（8/39。’OrnamentalPoetry’bytheRev。E。S。Dixon1848page34。）Theinferiortail—covertsvaryinnumber，andaccordingtoaGermansuperstitionthehenlaysasmanyeggsasthecockhasfeathersofthiskind。（8/40。Bechstein’Naturgesch。Deutschlands’b。31793s。309。）Albinin1738，andTemminckwithinamuchlaterperiod，describeabeautifulbreed，dusky—yellowish，brownaboveandwhitebeneath，withalargetop—
knotofsoftplumosefeather。Thespursofthemalewererudimentary。ThisbreedhasbeenforalongtimeextinctinEurope;butalivingspecimenhaslatelybeenimportedfromtheeastcoastofAfrica，whichstillretainsthetop—knotandthesamegeneralcolouringandrudimentaryspurs。（8/41。Mr。
Bartlettin’LandandWater’October31，1868page233;andMr。Tegetmeierinthe’Field’July17，1869page46。）Mr。Wilmothasdescribed（8/42。
’Gardener’sChronicle’1852page699。）awhiteturkey—cockhavingacrestformedof\"feathersaboutfourincheslong，withbarequills，andatuftofsoftwhitedowngrowingattheend。\"Manyoftheyoungbirdsinheritedthiskindofcrest，butafterwardsitfellofforwaspeckedoutbytheotherbirds。Thisisaninterestingcase，aswithcareanewbreedmightprobablyhavebeenformed;andatop—knotofthisnaturewouldhavebeentoacertainextentanalogoustothatbornebythemalesinseveralalliedgenera，suchasEuplocomus，Lophophorus，andPavo。
Wildturkeys，believedineveryinstancetohavebeenimportedfromtheUnitedStates，havebeenkeptintheparksofLordsPowis，Leicester，Hill，andDerby。TheRev。W。D。Foxprocuredbirdsfromthetwofirst—namedparks，andheinformsmethattheycertainlydifferedalittlefromeachotherintheshapeoftheirbodiesandinthebarredplumageontheirwings。ThesebirdslikewisedifferedfromLordHill’sstock。SomeofthelatterkeptatOultonbySirP。Egerton，thoughprecludedfromcrossingwithcommonturkeys，occasionallyproducedmuchpaler—colouredbirds，andonethatwasalmostwhite，butnotanalbino。Thesehalf—wildturkeys，inthusdifferingslightlyfromeachother，presentananalogouscasewiththewildcattlekeptintheseveralBritishparks。Wemustsupposethatsuchdifferenceshaveresultedfromthepreventionoffreeintercrossingbetweenbirdsrangingoverawidearea，andfromthechangedconditionstowhichtheyhavebeenexposedinEngland。InIndiatheclimatehasapparentlywroughtastillgreaterchangeintheturkey，foritisdescribedbyMr。Blyth（8/43。
E。Blyth’AnnalsandMag。ofNat。Hist。’1847volume20page391。）asbeingmuchdegeneratedinsize，\"utterlyincapableofrisingonthewing，\"ofablackcolour，and\"withthelongpendulousappendagesoverthebeakenormouslydeveloped。\"
THEGUINEAFOWL。
ThedomesticatedGuineafowlisnowbelievedbysomenaturaliststobedescendedfromtheNumidaptilorhynca，whichinhabitsveryhot，and，inparts，extremelyariddistrictsinEasternAfrica;consequentlyithasbeenexposedinthiscountrytoextremelydifferentconditionsoflife。
Neverthelessithashardlyvariedatall，exceptintheplumagebeingeitherpalerordarker—coloured。ItisasingularfactthatthisbirdvariesmoreincolourintheWestIndiesandontheSpanishMain，underahotthoughhumidclimate，thaninEurope。（8/44。Roulinmakesthisremarkin’Mem。dediversSavans，1’Acad。desSciences’tome61835page349。Mr。
HillofSpanishTowninalettertomedescribesfivevarietiesoftheGuineafowlinJamaica。Ihaveseensingularpale—colouredvarietiesimportedfromBarbadoesandDemerara。）TheGuineafowlhasbecomethoroughlyferalinJamaicaandinSt。Domingo（8/45。ForSt。DomingoseeM。A。Salle，in’Proc。Zoolog。Soc。’1857page236。Mr。Hillremarkstome，inhisletter，onthecolourofthelegsoftheferalbirdsinJamaica。），andhasdiminishedinsize;thelegsareblack，whereasthelegsoftheaboriginalAfricanbirdaresaidtobegrey。Thissmallchangeisworthnoticeonaccountoftheoften—repeatedstatementthatallferalanimalsinvariablyrevertineverycharactertotheiroriginaltype。
THECANARYBIRD。
Asthisbirdhasbeenrecentlydomesticated，namely，withinthelast350
years，itsvariabilitydeservesnotice。IthasbeencrossedwithnineortenotherspeciesofFringillidae，andsomeofthehybridsarealmostcompletelyfertile;butwehavenoevidencethatanydistinctbreedhasoriginatedfromsuchcrosses。Notwithstandingthemoderndomesticationofthecanary，manyvarietieshavebeenproduced;evenbeforetheyear1718alistoftwenty—sevenvarietieswaspublishedinFrance（8/46。Mr。B。P。
Brent’TheCanary，BritishFinches’etc。pages21，30。），andin1779alongscheduleofthedesiredqualitieswasprintedbytheLondonCanarySociety，sothatmethodicalselectionhasbeenpractisedduringaconsiderableperiod。Thegreaternumberofthevarietiesdifferonlyincolourandinthemarkingsoftheirplumage。Somebreedshowever，differinshape，suchasthehoopedorbowedcanaries，andtheBelgiancanarieswiththeirmuchelongatedbodies。Mr。Brent（8/47。’CottageGardener’December11，1855
page184:anaccountisheregivenofallthevarieties。Formanymeasurementsofthewildbirds，seeMr。E。VernonHarcourtibidDecember25，1855page223。）measuredoneofthelatterandfounditeightinchesinlength，whilstthewildcanaryisonlyfiveandaquarterincheslong。
Therearetop—knottedcanaries，anditisasingularfactthat，iftwotop—
knottedbirdsarematched，theyoung，insteadofhavingveryfinetop—
knots，aregenerallybald，orevenhaveawoundontheirheads。（8/48。
Bechstein’Naturgesch。derStubenvogel’1840s。243;sees。252ontheinheritedsongofCanary—birds。WithrespecttotheirbaldnessseealsoW。
Kidd’TreatiseonSong—Birds。’）Itwouldappearasifthetop—knotwereduetosomemorbidcondition，whichisincreasedtoaninjuriousdegreewhentwobirdsinthisstatearepaired。Thereisafeather—footedbreed，andanotherwithakindoffrillrunningdownthebreast。Oneothercharacterdeservesnoticefrombeingconfinedtooneperiodoflife，andfrombeingstrictlyinheritedatthesameperiod;namely，thewingandtailfeathersinprizecanariesbeingblack，\"butthiscolourisretainedonlyuntilthefirstmoult;oncemoulted，thepeculiarityceases。\"（8/49。W。Kidd’TreatiseonSong—Birds’page18。）Canariesdiffermuchindispositionandcharacter，andinsomesmalldegreeinsong。Theyproduceeggsthreeorfourtimesduringtheyear。
GOLD—FISH。
Besidesmammalsandbirds，onlyafewanimalsbelongingtotheothergreatclasseshavebeendomesticated;buttoshowthatitisanalmostuniversallawthatanimals，whenremovedfromtheirnaturalconditionsoflife，vary，andthatracescanbeformedwhenselectionisapplied，itisnecessarytosayafewwordsongold—fish，bees，andsilk—moths。
Gold—fish（Cyprinusauratus）wereintroducedintoEuropeonlytwoorthreecenturiesago;buttheyhavebeenkeptinconfinementfromanancientperiodinChina。Mr。Blyth（8/50。The’IndianField’1858page255。）
suspects，fromtheanalogousvariationofotherfishes，thatgolden—
colouredfishdonotoccurinastateofnature。Thesefishesfrequentlyliveunderthemostunnaturalconditions，andtheirvariabilityincolour，size，andinsomeimportantpointsofstructureisverygreat。M。Sauvignyhasdescribedandgivencoloureddrawingsofnolessthaneighty—ninevarieties。（8/51。Yarrell’BritishFishes’volume1page319。）Manyofthevarieties，however，suchastripletail—fins，etc。，oughttobecalledmonstrosities;butitisdifficulttodrawanydistinctlinebetweenavariationandamonstrosity。Asgold—fisharekeptforornamentorcuriosity，andas\"theChinesearejustthepeopletohavesecludedachancevarietyofanykind，andtohavematchedandpairedfromit\"（8/52。
Mr。Blythinthe’IndianField’1858page255。），itmighthavebeenpredictedthatselectionwouldhavebeenlargelypractisedintheformationofnewbreeds;andthisisthecase。InanoldChineseworkitissaidthatfishwithvermilionscaleswerefirstraisedinconfinementduringtheSungdynasty（whichcommencedA。D。960），\"andnowtheyarecultivatedinfamilieseverywhereforthesakeofornament。\"Inanotherandmoreancientwork，itissaidthat\"thereisnotahouseholdwherethegold—fishisnotcultivated，inRIVALRYastoitscolour，andasasourceofprofit，\"etc。
（8/53。W。F。Mayers’ChineseNotesandQueries’August1868page123。）
Althoughmanybreedsexist，itisasingularfactthatthevariationsareoftennotinherited。SirR。Heron（8/54。’Proc。Zoolog。Soc。’May25，1842。）keptmanyofthesefishes，andplacedallthedeformedones，namely，thosedestituteofdorsalfinsandthosefurnishedwithadoubleanalfin，ortripletail，inapondbythemselves;buttheydid\"notproduceagreaterproportionofdeformedoffspringthantheperfectfishes。\"
Passingoveranalmostinfinitediversityofcolour，wemeetwiththemostextraordinarymodificationsofstructure。Thus，outofabouttwodozenspecimensboughtinLondon，Mr。Yarrellobservedsomewiththedorsalfinextendingalongmorethanhalfthelengthoftheback:otherswiththisfinreducedtoonlyfiveorsixrays:andonewithnodorsalfin。Theanalfinsaresometimesdouble，andthetailisoftentriple。Thislatterdeviationofstructureseemsgenerallytooccur\"attheexpenseofthewholeorpartofsomeotherfin（8/55。Yarrell’BritishFishes’volume1page319。）;butBorydeSaint—Vincent（8/56。’Dict。Class。d’Hist。Nat。’tome5page276。）
sawatMadridgold—fishfurnishedwithadorsalfinandatripletail。Onevarietyischaracterisedbyahumponitsbacknearthehead;andtheRev。
L。Jenyns（Blomefield）（8/57。’ObservationsinNat。Hist。’1846page211。
Dr。Grayhasdescribedin’AnnalsandMag。ofNat。Hist。’1860page151anearlysimilarvarietybutdestituteofadorsalfin。）hasdescribedamostsingularvariety，importedfromChina，almostglobularinformlikeaDiodon，with\"thefleshypartofthetailasifentirelycutaway？thecaudalfinbeingsetonalittlebehindthedorsalandimmediatelyabovetheanal。\"Inthisfishtheanalandcaudalfinsweredouble;theanalfinbeingattachedtothebodyinaverticalline:theeyesalsowereenormouslylargeandprotuberant。
HIVE—BEES。
Beeshavebeendomesticatedfromanancientperiod;ifindeedtheirstatecanbeconsideredoneofdomestication，fortheysearchfortheirownfood，withtheexceptionofalittlegenerallygiventothemduringthewinter。
Theirhabitationisahiveinsteadofaholeinatree。Bees，however，havebeentransportedintoalmosteveryquarteroftheworld，sothatclimateoughttohaveproducedwhateverdirecteffectitiscapableofproducing。
ItisfrequentlyassertedthatthebeesindifferentpartsofGreatBritaindifferinsize，colour，andtemper;andGodron（8/58。’Del’Espece’1859
page459。WithrespecttothebeesofBurgundyseeM。Gerard，art。’Espece’
in’Dict。Univers。d’Hist。Nat。’）saysthattheyaregenerallylargerinthesouththaninotherpartsofFrance;ithasalsobeenassertedthatthelittlebrownbeesofHighBurgundy，whentransportedtoLaBressebecomelargeandyellowinthesecondgeneration。Butthesestatementsrequireconfirmation。Asfarassizeisconcerned，itisknownthatbeesproducedinveryoldcombsaresmaller，owingtothecellshavingbecomesmallerfromthesuccessiveoldcocoons。Thebestauthorities（8/59。Seeadiscussiononthissubject，inanswertoaquestionofmine，in’JournalofHorticulture’1862pages225—242;alsoMr。BevanFoxinditto1862page284）concurthat，withtheexceptionoftheLigurianraceorspecies，presentlytobementioned，distinctbreedsdonotexistinBritainorontheContinent。Thereis，however，eveninthesamestock，somevariabilityincolour。Thus，Mr。Woodburystates（8/60。Thisexcellentobservermaybeimplicitlytrusted;see’JournalofHorticulture’July14，1863page39。）
thathehasseveraltimesseenqueenbeesofthecommonkindannulatedwithyellow—likeLigurianqueens，andthelatterdark—colouredlikecommonbees。
Hehasalsoobservedvariationsinthecolourofthedrones，withoutanycorrespondingdifferenceinthequeensorworkersofthesamehive。Thegreatapiarian，Dzierzon，inanswertomyqueriesonthissubject，says（8/61。’JournalofHorticulture’September9，1862page463;seealsoHerrKleineonsamesubjectNovember11page643，whosumsup，that，thoughthereissomevariabilityincolour，noconstantorperceptibledifferencescanbedetectedinthebeesofGermany。），thatinGermanybeesofsomestocksaredecidedlydark，whilstothersareremarkablefortheiryellowcolour。Beesalsoseemtodifferinhabitsindifferentdistricts，forDzierzonadds，\"Ifmanystockswiththeiroffspringaremoreinclinedtoswarm，whilstothersarericherinhoney，sothatsomebee—keepersevendistinguishbetweenswarmingandhoney—gatheringbees，thisisahabitwhichhasbecomesecondnature，causedbythecustomarymodeofkeepingthebeesandthepasturageofthedistrict。Forexample，whatadifferenceinthisrespectonemayperceivetoexistbetweenthebeesoftheLuneburgheathandthoseofthiscountry！\"……\"Removinganoldqueenandsubstitutingayoungoneofthecurrentyearishereaninfalliblemodeofkeepingthestrongeststockfromswarmingandpreventingdrone—breeding;whilstthesamemeansifadoptedinHanoverwouldcertainlybeofnoavail。\"I
procuredahivefullofdeadbeesfromJamaica，wheretheyhavelongbeennaturalised，and，oncarefullycomparingthemunderthemicroscopewithmyownbees，Icoulddetectnotatraceofdifference。
Thisremarkableuniformityinthehive—bee，whereverkept，mayprobablybeaccountedforbythegreatdifficulty，orratherimpossibility，ofbringingselectionintoplaybypairingparticularqueensanddrones，fortheseinsectsuniteonlyduringflight。Noristhereanyrecord，withasinglepartialexception，ofanypersonhavingseparatedandbredfromahiveinwhichtheworkerspresentedsomeappreciabledifference。Inordertoformanewbreed，seclusionfromotherbeeswould，aswenowknow，beindispensable;forsincetheintroductionoftheLigurianbeeintoGermanyandEngland，ithasbeenfoundthatthedroneswanderatleasttwomilesfromtheirownhives，andoftencrosswiththequeensofthecommonbee。
（8/62。Mr。Woodburyhaspublishedseveralsuchaccountsin’JournalofHorticulture’1861and1862。）TheLigurianbee，althoughperfectlyfertilewhencrossedwiththecommonkind，isrankedbymostnaturalistsasadistinctspecies，whilstbyothersitisrankedasavariety:butthisformneednotherebenoticed，asthereisnoreasontobelievethatitistheproductofdomestication。TheEgyptianandsomeotherbeesarelikewiserankedbyDr。Gerstacker（8/63。’AnnalsandMag。ofNat。Hist。’3rdseriesvolume11page339。）butnotbyotherhighlycompetentjudges，asgeographicalraces;hegroundshisconclusioninchiefpartonthefactthatincertaindistricts，asintheCrimeaandRhodes，theyvarysomuchincolour，thattheseveralgeographicalracescanbecloselyconnectedbyintermediateforms。
Ihavealludedtoasingleinstanceoftheseparationandpreservationofaparticularstockofbees。Mr。Lowe（8/64。’TheCottageGardener’May1860
page110;anddittoin’JournalofHort。’1862page242。）procuredsomebeesfromacottagerafewmilesfromEdinburgh，andperceivedthattheydifferedfromthecommonbeeinthehairsontheheadandthoraxbeinglightercolouredandmoreprofuseinquantity。FromthedateoftheintroductionoftheLigurianbeeintoGreatBritainwemayfeelsurethatthesebeeshadnotbeencrossedwiththisform。Mr。Lowepropagatedthisvariety，butunfortunatelydidnotseparatethestockfromhisotherbees，andafterthreegenerationsthenewcharacterwasalmostcompletelylost。
Nevertheless，asheadds，\"agreatnumberofthebeesstillretaintraces，thoughfaint，oftheoriginalcolony。\"Thiscaseshowsuswhatcouldprobablybeeffectedbycarefulandlong—continuedselectionappliedexclusivelytotheworkers，for，aswehaveseen，queensanddronescannotbeselectedandpaired。
SILK—MOTHS。
Theseinsectsareinseveralrespectsinterestingtous，moreespeciallybecausetheyhavevariedlargelyatanearlyperiodoflife，andthevariationshavebeeninheritedatcorrespondingperiods。Asthevalueofthesilk—mothdependsentirelyonthecocoon，everychangeinitsstructureandqualitieshasbeencarefullyattendedto，andracesdifferingmuchinthecocoon，buthardlyatallintheadultstate，havebeenproduced。Withtheracesofmostotherdomesticanimals，theyoungresembleeachotherclosely，whilsttheadultsdiffermuch。
Itwouldbeuseless，evenifitwerepossible，todescribeallthemanykindsofsilkworms。SeveraldistinctspeciesexistinIndiaandChinawhichproduceusefulsilk，andsomeofthesearecapableoffreelycrossingwiththecommonsilk—moth，ashasbeenrecentlyascertainedinFrance。CaptainHutton（8/65。’Transact。Entomolog。Soc。’3rdseriesvolume3pages143—173
andpages295—331。）statesthatthroughouttheworldatleastsixspecieshavebeendomesticated;andhebelievesthatthesilk—mothsrearedinEuropebelongtotwoorthreespecies。This，however，isnottheopinionofseveralcapablejudgeswhohaveparticularlyattendedtothecultivationofthisinsectinFrance;andhardlyaccordswithsomefactspresentlytobegiven。
Thecommonsilk—moth（Bombyxmori）wasbroughttoConstantinopleinthesixthcentury，whenceitwascarriedintoItaly，andin1494intoFrance。
（8/66。Godron’Del’Espece’1859tome1page460。TheantiquityofthesilkworminChinaisgivenontheauthorityofStanislasJulien。）
Everythinghasbeenfavourableforthevariationofthisinsect。ItisbelievedtohavebeendomesticatedinChinaaslongagoas2700B。C。Ithasbeenkeptunderunnaturalanddiversifiedconditionsoflife，andhasbeentransportedintomanycountries。Thereisreasontobelievethatthenatureofthefoodgiventothecaterpillarinfluencestoacertainextentthecharacterofthebreed。（8/67。SeetheremarksofProf。Westwood，Gen。
HearseyandothersatthemeetingoftheEntomolog。Soc。ofLondonJuly1861。）Disusehasapparentlyaidedincheckingthedevelopmentofthewings。Butthemostimportantelementintheproductionofthemanynowexisting，muchmodifiedraces，nodoubthasbeenthecloseattentionwhichhaslongbeenappliedinmanycountriestoeverypromisingvariation。ThecaretakeninEuropeintheselectionofthebestcocoonsandmothsforbreedingisnotorious（8/68。SeeforinstanceM。A。deQuatrefages’EtudessurlesMaladiesactuellesduVeraSoie’1859page101。），andtheproductionofeggsisfollowedasadistincttradeinpartsofFrance。I
havemadeinquiriesthroughDr。Falconer，andamassuredthatinIndiathenativesareequallycarefulintheprocessofselection。InChinatheproductionofeggsisconfinedtocertainfavourabledistricts，andtheraisersareprecludedbylawfromproducingsilk，sothattheirwholeattentionmaybenecessarilygivenuptothisoneobject。（8/69。MyauthoritiesforthestatementswillbegiveninthechapteronSelection。）
[Thefollowingdetailsonthedifferencesbetweentheseveralbreedsaretaken，whennotstatedtothecontrary，fromM。Robinet’sexcellentwork（8/70。’Manueldel’EducateurdeVersaSoie’1848。），whichbearseverysignofcareandlargeexperience。TheEGGSinthedifferentracesvaryincolour，inshape（beinground，ellipticoroval），andinsize。TheeggslaidinJuneinthesouthofFrance，andinJulyinthecentralprovinces，donothatchuntilthefollowingspring;anditisinvain，saysM。
Robinet，toexposethemtoatemperaturegraduallyraised，inorderthatthecaterpillarmaybequicklydeveloped。Yetoccasionally，withoutanyknowncause，batchesofeggsareproduced，whichimmediatelybegintoundergotheproperchanges，andarehatchedinfromtwentytothirtydays。
FromtheseandsomeotheranalogousfactsitmaybeconcludedthattheTrevoltinisilkwormsofItaly，ofwhichthecaterpillarsarehatchedinfromfifteentotwentydays，donotnecessarilyform，ashasbeenmaintained，adistinctspecies。Althoughthebreedswhichliveintemperatecountriesproduceeggswhichcannotbeimmediatelyhatchedbyartificialheat，yetwhentheyareremovedtoandrearedinahotcountrytheygraduallyacquirethecharacterofquickdevelopment，asintheTrevoltiniraces。（8/71。Robinetibidpages12，318。ImayaddthattheeggsofN。
AmericansilkwormstakentotheSandwichIslandsproducedmothsatveryirregularperiods;andthemothsthusraisedyieldedeggswhichwereevenworseinthisrespect。Somewerehatchedintendays，andothersnotuntilafterthelapseofmanymonths。Nodoubtaregularearlycharacterwouldultimatelyhavebeenacquired。Seereviewin’Athenaeum’1844page329ofJ。Jarves’ScenesintheSandwichIslands。’）
CATERPILLARS。
Thesevarygreatlyinsizeandcolour。Theskinisgenerallywhite，sometimesmottledwithblackorgrey，andoccasionallyquiteblack。Thecolour，however，asM。Robinetasserts，isnotconstant，eveninperfectlypurebreeds;exceptintheracetigree，socalledfrombeingmarkedwithtransverseblackstripes。Asthegeneralcolourofthecaterpillarisnotcorrelatedwiththatofthesilk（8/72。’TheArtofrearingSilkworms’
translatedfromCountDandolo1825page23。），thischaracterisdisregardedbycultivators，andhasnotbeenfixedbyselection。CaptainHutton，inthepaperbeforereferredto，hasarguedwithmuchforcethatthedarktiger—
likemarks，whichsofrequentlyappearduringthelatermoultsinthecaterpillarsofvariousbreeds，areduetoreversion;forthecaterpillarsofseveralalliedwildspeciesofBombyxaremarkedandcolouredinthismanner。Heseparatedsomecaterpillarswiththetiger—likemarks，andinthesucceedingspring（pages149，298）nearlyallthecaterpillarsrearedfromthemweredark—brindled，andthetintsbecamestilldarkerinthethirdgeneration。Themothsrearedfromthesecaterpillars（8/73。
’Transact。Ent。Soc。’utsuprapages153，308。）alsobecamedarker，andresembledincolouringthewildB。huttoni。Onthisviewofthetiger—likemarksbeingduetoreversion，thepersistencywithwhichtheyaretransmittedisintelligible。
SeveralyearsagoMrs。Whitbytookgreatpainsinbreedingsilkwormsonalargescale，andsheinformedmethatsomeofhercaterpillarshaddarkeyebrows。Thisisprobablythefirststepinreversiontowardsthetiger—
likemarks，andIwascurioustoknowwhethersotriflingacharacterwouldbeinherited。Atmyrequestsheseparatedin1848twentyofthesecaterpillars，andhavingkeptthemothsseparate，bredfromthem。Ofthemanycaterpillarsthusreared，\"everyonewithoutexceptionhadeyebrows，somedarkerandmoredecidedlymarkedthantheothers，butALLhadeyebrowsmoreorlessplainlyvisible。\"Blackcaterpillarsoccasionallyappearamongstthoseofthecommonkind，butinsovariableamanner，that，accordingtoM。Robinet，thesameracewilloneyearexclusivelyproducewhitecaterpillars，andthenextyearmanyblackones;nevertheless，IhavebeeninformedbyM。A。BossiofGeneva，that，iftheseblackcaterpillarsareseparatelybredfrom，theyreproducethesamecolour;butthecocoonsandmothsrearedfromthemdonotpresentanydifference。
ThecaterpillarinEuropeordinarilymoultsfourtimesbeforepassingintothecocoonstage;butthereareraces\"atroismues，\"andtheTrevoltiniracelikewisemoultsonlythrice。Itmighthavebeenthoughtthatsoimportantaphysiologicaldifferencewouldnothavearisenunderdomestication;butM。Robinet（8/74。Robinetibidpage317。）statesthat，ontheonehand，ordinarycaterpillarsoccasionallyspintheircocoonsafteronlythreemoults，and，ontheotherhand，\"presquetouteslesracesatroismues，quenousavonsexperimentees，ontfaitquatremuesalasecondeoualatroisiemeannee，cequisembleprouverqu’ilasuffidelesplacerdansdesconditionsfavorablespourleurrendreunefacultequ’ellesavaientperduesousdesinfluencesmoinsfavorables。\"
COCOONS。
Thecaterpillarinchangingintothecocoonlosesabout50percentofitsweight;buttheamountoflossdiffersindifferentbreeds，andthisisofimportancetothecultivator。Thecocooninthedifferentracespresentscharacteristicdifferences;beinglargeorsmall;——nearlysphericalwithnoconstriction，asintheRacedeLoriol，orcylindrical，witheitheradeeporslightconstrictioninthemiddle;withthetwoends，orwithoneendalone，moreorlesspointed。Thesilkvariesinfinenessandquality，andinbeingnearlywhite，butoftwotints，oryellow。Generallythecolourofthesilkisnotstrictlyinherited:butinthechapteronSelectionIshallgiveacuriousaccounthow，inthecourseofsixty—fivegenerations，thenumberofyellowcocoonsinonebreedhasbeenreducedinFrancefromonehundredtothirty—fiveinthethousand。AccordingtoRobinet，thewhiterace，calledSina，bycarefulselectionduringthelastseventy—fiveyears，\"estarriveeaunteletatdepurete，qu’onnevoitpasunseulcoconjaunedansdesmillionsdecoconsblancs。\"（8/75。Robinetibidpages306—317。）
Cocoonsaresometimesformed，asiswellknown，entirelydestituteofsilk，whichyetproducemoths;unfortunatelyMrs。Whitbywaspreventedbyanaccidentfromascertainingwhetherthischaracterwouldprovehereditary。
ADULTSTAGE。
Icanfindnoaccountofanyconstantdifferenceinthemothsofthemostdistinctraces。Mrs。Whitbyassuredmethattherewasnoneintheseveralkindsbredbyher;andIhavereceivedasimilarstatementfromtheeminentnaturalist，M。deQuatrefages。CaptainHuttonalsosays（8/76。’Transact。
Ent。Soc。’utsuprapage317。）thatthemothsofallkindsvarymuchincolour，butinnearlythesameinconstantmanner。Consideringhowmuchthecocoonsintheseveralracesdiffer，thisfactisofinterest，andmayprobablybeaccountedforonthesameprincipleasthefluctuatingvariabilityofcolourinthecaterpillar，namely，thattherehasbeennomotiveforselectingandperpetuatinganyparticularvariation。
ThemalesofthewildBombycidae\"flyswiftlyintheday—timeandevening，butthefemalesareusuallyverysluggishandinactive。\"（8/77。Stephen’sIllustrations，’Haustellata’volume2page35。SeealsoCapt。Hutton’Transact。Ent。Soc。’ibidpage152。）Inseveralmothsofthisfamilythefemaleshaveabortivewings，butnoinstanceisknownofthemalesbeingincapableofflight，forinthiscasethespeciescouldhardlyhavebeenperpetuated。Inthesilk—mothbothsexeshaveimperfect，crumpledwings，andareincapableofflight;butstillthereisatraceofthecharacteristicdifferenceinthetwosexes;forthough，oncomparinganumberofmalesandfemales，Icoulddetectnodifferenceinthedevelopmentoftheirwings，yetIwasassuredbyMrs。Whitbythatthemalesofthemothsbredbyherusedtheirwingsmorethanthefemales，andcouldflutterdownwards，thoughneverupwards。Shealsostatesthat，whenthefemalesfirstemergefromthecocoon，theirwingsarelessexpandedthanthoseofthemale。Thedegreeofimperfection，however，inthewingsvariesmuchindifferentracesandunderdifferentcircumstances。M。Quatrefages（8/78。’EtudessurlesMaladiesduVeraSoie’1859pages304，209。）saysthathehasseenanumberofmothswiththeirwingsreducedtoathird，fourth，ortenthpartoftheirnormaldimensions，andeventomereshortstraightstumps:\"ilmesemblequ’ilyalaunveritablearretdedeveloppementpartiel。\"Ontheotherhand，hedescribesthefemalemothsoftheAndreJeanbreedashaving\"leursaileslargesetetalees。Unseulpresentequelquescourburesirregulieresetdesplisanormaux。\"Asmothsandbutterfliesofallkindsrearedfromwildcaterpillarsunderconfinementoftenhavecrippledwings，thesamecause，whateveritmaybe，hasprobablyactedonsilk—moths，butthedisuseoftheirwingsduringsomanygenerationshas，itmaybesuspected，likewisecomeintoplay。
Themothsofmanybreedsfailtogluetheireggstothesurfaceonwhichtheyarelaid（8/79。Quatrefages’Etudes’etc。page214。）butthisproceeds，accordingtoCapt。Hutton（8/80。’Transact。Ent。Soc。’utsuprapage151。），merelyfromtheglandsoftheovipositorbeingweakened。
Aswithotherlong—domesticatedanimals，theinstinctsofthesilk—mothhavesuffered。Thecaterpillars，whenplacedonamulberry—tree，oftencommitthestrangemistakeofdevouringthebaseoftheleafonwhichtheyarefeeding，andconsequentlyfalldown;buttheyarecapable，accordingtoM。Robinet（8/81。’Manueldel’Educateur’etc。page26。）ofagaincrawlingupthetrunk。Eventhiscapacitysometimesfails，forM。Martins（8/82。
Godron’Del’Espece’page462。）placedsomecaterpillarsonatree，andthosewhichfellwerenotabletoremountandperishedofhunger;theywereevenincapableofpassingfromleaftoleaf。
Someofthemodificationswhichthesilk—mothhasundergonestandincorrelationwithoneanother。Thus，theeggsofthemothswhichproducewhitecocoonsandofthosewhichproduceyellowcocoonsdifferslightlyintint。Theabdominalfeet，also，ofthecaterpillarswhichyieldwhitecocoonsarealwayswhite，whilstthosewhichgiveyellowcocoonsareinvariablyyellow。（8/83。Quatrefages’Etudes’etc。pages12，209，214。）Wehaveseenthatthecaterpillarswithdarktiger—likestripesproducemothswhicharemoredarklyshadedthanothermoths。Itseemswellestablished（8/84。Robinet’Manuel’etc。page303。）thatinFrancethecaterpillarsoftheraceswhichproducewhitesilk，andcertainblackcaterpillars，haveresisted，betterthanotherraces，thediseasewhichhasrecentlydevastatedthesilk—districts。Lastly，theracesdifferconstitutionally，forsomedonotsucceedsowellunderatemperateclimateasothers;andadampsoildoesnotequallyinjurealltheraces。（8/85。Robinetibidpage15。）]
Fromthesevariousfactswelearnthatsilk—moths，likethehigheranimals，varygreatlyunderlong—continueddomestication。Welearnalsothemoreimportantfactthatvariationsmayoccuratvariousperiodsoflife，andbeinheritedatacorrespondingperiod。AndfinallyweseethatinsectsareamenabletothegreatprincipleofSelection。
CHAPTER1。IX。
CULTIVATEDPLANTS:CEREALANDCULINARYPLANTS。
PRELIMINARYREMARKSONTHENUMBERANDPARENTAGEOFCULTIVATEDPLANTS。
FIRSTSTEPSINCULTIVATION。
GEOGRAPHICALDISTRIBUTIONOFCULTIVATEDPLANTS。
CEREALIA。
DOUBTSONTHENUMBEROFSPECIES。
WHEAT:VARIETIESOF。
INDIVIDUALVARIABILITY。
CHANGEDHABITS。
SELECTION。
ANCIENTHISTORYOFTHEVARIETIES。
MAIZE:GREATVARIATIONOF。
DIRECTACTIONOFCLIMATEON。
CULINARYPLANTS。
CABBAGES:VARIETIESOF，INFOLIAGEANDSTEMS，BUTNOTINOTHERPARTS。
PARENTAGEOF。
OTHERSPECIESOFBRASSICA。
PEAS:AMOUNTOFDIFFERENCEINTHESEVERALKINDS，CHIEFLYINTHEPODSAND
SEED。
SOMEVARIETIESCONSTANT，SOMEHIGHLYVARIABLE。
DONOTINTERCROSS。
BEANS。
POTATOES:NUMEROUSVARIETIESOF。
DIFFERINGLITTLEEXCEPTINTHETUBERS。
CHARACTERSINHERITED。
Ishallnotenterintosomuchdetailonthevariabilityofcultivatedplants，asinthecaseofdomesticatedanimals。Thesubjectisinvolvedinmuchdifficulty。Botanistshavegenerallyneglectedcultivatedvarieties，asbeneaththeirnotice。Inseveralcasesthewildprototypeisunknownordoubtfullyknown;andinothercasesitishardlypossibletodistinguishbetweenescapedseedlingsandtrulywildplants，sothatthereisnosafestandardofcomparisonbywhichtojudgeofanysupposedamountofchange。
Notafewbotanistsbelievethatseveralofourancientlycultivatedplantshavebecomesoprofoundlymodifiedthatitisnotpossiblenowtorecognisetheiraboriginalparent—forms。Equallyperplexingarethedoubtswhethersomeofthemaredescendedfromonespecies，orfromseveralinextricablycommingledbycrossingandvariation。Variationsoftenpassinto，andcannotbedistinguishedfrom，monstrosities;andmonstrositiesareoflittlesignificanceforourpurpose。Manyvarietiesarepropagatedsolelybygrafts，buds，layers，bulbs，etc。，andfrequentlyitisnotknownhowfartheirpeculiaritiescanbetransmittedbyseminalgeneration。
Nevertheless，somefactsofvaluecanbegleaned:andotherfactswillhereafterbeincidentallygiven。Onechiefobjectinthetwofollowingchaptersistoshowhowmanycharactersinourcultivatedplantshavebecomevariable。
Beforeenteringondetailsafewgeneralremarksontheoriginofcultivatedplantsmaybeintroduced。M。Alph。DeCandolle（9/1。’Geographiebotaniqueraisonnee’1855pages810to991。）inanadmirablediscussiononthissubject，inwhichhedisplaysawonderfulamountofknowledge，givesalistof157ofthemostusefulcultivatedplants。Ofthesehebelievesthat85arealmostcertainlyknownintheirwildstate;butonthisheadothercompetentjudges（9/2。ReviewbyMr。Benthamin’Hort。Journal’volume9
1855page133entitled’HistoricalNotesoncultivatedPlants’byDr。A。
Targioni—Tozzetti。Seealso’EdinburghReview’1866page510。）entertaingreatdoubts。Of40ofthem，theoriginisadmittedbyM。DeCandolletobedoubtful，eitherfromacertainamountofdissimilaritywhichtheypresentwhencomparedwiththeirnearestalliesinawildstate，orfromtheprobabilityofthelatternotbeingtrulywildplants，butseedlingsescapedfromculture。Oftheentire157，32alonearerankedbyM。DeCandolleasquiteunknownintheiraboriginalcondition。Butitshouldbeobservedthathedoesnotincludeinhislistseveralplantswhichpresentill—definedcharacters，namely，thevariousformsofpumpkins，millet，sorghum，kidney—bean，dolichos，capsicum，andindigo。Nordoesheincludeflowers;andseveralofthemoreancientlycultivatedflowers，suchascertainroses，thecommonImperiallily，thetuberose，andeventhelilac，aresaid（9/3。’Hist。Notes’asabovebyTargioni—Tozzetti。）nottobeknowninthewildstate。
Fromtherelativenumbersabovegiven，andfromotherargumentsofmuchweight，M。DeCandolleconcludesthatplantshaverarelybeensomuchmodifiedbyculturethattheycannotbeidentifiedwiththeirwildprototypes。Butonthisview，consideringthatsavagesprobablywouldnothavechosenrareplantsforcultivation，thatusefulplantsaregenerallyconspicuous，andthattheycouldnothavebeentheinhabitantsofdesertsorofremoteandrecentlydiscoveredislands，itappearsstrangetomethatsomanyofourcultivatedplantsshouldbestillunknownoronlydoubtfullyknowninthewildstate。If，ontheotherhand，manyoftheseplantshavebeenprofoundlymodifiedbyculture，thedifficultydisappears。Thedifficultywouldalsoberemovediftheyhavebeenexterminatedduringtheprogressofcivilisation;butM。DeCandollehasshownthatthisprobablyhasseldomoccurred。Assoonasaplantwascultivatedinanycountry，thehalf—civilisedinhabitantswouldnolongerhaveneedtosearchthewholesurfaceofthelandforit，andthusleadtoitsextirpation;andevenifthisdidoccurduringafamine，dormantseedswouldbeleftintheground。
Intropicalcountriesthewildluxurianceofnature，aswaslongagoremarkedbyHumboldt，overpowersthefeebleeffortsofman。Inancientlycivilisedtemperatecountries，wherethewholefaceofthelandhasbeengreatlychanged，itcanhardlybedoubtedthatsomeplantshavebecomeextinct;neverthelessDeCandollehasshownthatalltheplantshistoricallyknowntohavebeenfirstcultivatedinEuropestillexisthereinthewildstate。
MM。Loiseleur—Deslongchamps（9/4。’ConsiderationssurlesCereales’1842
page37。’GeographieBot。’1855page930。\"Plusonsupposel’agricultureancienneetremontantauneepoqued’ignorance，plusilestprobablequelescultivateursavaientchoisidesespecesoffrantal’originememeunavantageincontestable。\"）andDeCandollehaveremarkedthatourcultivatedplants，moreespeciallythecereals，mustoriginallyhaveexistedinnearlytheirpresentstate;forotherwisetheywouldnothavebeennoticedandvaluedasobjectsoffood。Buttheseauthorsapparentlyhavenotconsideredthemanyaccountsgivenbytravellersofthewretchedfoodcollectedbysavages。IhavereadanaccountofthesavagesofAustraliacooking，duringadearth，manyvegetablesinvariousways，inthehopesofrenderingtheminnocuousandmorenutritious。Dr。Hookerfoundthehalf—starvedinhabitantsofavillageinSikhimsufferinggreatlyfromhavingeatenarum—roots（9/5。Dr。Hookerhasgivenmethisinformation。Seealsohis’HimalayanJournals’1854volume2page49。），whichtheyhadpoundedandleftforseveraldaystoferment，soaspartiallytodestroytheirpoisonousnature;andheaddsthattheycookedandatemanyotherdeleteriousplants。SirAndrewSmithinformsmethatinSouthAfricaalargenumberoffruitsandsucculentleaves，andespeciallyroots，areusedintimesofscarcity。Thenatives，indeed，knowthepropertiesofalongcatalogueofplants，somehavingbeenfoundduringfaminestobeeatable，othersinjurioustohealth，orevendestructivetolife。HemetapartyofBaquanaswho，havingbeenexpelledbytheconqueringZulus，hadlivedforyearsonanyrootsorleaveswhichaffordedsomelittlenutrimentanddistendedtheirstomachs，soastorelievethepangsofhunger。Theylookedlikewalkingskeletons，andsufferedfearfullyfromconstipation。SirAndrewSmithalsoinformsmethatonsuchoccasionsthenativesobserveasaguideforthemselves，whatthewildanimals，especiallybaboonsandmonkeys，eat。
Frominnumerableexperimentsmadethroughdirenecessitybythesavagesofeveryland，withtheresultshandeddownbytradition，thenutritious，stimulating，andmedicinalpropertiesofthemostunpromisingplantswereprobablyfirstdiscovered。Itappears，forinstance，atfirstaninexplicablefactthatuntutoredman，inthreedistantquartersoftheworld，shouldhavediscovered，amongstahostofnativeplants，thattheleavesofthetea—plantandmattee，andtheberriesofthecoffee，allincludedastimulatingandnutritiousessence，nowknowntobechemicallythesame。Wecanalsoseethatsavagessufferingfromsevereconstipationwouldnaturallyobservewhetheranyoftherootswhichtheydevouredactedasaperients。Weprobablyoweourknowledgeoftheusesofalmostallplantstomanhavingoriginallyexistedinabarbarousstate，andhavingbeenoftencompelledbyseverewanttotryasfoodalmosteverythingwhichhecouldchewandswallow。
Fromwhatweknowofthehabitsofsavagesinmanyquartersoftheworld，thereisnoreasontosupposethatourcerealplantsoriginallyexistedintheirpresentstatesovaluabletoman。Letuslooktoonecontinentalone，namely，Africa:Barth（9/6。’TravelsinCentralAfrica’Englishtranslationvolume1pages529and390;volume2pages29，265，270。Livingstone’Travels’page551。）statesthattheslavesoveralargepartofthecentralregionregularlycollecttheseedsofawildgrass，thePennisetumdistichum;inanotherdistricthesawwomencollectingtheseedsofaPoabyswingingasortofbasketthroughtherichmeadow—land。NearTete，Livingstoneobservedthenativescollectingtheseedsofawildgrass，andfarthersouth，asAnderssoninformsme，thenativeslargelyusetheseedofagrassofaboutthesizeofcanary—seed，whichtheyboilinwater。Theyeatalsotherootsofcertainreeds，andeveryonehasreadoftheBushmenprowlingaboutanddiggingupwithafire—hardenedstakevariousroots。
Similarfactswithrespecttothecollectionofseedsofwildgrassesinotherpartsoftheworldcouldbegiven。（9/7。ForinstanceinbothNorthandSouthAmerica。Mr。Edgeworth’JournalProc。Linn。Soc。’vol6Bot。1862
page181statesthatinthedesertsofthePunjabpoorwomensweepup，\"byawhiskintostrawbaskets，\"theseedsoffourgeneraofgrasses，namely，ofAgrostis，Panicum，Cenchrus，andPennisetum，aswellastheseedsoffourothergenerabelongingtodistinctfamilies。）
Accustomedaswearetoourexcellentvegetablesandlusciousfruits，wecanhardlypersuadeourselvesthatthestringyrootsofthewildcarrotandparsnip，orthelittleshootsofthewildasparagus，orcrabs，sloes，etc。，shouldeverhavebeenvalued;yet，fromwhatweknowofthehabitsofAustralianandSouthAfricansavages，weneedfeelnodoubtonthishead。
TheinhabitantsofSwitzerlandduringtheStone—periodlargelycollectedwildcrabs，sloes，bullaces，hipsofroses，elderberries，beechmast，andotherwildberriesandfruit。（9/8。Prof。O。Heer’DiePflanzenderPfahlbauten’1866ausdemNeujahr。Naturforsch。Geselschaft’1866;andDr。
H。ChristinRutimeyer’s’DieFaunaderPfahlbauten’1861s。226。）JemmyButton，aFuegianonboardthe’Beagle，’remarkedtomethatthepoorandacidblack—currantsofTierradelFuegoweretoosweetforhistaste。
Thesavageinhabitantsofeachland，havingfoundoutbymanyandhardtrialswhatplantswereuseful，orcouldberenderedusefulbyvariouscookingprocesses，wouldafteratimetakethefirststepincultivationbyplantingthemneartheirusualabodes。Livingstone（9/9。’Travels’page535。DuChaillu’AdventuresinEquatorialAfrica’1861page445。）statesthatthesavageBatokassometimesleftwildfruit—treesstandingintheirgardens，andoccasionallyevenplantedthem，\"apracticeseennowhereelseamongstthenatives。\"ButDuChaillusawapalmandsomeotherwildfruit—
treeswhichhadbeenplanted;andthesetreeswereconsideredprivateproperty。Thenextstepincultivation，andthiswouldrequirebutlittleforethought，wouldbetosowtheseedsofusefulplants;andasthesoilnearthehovelsofthenatives（9/10。InTierradelFuegothespotwherewigwamshadformerlystoodcouldbedistinguishedatagreatdistancebythebrightgreentintofthenativevegetation。）wouldoftenbeinsomedegreemanured，improvedvarietieswouldsoonerorlaterarise。Orawildandunusuallygoodvarietyofanativeplantmightattracttheattentionofsomewiseoldsavage;andhewouldtransplantit，orsowitsseed。Thatsuperiorvarietiesofwildfruit—treesoccasionallyarefoundiscertain，asinthecaseoftheAmericanspeciesofhawthorns，plums，cherries，grapes，andhickories，specifiedbyProfessorAsaGray。（9/11。’AmericanAcad。ofArtsandSciences’April10th，1860page413。Downing’TheFruitsofAmerica’1845page261。）Downingalsoreferstocertainwildvarietiesofthehickory，asbeing\"ofmuchlargersizeandfinerflavourthanthecommonspecies。\"IhavereferredtoAmericanfruit—trees，becausewearenotinthiscasetroubledwithdoubtswhetherornotthevarietiesareseedlingswhichhaveescapedfromcultivation。Transplantinganysuperiorvariety，orsowingitsseeds，hardlyimpliesmoreforethoughtthanmightbeexpectedatanearlyandrudeperiodofcivilisation。EventheAustralianbarbarians\"havealawthatnoplantbearingseedsistobedugupafterithasflowered;\"andSirG。Grey（9/12。’JournalsofExpeditionsinAustralia’1841volume2page292。）neversawthislaw，evidentlyframedforthepreservationoftheplant，violated。WeseethesamespiritinthesuperstitiousbeliefoftheFuegians，thatkillingwater—fowlwhilstveryyoungwillbefollowedby\"muchrain，snow，blowmuch。\"（9/13。Darwin’JournalofResearches’1845page215。）Imayadd，asshowingforethoughtinthelowestbarbarians，thattheFuegianswhentheyfindastrandedwhaleburylargeportionsinthesand，andduringtheoften—recurrentfaminestravelfromgreatdistancesfortheremnantsofthehalf—putridmass。
Ithasoftenbeenremarked（9/14。DeCandollehastabulatedthefactsinthemostinterestingmannerinhis’GeographieBot。’page986。）thatwedonotoweasingleusefulplanttoAustraliaortheCapeofGoodHope，countriesaboundingtoanunparalleleddegreewithendemicspecies，——ortoNewZealand，ortoAmericasouthofthePlata;and，accordingtosomeauthors，nottoAmericanorthwardofMexico。Idonotbelievethatanyedibleorvaluableplant，exceptthecanary—grass，hasbeenderivedfromanoceanicoruninhabitedisland。Ifnearlyallourusefulplants，nativesofEurope;Asia，andSouthAmerica，hadoriginallyexistedintheirpresentcondition，thecompleteabsenceofsimilarlyusefulplantsinthegreatcountriesjustnamedwouldbeindeedasurprisingfact。Butiftheseplantshavebeensogreatlymodifiedandimprovedbycultureasnolongercloselytoresembleanynaturalspecies，wecanunderstandwhytheabove—namedcountrieshavegivenusnousefulplants，fortheywereeitherinhabitedbymenwhodidnotcultivatethegroundatall，asinAustraliaandtheCapeofGoodHope，orwhocultivateditveryimperfectly，asinsomepartsofAmerica。Thesecountriesdoyieldplantswhichareusefultosavageman;
andDr。Hooker（9/15。’FloraofAustralia’Introductionpage110。）
enumeratesnolessthan107suchspeciesinAustraliaalone;buttheseplantshavenotbeenimproved，andconsequentlycannotcompetewiththosewhichhavebeencultivatedandimprovedduringthousandsofyearsinthecivilisedworld。