietymaybemadetocontributetowardsdefrayingtheexpensesincumbentonthewholesociety，andwhataretheprincipaladvantagesandinconveniencesofeachofthosemethods:
and，thirdlyandlastly，whatarethereasonsandcauseswhichhaveinducedalmostallmoderngovernmentstomortgagesomepartofthisrevenue，ortocontractdebts，andwhathavebeentheeffectsofthosedebtsupontherealwealth，theannualproduceofthelandandlabourofthesociety。
BOOKONE
OFTHECAUSESOFIMPROVEMENTINTHEPRODUCTIVEPOWERS。OFLABOUR，ANDOFTHEORDERACCORDINGTOWHICHITS。PRODUCEISNATURALLY
DISTRIBUTEDAMONGTHEDIFFERENTRANKSOFTHEPEOPLE。
CHAPTERI
OftheDivisionofLabourTHEgreatestimprovementintheproductivepowersoflabour，andthegreaterpartoftheskill，dexterity，andjudgmentwithwhichitisanywheredirected，orapplied，seemtohavebeentheeffectsofthedivisionoflabour。
Theeffectsofthedivisionoflabour，inthegeneralbusinessofsociety，willbemoreeasilyunderstoodbyconsideringinwhatmanneritoperatesinsomeparticularmanufactures。Itiscommonlysupposedtobecarriedfurthestinsomeverytriflingones;notperhapsthatitreallyiscarriedfurtherinthemthaninothersofmoreimportance:butinthosetriflingmanufactureswhicharedestinedtosupplythesmallwantsofbutasmallnumberofpeople，thewholenumberofworkmenmustnecessarilybesmall;andthoseemployedineverydifferentbranchoftheworkcanoftenbecollectedintothesameworkhouse，andplacedatonceundertheviewofthespectator。Inthosegreatmanufactures，onthecontrary，whicharedestinedtosupplythegreatwantsofthegreatbodyofthepeople，everydifferentbranchoftheworkemployssogreatanumberofworkmenthatitisimpossibletocollectthemallintothesameworkhouse。Wecanseldomseemore，atonetime，thanthoseemployedinonesinglebranch。Thoughinsuchmanufactures，therefore，theworkmayreallybedividedintoamuchgreaternumberofpartsthaninthoseofamoretriflingnature，thedivisionisnotnearsoobvious，andhasaccordinglybeenmuchlessobserved。
Totakeanexample，therefore，fromaverytriflingmanufacture;butoneinwhichthedivisionoflabourhasbeenveryoftentakennoticeof，thetradeofthepin—maker;aworkmannoteducatedtothisbusiness（whichthedivisionoflabourhasrenderedadistincttrade），noracquaintedwiththeuseofthemachineryemployedinit（totheinventionofwhichthesamedivisionoflabourhasprobablygivenoccasion），couldscarce，perhaps，withhisutmostindustry，makeonepininaday，andcertainlycouldnotmaketwenty。Butinthewayinwhichthisbusinessisnowcarriedon，notonlythewholeworkisapeculiartrade，butitisdividedintoanumberofbranches，ofwhichthegreaterpartarelikewisepeculiartrades。Onemandrawsoutthewire，anotherstraightsit，athirdcutsit，afourthpointsit，afifthgrindsitatthetopforreceiving，thehead;tomaketheheadrequirestwoorthreedistinctoperations;toputitonisapeculiarbusiness，towhitenthepinsisanother;itisevenatradebyitselftoputthemintothepaper;andtheimportantbusinessofmakingapinis，inthismanner，dividedintoabouteighteendistinctoperations，which，insomemanufactories，areallperformedbydistincthands，thoughinothersthesamemanwillsometimesperformtwoorthreeofthem。Ihaveseenasmallmanufactoryofthiskindwheretenmenonlywereemployed，andwheresomeofthemconsequentlyperformedtwoorthreedistinctoperations。Butthoughtheywereverypoor，andthereforebutindifferentlyaccommodatedwiththenecessarymachinery，theycould，whentheyexertedthemselves，makeamongthemabouttwelvepoundsofpinsinaday。Thereareinapoundupwardsoffourthousandpinsofamiddlingsize。Thosetenpersons，therefore，couldmakeamongthemupwardsofforty—eightthousandpinsinaday。Eachperson，therefore，makingatenthpartofforty—eightthousandpins，mightbeconsideredasmakingfourthousandeighthundredpinsinaday。Butiftheyhadallwroughtseparatelyandindependently，andwithoutanyofthemhavingbeeneducatedtothispeculiarbusiness，theycertainlycouldnoteachofthemhavemadetwenty，perhapsnotonepininaday;thatis，certainly，notthetwohundredandfortieth，perhapsnotthefourthousandeighthundredthpartofwhattheyareatpresentcapableofperforming，inconsequenceofaproperdivisionandcombinationoftheirdifferentoperations。
Ineveryotherartandmanufacture，theeffectsofthedivisionoflabouraresimilartowhattheyareinthisverytriflingone;though，inmanyofthem，thelabourcanneitherbesomuchsubdivided，norreducedtosogreatasimplicityofoperation。Thedivisionoflabour，however，sofarasitcanbeintroduced，occasions，ineveryart，aproportionableincreaseoftheproductivepowersoflabour。Theseparationofdifferenttradesandemploymentsfromoneanotherseemstohavetakenplaceinconsequenceofthisadvantage。Thisseparation，too，isgenerallycalledfurthestinthosecountrieswhichenjoythehighestdegreeofindustryandimprovement;whatistheworkofonemaninarudestateofsocietybeinggenerallythatofseveralinanimprovedone。Ineveryimprovedsociety，thefarmerisgenerallynothingbutafarmer;themanufacturer，nothingbutamanufacturer。Thelabour，too，whichisnecessarytoproduceanyonecompletemanufactureisalmostalwaysdividedamongagreatnumberofhands。Howmanydifferenttradesareemployedineachbranchofthelinenandwoollenmanufacturesfromthegrowersoftheflaxandthewool，tothebleachersandsmoothersofthelinen，ortothedyersanddressersofthecloth！Thenatureofagriculture，indeed，doesnotadmitofsomanysubdivisionsoflabour，norofsocompleteaseparationofonebusinessfromanother，asmanufactures。Itisimpossibletoseparatesoentirelythebusinessofthegrazierfromthatofthecorn—farmerasthetradeofthecarpenteriscommonlyseparatedfromthatofthesmith。Thespinnerisalmostalwaysadistinctpersonfromtheweaver;buttheploughman，theharrower，thesoweroftheseed，andthereaperofthecorn，areoftenthesame。Theoccasionsforthosedifferentsortsoflabourreturningwiththedifferentseasonsoftheyear，itisimpossiblethatonemanshouldbeconstantlyemployedinanyoneofthem。Thisimpossibilityofmakingsocompleteandentireaseparationofallthedifferentbranchesoflabouremployedinagricultureisperhapsthereasonwhytheimprovementoftheproductivepowersoflabourinthisartdoesnotalwayskeeppacewiththeirimprovementinmanufactures。Themostopulentnations，indeed，generallyexcelalltheirneighboursinagricultureaswellasinmanufactures;buttheyarecommonlymoredistinguishedbytheirsuperiorityinthelatterthanintheformer。Theirlandsareingeneralbettercultivated，andhavingmorelabourandexpensebestoweduponthem，producemoreinproportiontotheextentandnaturalfertilityoftheground。Butthissuperiorityofproduceisseldommuchmorethaninproportiontothesuperiorityoflabourandexpense。Inagriculture，thelabouroftherichcountryisnotalwaysmuchmoreproductivethanthatofthepoor;
or，atleast，itisneversomuchmoreproductiveasitcommonlyisinmanufactures。Thecornoftherichcountry，therefore，willnotalways，inthesamedegreeofgoodness，comecheapertomarketthanthatofthepoor。ThecornofPoland，inthesamedegreeofgoodness，isascheapasthatofFrance，notwithstandingthesuperioropulenceandimprovementofthelattercountry。ThecornofFranceis，inthecornprovinces，fullyasgood，andinmostyearsnearlyaboutthesamepricewiththecornofEngland，though，inopulenceandimprovement，FranceisperhapsinferiortoEngland。Thecorn—landsofEngland，however，arebettercultivatedthanthoseofFrance，andthecorn—landsofFrancearesaidtobemuchbettercultivatedthanthoseofPoland。Butthoughthepoorcountry，notwithstandingtheinferiorityofitscultivation，can，insomemeasure，rivaltherichinthecheapnessandgoodnessofitscorn，itcanpretendtonosuchcompetitioninitsmanufactures;atleastifthosemanufacturessuitthesoil，climate，andsituationoftherichcountry。ThesilksofFrancearebetterandcheaperthanthoseofEngland，becausethesilkmanufacture，atleastunderthepresenthighdutiesupontheimportationofrawsilk，doesnotsowellsuittheclimateofEnglandasthatofFrance。ButthehardwareandthecoarsewoollensofEnglandarebeyondallcomparisonsuperiortothoseofFrance，andmuchcheapertoointhesamedegreeofgoodness。InPolandtherearesaidtobescarceanymanufacturesofanykind，afewofthosecoarserhouseholdmanufacturesexcepted，withoutwhichnocountrycanwellsubsist。
Thisgreatincreaseofthequantityofworkwhich，inconsequenceofthedivisionoflabour，thesamenumberofpeoplearecapableofperforming，isowingtothreedifferentcircumstances;first，totheincreaseofdexterityineveryparticularworkman;secondly，tothesavingofthetimewhichiscommonlylostinpassingfromonespeciesofworktoanother;andlastly，totheinventionofagreatnumberofmachineswhichfacilitateandabridgelabour，andenableonemantodotheworkofmany。
First，theimprovementofthedexterityoftheworkmannecessarilyincreasesthequantityoftheworkhecanperform;
andthedivisionoflabour，byreducingeveryman’sbusinesstosomeonesimpleoperation，andbymakingthisoperationthesoleemploymentofhislife，necessarilyincreasedverymuchdexterityoftheworkman。Acommonsmith，who，thoughaccustomedtohandlethehammer，hasneverbeenusedtomakenails，ifuponsomeparticularoccasionheisobligedtoattemptit，willscarce，I
amassured，beabletomakeabovetwoorthreehundrednailsinaday，andthosetooverybadones。Asmithwhohasbeenaccustomedtomakenails，butwhosesoleorprincipalbusinesshasnotbeenthatofanailer，canseldomwithhisutmostdiligencemakemorethaneighthundredorathousandnailsinaday。Ihaveseenseveralboysundertwentyyearsofagewhohadneverexercisedanyothertradebutthatofmakingnails，andwho，whentheyexertedthemselves，couldmake，eachofthem，upwardsoftwothousandthreehundrednailsinaday。Themakingofanail，however，isbynomeansoneofthesimplestoperations。Thesamepersonblowsthebellows，stirsormendsthefireasthereisoccasion，heatstheiron，andforgeseverypartofthenail:inforgingtheheadtooheisobligedtochangehistools。Thedifferentoperationsintowhichthemakingofapin，orofametalbutton，issubdivided，areallofthemmuchmoresimple，andthedexterityoftheperson，ofwhoselifeithasbeenthesolebusinesstoperformthem，isusuallymuchgreater。Therapiditywithwhichsomeoftheoperationsofthosemanufacturersareperformed，exceedswhatthehumanhandcould，bythosewhohadneverseenthem，besupposedcapableofacquiring。
Secondly，theadvantagewhichisgainedbysavingthetimecommonlylostinpassingfromonesortofworktoanotherismuchgreaterthanweshouldatfirstviewbeapttoimagineit。Itisimpossibletopassveryquicklyfromonekindofworktoanotherthatiscarriedoninadifferentplaceandwithquitedifferenttools。Acountryweaver，whocultivatesasmallfarm，mustloseagooddealoftimeinpassingfromhisloomtothefield，andfromthefieldtohisloom。Whenthetwotradescanbecarriedoninthesameworkhouse，thelossoftimeisnodoubtmuchless。Itiseveninthiscase，however，veryconsiderable。Amancommonlysauntersalittleinturninghishandfromonesortofemploymenttoanother。Whenhefirstbeginsthenewworkheisseldomverykeenandhearty;hismind，astheysay，doesnotgotoit，andforsometimeherathertriflesthanappliestogoodpurpose。Thehabitofsaunteringandofindolentcarelessapplication，whichisnaturally，orrathernecessarilyacquiredbyeverycountryworkmanwhoisobligedtochangehisworkandhistoolseveryhalfhour，andtoapplyhishandintwentydifferentwaysalmosteverydayofhislife，rendershimalmostalwaysslothfulandlazy，andincapableofanyvigorousapplicationevenonthemostpressingoccasions。Independent，therefore，ofhisdeficiencyinpointofdexterity，thiscausealonemustalwaysreduceconsiderablythequantityofworkwhichheiscapableofperforming。
Thirdly，andlastly，everybodymustbesensiblehowmuchlabourisfacilitatedandabridgedbytheapplicationofpropermachinery。Itisunnecessarytogiveanyexample。Ishallonlyobserve，therefore，thattheinventionofallthosemachinesbywhichlabourissomuchfacilitatedandabridgedseemstohavebeenoriginallyowingtothedivisionoflabour。Menaremuchmorelikelytodiscovereasierandreadiermethodsofattaininganyobjectwhenthewholeattentionoftheirmindsisdirectedtowardsthatsingleobjectthanwhenitisdissipatedamongagreatvarietyofthings。Butinconsequenceofthedivisionoflabour，thewholeofeveryman’sattentioncomesnaturallytobedirectedtowardssomeoneverysimpleobject。Itisnaturallytobeexpected，therefore，thatsomeoneorotherofthosewhoareemployedineachparticularbranchoflabourshouldsoonfindouteasierandreadiermethodsofperformingtheirownparticularwork，whereverthenatureofitadmitsofsuchimprovement。A
greatpartofthemachinesmadeuseofinthosemanufacturesinwhichlabourismostsubdivided，wereoriginallytheinventionsofcommonworkmen，who，beingeachofthememployedinsomeverysimpleoperation，naturallyturnedtheirthoughtstowardsfindingouteasierandreadiermethodsofperformingit。Whoeverhasbeenmuchaccustomedtovisitsuchmanufacturesmustfrequentlyhavebeenshownveryprettymachines，whichweretheinventionsofsuchworkmeninordertofacilitateandquickentheirparticularpartofthework。Inthefirstfire—engines，aboywasconstantlyemployedtoopenandshutalternatelythecommunicationbetweentheboilerandthecylinder，accordingasthepistoneitherascendedordescended。Oneofthoseboys，wholovedtoplaywithhiscompanions，observedthat，bytyingastringfromthehandleofthevalvewhichopenedthiscommunicationtoanotherpartofthemachine，thevalvewouldopenandshutwithouthisassistance，andleavehimatlibertytodiverthimselfwithhisplayfellows。Oneofthegreatestimprovementsthathasbeenmadeuponthismachine，sinceitwasfirstinvented，wasinthismannerthediscoveryofaboywhowantedtosavehisownlabour。
Alltheimprovementsinmachinery，however，havebynomeansbeentheinventionsofthosewhohadoccasiontousethemachines。Manyimprovementshavebeenmadebytheingenuityofthemakersofthemachines，whentomakethembecamethebusinessofapeculiartrade;andsomebythatofthosewhoarecalledphilosophersormenofspeculation，whosetradeitisnottodoanything，buttoobserveeverything;andwho，uponthataccount，areoftencapableofcombiningtogetherthepowersofthemostdistantanddissimilarobjects。Intheprogressofsociety，philosophyorspeculationbecomes，likeeveryotheremployment，theprincipalorsoletradeandoccupationofaparticularclassofcitizens。Likeeveryotheremploymenttoo，itissubdividedintoagreatnumberofdifferentbranches，eachofwhichaffordsoccupationtoapeculiartribeorclassofphilosophers;andthissubdivisionofemploymentinphilosophy，aswellasineveryotherbusiness，improvesdexterity，andsavestime。Eachindividualbecomesmoreexpertinhisownpeculiarbranch，moreworkisdoneuponthewhole，andthequantityofscienceisconsiderablyincreasedbyit。
Itisthegreatmultiplicationoftheproductionsofallthedifferentarts，inconsequenceofthedivisionoflabour，whichoccasions，inawell—governedsociety，thatuniversalopulencewhichextendsitselftothelowestranksofthepeople。Everyworkmanhasagreatquantityofhisownworktodisposeofbeyondwhathehimselfhasoccasionfor;andeveryotherworkmanbeingexactlyinthesamesituation，heisenabledtoexchangeagreatquantityofhisowngoodsforagreatquantity，or，whatcomestothesamething，forthepriceofagreatquantityoftheirs。Hesuppliesthemabundantlywithwhattheyhaveoccasionfor，andtheyaccommodatehimasamplywithwhathehasoccasionfor，andageneralplentydiffusesitselfthroughallthedifferentranksofthesociety。
Observetheaccommodationofthemostcommonartificerorday—labourerinacivilisedandthrivingcountry，andyouwillperceivethatthenumberofpeopleofwhoseindustryapart，thoughbutasmallpart，hasbeenemployedinprocuringhimthisaccommodation，exceedsallcomputation。Thewoollencoat，forexample，whichcoverstheday—labourer，ascoarseandroughasitmayappear，istheproduceofthejointlabourofagreatmultitudeofworkmen。Theshepherd，thesorterofthewool，thewool—comberorcarder，thedyer，thescribbler，thespinner，theweaver，thefuller，thedresser，withmanyothers，mustalljointheirdifferentartsinordertocompleteeventhishomelyproduction。Howmanymerchantsandcarriers，besides，musthavebeenemployedintransportingthematerialsfromsomeofthoseworkmentootherswhooftenliveinaverydistantpartofthecountry！Howmuchcommerceandnavigationinparticular，howmanyship—builders，sailors，sail—makers，rope—makers，musthavebeenemployedinordertobringtogetherthedifferentdrugsmadeuseofbythedyer，whichoftencomefromtheremotestcornersoftheworld！Whatavarietyoflabour，too，isnecessaryinordertoproducethetoolsofthemeanestofthoseworkmen！Tosaynothingofsuchcomplicatedmachinesastheshipofthesailor，themillofthefuller，oreventheloomoftheweaver，letusconsideronlywhatavarietyoflabourisrequisiteinordertoformthatverysimplemachine，theshearswithwhichtheshepherdclipsthewool。Theminer，thebuilderofthefurnaceforsmeltingtheore，thesellerofthetimber，theburnerofthecharcoaltobemadeuseofinthesmelting—house，thebrickmaker，thebrick—layer，theworkmenwhoattendthefurnace，themill—wright，theforger，thesmith，mustallofthemjointheirdifferentartsinordertoproducethem。Werewetoexamine，inthesamemanner，allthedifferentpartsofhisdressandhouseholdfurniture，thecoarselinenshirtwhichhewearsnexthisskin，theshoeswhichcoverhisfeet，thebedwhichhelieson，andallthedifferentpartswhichcomposeit，thekitchen—grateatwhichheprepareshisvictuals，thecoalswhichhemakesuseofforthatpurpose，dugfromthebowelsoftheearth，andbroughttohimperhapsbyalongseaandalonglandcarriage，alltheotherutensilsofhiskitchen，allthefurnitureofhistable，theknivesandforks，theearthenorpewterplatesuponwhichheservesupanddivideshisvictuals，thedifferenthandsemployedinpreparinghisbreadandhisbeer，theglasswindowwhichletsintheheatandthelight，andkeepsoutthewindandtherain，withalltheknowledgeandartrequisiteforpreparingthatbeautifulandhappyinvention，withoutwhichthesenorthernpartsoftheworldcouldscarcehaveaffordedaverycomfortablehabitation，togetherwiththetoolsofallthedifferentworkmenemployedinproducingthosedifferentconveniences;ifweexamine，Isay，allthesethings，andconsiderwhatavarietyoflabourisemployedabouteachofthem，weshallbesensiblethat，withouttheassistanceandco—operationofmanythousands，theverymeanestpersoninacivilisedcountrycouldnotbeprovided，evenaccordingtowhatweveryfalselyimaginetheeasyandsimplemannerinwhichheiscommonlyaccommodated。Compared，indeed，withthemoreextravagantluxuryofthegreat，hisaccommodationmustnodoubtappearextremelysimpleandeasy;andyetitmaybetrue，perhaps，thattheaccommodationofaEuropeanprincedoesnotalwayssomuchexceedthatofanindustriousandfrugalpeasantastheaccommodationofthelatterexceedsthatofmanyanAfricanking，theabsolutemasterofthelivesandlibertiesoftenthousandnakedsavages。
CHAPTERII
OfthePrinciplewhichgivesoccasiontotheDivisionofLabourTHISdivisionoflabour，fromwhichsomanyadvantagesarederived，isnotoriginallytheeffectofanyhumanwisdom，whichforeseesandintendsthatgeneralopulencetowhichitgivesoccasion。Itisthenecessary，thoughveryslowandgradualconsequenceofacertainpropensityinhumannaturewhichhasinviewnosuchextensiveutility;thepropensitytotruck，barter，andexchangeonethingforanother。
Whetherthispropensitybeoneofthoseoriginalprinciplesinhumannatureofwhichnofurtheraccountcanbegiven;orwhether，asseemsmoreprobable，itbethenecessaryconsequenceofthefacultiesofreasonandspeech，itbelongsnottoourpresentsubjecttoinquire。Itiscommontoallmen，andtobefoundinnootherraceofanimals，whichseemtoknowneitherthisnoranyotherspeciesofcontracts。Twogreyhounds，inrunningdownthesamehare，havesometimestheappearanceofactinginsomesortofconcert。Eachturnshertowardshiscompanion，orendeavourstointerceptherwhenhiscompanionturnshertowardshimself。This，however，isnottheeffectofanycontract，butoftheaccidentalconcurrenceoftheirpassionsinthesameobjectatthatparticulartime。Nobodyeversawadogmakeafairanddeliberateexchangeofoneboneforanotherwithanotherdog。Nobodyeversawoneanimalbyitsgesturesandnaturalcriessignifytoanother，thisismine，thatyours;Iamwillingtogivethisforthat。Whenananimalwantstoobtainsomethingeitherofamanorofanotheranimal，ithasnoothermeansofpersuasionbuttogainthefavourofthosewhoseserviceitrequires。Apuppyfawnsuponitsdam，andaspanielendeavoursbyathousandattractionstoengagetheattentionofitsmasterwhoisatdinner，whenitwantstobefedbyhim。Mansometimesusesthesameartswithhisbrethren，andwhenhehasnoothermeansofengagingthemtoactaccordingtohisinclinations，endeavoursbyeveryservileandfawningattentiontoobtaintheirgoodwill。Hehasnottime，however，todothisuponeveryoccasion。Incivilisedsocietyhestandsatalltimesinneedofthecooperationandassistanceofgreatmultitudes，whilehiswholelifeisscarcesufficienttogainthefriendshipofafewpersons。Inalmosteveryotherraceofanimalseachindividual，whenitisgrownuptomaturity，isentirelyindependent，andinitsnaturalstatehasoccasionfortheassistanceofnootherlivingcreature。Butmanhasalmostconstantoccasionforthehelpofhisbrethren，anditisinvainforhimtoexpectitfromtheirbenevolenceonly。Hewillbemorelikelytoprevailifhecaninteresttheirself—loveinhisfavour，andshowthemthatitisfortheirownadvantagetodoforhimwhatherequiresofthem。Whoeverofferstoanotherabargainofanykind，proposestodothis。GivemethatwhichIwant，andyoushallhavethiswhichyouwant，isthemeaningofeverysuchoffer;anditisinthismannerthatweobtainfromoneanotherthefargreaterpartofthosegoodofficeswhichwestandinneedof。Itisnotfromthebenevolenceofthebutcher，thebrewer，orthebakerthatweexpectourdinner，butfromtheirregardtotheirowninterest。
Weaddressourselves，nottotheirhumanitybuttotheirself—love，andnevertalktothemofourownnecessitiesbutoftheiradvantages。Nobodybutabeggarchoosestodependchieflyuponthebenevolenceofhisfellow—citizens。Evenabeggardoesnotdependuponitentirely。Thecharityofwell—disposedpeople，indeed，supplieshimwiththewholefundofhissubsistence。Butthoughthisprincipleultimatelyprovideshimwithallthenecessariesoflifewhichhehasoccasionfor，itneitherdoesnorcanprovidehimwiththemashehasoccasionforthem。Thegreaterpartofhisoccasionalwantsaresuppliedinthesamemannerasthoseofotherpeople，bytreaty，bybarter，andbypurchase。Withthemoneywhichonemangiveshimhepurchasesfood。Theoldclotheswhichanotherbestowsuponhimheexchangesforotheroldclotheswhichsuithimbetter，orforlodging，orforfood，orformoney，withwhichhecanbuyeitherfood，clothes，orlodging，ashehasoccasion。
Asitisbytreaty，bybarter，andbypurchasethatweobtainfromoneanotherthegreaterpartofthosemutualgoodofficeswhichwestandinneedof，soitisthissametruckingdispositionwhichoriginallygivesoccasiontothedivisionoflabour。Inatribeofhuntersorshepherdsaparticularpersonmakesbowsandarrows，forexample，withmorereadinessanddexteritythananyother。Hefrequentlyexchangesthemforcattleorforvenisonwithhiscompanions;andhefindsatlastthathecaninthismannergetmorecattleandvenisonthanifhehimselfwenttothefieldtocatchthem。Fromaregardtohisowninterest，therefore，themakingofbowsandarrowsgrowstobehischiefbusiness，andhebecomesasortofarmourer。Anotherexcelsinmakingtheframesandcoversoftheirlittlehutsormovablehouses。Heisaccustomedtobeofuseinthiswaytohisneighbours，whorewardhiminthesamemannerwithcattleandwithvenison，tillatlasthefindsithisinteresttodedicatehimselfentirelytothisemployment，andtobecomeasortofhouse—carpenter。Inthesamemannerathirdbecomesasmithorabrazier，afourthatannerordresserofhidesorskins，theprincipalpartofthenothingofsavages。Andthusthecertaintyofbeingabletoexchangeallthatsurpluspartoftheproduceofhisownlabour，whichisoverandabovehisownconsumption，forsuchpartsoftheproduceofothermen’slabourashemayhaveoccasionfor，encourageseverymantoapplyhimselftoaparticularoccupation，andtocultivateandbringtoperfectionwhatevertalentorgeniushemaypossessforthatparticularspeciesofbusiness。
Thedifferenceofnaturaltalentsindifferentmenis，inreality，muchlessthanweareawareof;andtheverydifferentgeniuswhichappearstodistinguishmenofdifferentprofessions，whengrownuptomaturity，isnotuponmanyoccasionssomuchthecauseastheeffectofthedivisionoflabour。Thedifferencebetweenthemostdissimilarcharacters，betweenaphilosopherandacommonstreetporter，forexample，seemstoarisenotsomuchfromnatureasfromhabit，custom，andeducation。Whentheycameintotheworld，andforthefirstsixoreightyearsoftheirexistence，theywereperhapsverymuchalike，andneithertheirparentsnorplayfellowscouldperceiveanyremarkabledifference。
Aboutthatage，orsoonafter，theycometobeemployedinverydifferentoccupations。Thedifferenceoftalentscomesthentobetakennoticeof，andwidensbydegrees，tillatlastthevanityofthephilosopheriswillingtoacknowledgescarceanyresemblance。Butwithoutthedispositiontotruck，barter，andexchange，everymanmusthaveprocuredtohimselfeverynecessaryandconveniencyoflifewhichhewanted。Allmusthavehadthesamedutiestoperform，andthesameworktodo，andtherecouldhavebeennosuchdifferenceofemploymentascouldalonegiveoccasiontoanygreatdifferenceoftalents。
Asitisthisdispositionwhichformsthatdifferenceoftalents，soremarkableamongmenofdifferentprofessions，soitisthissamedispositionwhichrendersthatdifferenceuseful。
Manytribesofanimalsacknowledgedtobeallofthesamespeciesderivefromnatureamuchmoreremarkabledistinctionofgenius，thanwhat，antecedenttocustomandeducation，appearstotakeplaceamongmen。Bynatureaphilosopherisnotingeniusanddispositionhalfsodifferentfromastreetporter，asamastiffisfromagreyhound，oragreyhoundfromaspaniel，orthislastfromashepherd’sdog。Thosedifferenttribesofanimals，however，thoughallofthesamespecies，areofscarceanyusetooneanother。Thestrengthofthemastiffisnot，intheleast，supportedeitherbytheswiftnessofthegreyhound，orbythesagacityofthespaniel，orbythedocilityoftheshepherd’sdog。Theeffectsofthosedifferentgeniusesandtalents，forwantofthepowerordispositiontobarterandexchange，cannotbebroughtintoacommonstock，anddonotintheleastcontributetothebetteraccommodationindconveniencyofthespecies。Eachanimalisstillobligedtosupportanddefenditself，separatelyandindependently，andderivesnosortofadvantagefromthatvarietyoftalentswithwhichnaturehasdistinguisheditsfellows。Amongmen，onthecontrary，themostdissimilargeniusesareofusetooneanother;thedifferentproducesoftheirrespectivetalents，bythegeneraldispositiontotruck，barter，andexchange，beingbrought，asitwere，intoacommonstock，whereeverymanmaypurchasewhateverpartoftheproduceofothermen’stalentshehasoccasionfor。
CHAPTERIII
ThattheDivisionofLabourislimitedbytheExtentoftheMarketASitisthepowerofexchangingthatgivesoccasiontothedivisionoflabour，sotheextentofthisdivisionmustalwaysbelimitedbytheextentofthatpower，or，inotherwords，bytheextentofthemarket。Whenthemarketisverysmall，nopersoncanhaveanyencouragementtodedicatehimselfentirelytooneemployment，forwantofthepowertoexchangeallthatsurpluspartoftheproduceofhisownlabour，whichisoverandabovehisownconsumption，forsuchpartsoftheproduceofothermen’slabourashehasoccasionfor。
Therearesomesortsofindustry，evenofthelowestkind，whichcanbecarriedonnowherebutinagreattown。Aporter，forexample，canfindemploymentandsubsistenceinnootherplace。Avillageisbymuchtoonarrowasphereforhim;evenanordinarymarkettownisscarcelargeenoughtoaffordhimconstantoccupation。InthelonehousesandverysmallvillageswhicharescatteredaboutinsodesertacountryastheHighlandsofScotland，everyfarmermustbebutcher，bakerandbrewerforhisownfamily。Insuchsituationswecanscarceexpecttofindevenasmith，acarpenter，oramason，withinlessthantwentymilesofanotherofthesametrade。Thescatteredfamiliesthatliveateightortenmilesdistancefromthenearestofthemmustlearntoperformthemselvesagreatnumberoflittlepiecesofwork，forwhich，inmorepopulouscountries，theywouldcallintheassistanceofthoseworkmen。Countryworkmenarealmosteverywhereobligedtoapplythemselvestoallthedifferentbranchesofindustrythathavesomuchaffinitytooneanotherastobeemployedaboutthesamesortofmaterials。Acountrycarpenterdealsineverysortofworkthatismadeofwood:acountrysmithineverysortofworkthatismadeofiron。Theformerisnotonlyacarpenter，butajoiner，acabinet—maker，andevenacarverinwood，aswellasawheel—wright，aplough—wright，acartandwaggonmaker。Theemploymentsofthelatterarestillmorevarious。ItisimpossiblethereshouldbesuchatradeaseventhatofanailerintheremoteandinlandpartsoftheHighlandsofScotland。Suchaworkmanattherateofathousandnailsaday，andthreehundredworkingdaysintheyear，willmakethreehundredthousandnailsintheyear。Butinsuchasituationitwouldbeimpossibletodisposeofonethousand，thatis，ofoneday’sworkintheyear。
Asbymeansofwater—carriageamoreextensivemarketisopenedtoeverysortofindustrythanwhatland—carriagealonecanaffordit，soitisuponthesea—coast，andalongthebanksofnavigablerivers，thatindustryofeverykindnaturallybeginstosubdivideandimproveitself，anditisfrequentlynottillalongtimeafterthatthoseimprovementsextendthemselvestotheinlandpartsofthecountry。