liviapresentsseveralwildforms，regardedbysomenaturalistsasspeciesandbyothersassub—speciesorasmerevarieties，butthatthespeciesofseveralalliedgeneraareinthesamepredicament。Thisisthecase，asMr。
Blythhasremarkedtome，withTreron，Palumbus，andTurtur。），andstillmoresowhensemi—domesticated，asshownbycomparingtheSierraLeonepigeonswiththoseofIndia，orwiththosewhichapparentlyhaverunwildinMadeira。Ithasundergoneastillgreateramountofvariationinthecaseofthenumeroustoy—pigeons，whichnoonesupposestobedescendedfromdistinctspecies;yetsomeofthesetoy—pigeonshavetransmittedtheircharactertrulyforcenturies。Why，then，shouldwehesitatetobelieveinthatgreateramountofvariationwhichisnecessaryfortheproductionoftheelevenchiefraces？Itshouldbeborneinmindthatintwoofthemoststrongly—markedraces，namely，CarriersandShort—facedTumblers，theextremeformscanbeconnectedwiththeparent—speciesbygraduateddifferencesnotgreaterthanthosewhichmaybeobservedbetweenthedovecote—pigeonsinhabitingdifferentcountries，orbetweenthevariouskindsoftoy—pigeons，——gradationswhichmustcertainlybeattributedtovariation。
Thatcircumstanceshavebeeneminentlyfavourableforthemodificationofthepigeonthroughvariationandselectionwillnowbeshown。Theearliestrecord，ashasbeenpointedouttomebyProfessorLepsius，ofpigeonsinadomesticatedcondition，occursinthefifthEgyptiandynasty，about3000
B。C。（6/31。’Denkmaler’abth。2bl。70。）;butMr。Birch，oftheBritishMuseum，informsmethatthepigeonappearsinabilloffareinthepreviousdynasty。DomesticpigeonsarementionedinGenesis，Leviticus，andIsaiah。（6/32。’The’Dovecote’bytheRev。E。S。Dixon1851pages11—13。
AdolphePictet（inhis’LesOriginesIndo—Europeennes’1859page399）
statesthatthereareintheancientSanscritlanguagebetween25and30
namesforthepigeon，andother15or16Persiannames;noneofthesearecommontotheEuropeanlanguages。ThisfactindicatestheantiquityofthedomesticationofthepigeonintheEast。）InthetimeoftheRomans，aswehearfromPliny（6/33。Englishtranslation1601book10ch。37。），immensepricesweregivenforpigeons;\"nay，theyarecometothispass，thattheycanreckonuptheirpedigreeandrace。\"InIndia，abouttheyear1600，pigeonsweremuchvaluedbyAkberKhan:20，000birdswerecarriedaboutwiththecourt，andthemerchantsbroughtvaluablecollections。\"ThemonarchofIranandTuransenthimsomeveryrarebreeds。HisMajesty，\"
saysthecourtlyhistorian，\"bycrossingthebreeds，whichmethodwasneverpractisedbefore，hasimprovedthemastonishingly。\"（6/34。’AyeenAkbery’
translatedbyF。Gladwin4toeditionvolume1page270。）AkberKhanpossessedseventeendistinctkinds，eightofwhichwerevaluableforbeautyalone。Ataboutthissameperiodof1600theDutch，accordingtoAldrovandi，wereaseageraboutpigeonsastheRomanshadformerlybeen。
ThebreedswhichwerekeptduringthefifteenthcenturyinEuropeandinIndiaapparentlydifferedfromeachother。Tavernier，inhisTravelsin1677，speaks，asdoesChardinin1735，ofthevastnumberofpigeon—housesinPersia;andtheformerremarksthat，asChristianswerenotpermittedtokeeppigeons，someofthevulgaractuallyturnedMahometansforthissolepurpose。TheEmperorofMoroccohadhisfavouritekeeperofpigeons，asismentionedinMoore’streatise，published1737。InEngland，fromthetimeofWillughbyin1678tothepresentday，aswellasinGermanyandinFrance，numeroustreatiseshavebeenpublishedonthepigeon。InIndia，aboutahundredyearsago，aPersiantreatisewaswritten;andthewriterthoughtitnolightaffair，forhebeginswithasolemninvocation，\"inthenameofGod，thegraciousandmerciful。\"Manylargetowns，inEuropeandtheUnitedStates，nowhavetheirsocietiesofdevotedpigeon—fanciers:atpresenttherearethreesuchsocietiesinLondon。InIndia，asIhearfromMr。
Blyth，theinhabitantsofDelhiandofsomeothergreatcitiesareeagerfanciers。Mr。LayardinformsmethatmostoftheknownbreedsarekeptinCeylon。InChina，accordingtoMr。SwinhoeofAmoy，andDr。LockhartofShangai，Carriers，Fantails，Tumblers，andothervarietiesarerearedwithcare，especiallybythebonzesorpriests。TheChinesefastenakindofwhistletothetail—feathersoftheirpigeons，andastheflockwheelsthroughtheairtheyproduceasweetsound。InEgyptthelateAbbasPachawasagreatfancierofFantails。ManypigeonsarekeptatCairoandConstantinople，andthesehavelatelybeenimportedbynativemerchants，asIhearfromSirW。Elliot，intoSouthernIndia，andsoldathighprices。
Theforegoingstatementsshowinhowmanycountries，andduringhowlongaperiod，manymenhavebeenpassionatelydevotedtothebreedingofpigeons。
Hearhowanenthusiasticfancieratthepresentdaywrites:\"IfitwerepossiblefornoblemenandgentlementoknowtheamazingamountofsolaceandpleasurederivedfromAlmondTumblers，whentheybegintounderstandtheirproperties，IshouldthinkthatscarceanynoblemanorgentlemanwouldbewithouttheiraviariesofAlmondTumblers。\"（6/35。J。M。Eaton’TreatiseontheAlmondTumbler’1851;Prefacepage6。）Thepleasurethustakenisofparamountimportance，asitleadsamateurscarefullytonoteandpreserveeachslightdeviationofstructurewhichstrikestheirfancy。
Pigeonsareoftencloselyconfinedduringtheirwholelives;theydonotpartakeoftheirnaturallyvarieddiet;theyhaveoftenbeentransportedfromoneclimatetoanother;andallthesechangesintheirconditionsoflifewouldbelikelytocausevariability。Pigeonshavebeendomesticatedfornearly5000years，andhavebeenkeptinmanyplaces，sothatthenumbersrearedunderdomesticationmusthavebeenenormous:andthisisanothercircumstanceofhighimportance，foritobviouslyfavoursthechanceofraremodificationsofstructureoccasionallyappearing。Slightvariationsofallkindswouldalmostcertainlybeobserved，and，ifvalued，would，owingtothefollowingcircumstances，bepreservedandpropagatedwithunusualfacility。Pigeons，differentlyfromanyotherdomesticatedanimal，caneasilybematedforlife，and，thoughkeptwithotherpigeons，rarelyproveunfaithfultoeachother。Evenwhenthemaledoesbreakhismarriage—vow，hedoesnotpermanentlydeserthismate。Ihavebredinthesameaviariesmanypigeonsofdifferentkinds，andneverrearedasinglebirdofanimpurestrain。Henceafanciercanwiththegreatesteaseselectandmatchhisbirds。Hewillalsoseethegoodresultsofhiscare;forpigeonsbreedwithextraordinaryrapidity。Hemayfreelyrejectinferiorbirds，astheyserveatanearlyageasexcellentfood。
[HISTORYOFTHEPRINCIPALRACESOFTHEPIGEON。（6/36。AsinthefollowingdiscussionIoftenspeakofthepresenttime，Ishouldstatethatthischapterwascompletedintheyear1858。）
Beforediscussingthemeansandstepsbywhichthechiefraceshavebeenformed，itwillbeadvisabletogivesomehistoricaldetails，formoreisknownofthehistoryofthepigeon，littlethoughthisis，thanofanyotherdomesticatedanimal。Someofthecasesareinterestingasprovinghowlongdomesticvarietiesmaybepropagatedwithexactlythesameornearlythesamecharacters;andothercasesarestillmoreinterestingasshowinghowslowlybutsteadilyraceshavebeengreatlymodifiedduringsuccessivegenerations。InthelastchapterIstatedthatTrumpetersandLaughers，bothsoremarkablefortheirvoices，seemtohavebeenperfectlycharacterisedin1735;andLaugherswereapparentlyknowninIndiabeforetheyear1600。Spotsin1676，andNunsinthetimeofAldrovandi，before1600，werecolouredexactlyastheynoware。CommonTumblersandGroundTumblersdisplayedinIndia，beforetheyear1600，thesameextraordinarypeculiaritiesofflightasatthepresentday，fortheyarewelldescribedinthe’AyeenAkbery。’Thesebreedsmayallhaveexistedforamuchlongerperiod;weknowonlythattheywereperfectlycharacterisedatthedatesabovegiven。TheAVERAGElengthoflifeofthedomesticpigeonisprobablyaboutfiveorsixyears;ifso，someoftheseraceshaveretainedtheircharacterperfectlyforatleastfortyorfiftygenerations。
POUTERS。
Thesebirds，asfarasaveryshortdescriptionservesforcomparison，appeartohavebeenwellcharacterisedinAldrovandi’stime（6/37。
’Ornithologie’1600volume2page360。），beforetheyear1600。Lengthofbodyandlengthoflegareatthepresenttimethetwochiefpointsofexcellence。In1735Mooresaid（seeMr。J。M。Eaton’sedition）——andMoorewasafirst—ratefancier——thatheoncesawabirdwithabody20inchesinlength，\"though17or18inchesisreckonedaverygoodlength;\"andhehasseenthelegsverynearly7inchesinlength，yetaleg61/2or63/4long\"mustbeallowedtobeaverygoodone。\"Mr。Bult，themostsuccessfulbreederofPoutersintheworld，informsmethatatpresent（1858）thestandardlengthofthebodyisnotlessthan18inches;buthehasmeasuredonebird19inchesinlength，andhasheardof20and22inches，butdoubtsthetruthoftheselatterstatements。Thestandardlengthofthelegisnow7inches，butMr。Bulthasrecentlymeasuredtwoofhisownbirdswithlegs71/2long。Sothatinthe123yearswhichhaveelapsedsince1735therehasbeenhardlyanyincreaseinthestandardlengthofthebody;17or18
incheswasformerlyreckonedaverygoodlength，andnow18inchesistheminimumstandard;butthelengthoflegseemstohaveincreased，asMooreneversawonequite7incheslong;nowthestandardis7，andtwoofMr。
Bult’sbirdsmeasured71/2inchesinlength。TheextremelyslightimprovementinPouters，exceptinthelengthoftheleg，duringthelast123years，maybepartlyaccountedforbytheneglectwhichtheysuffered，asIaminformedbyMr。Bult，untilwithinthelast20or30years。About1765（6/38。’ATreatiseonDomesticPigeons’dedicatedtoMr。Mayor1765
Prefacepage14。）therewasachangeoffashion，stouterandmorefeatheredlegsbeingpreferredtothinandnearlynakedlegs。
FANTAILS。
ThefirstnoticeoftheexistenceofthisbreedisinIndia，beforetheyear1600，asgiveninthe’AyeenAkbery’（6/39。Mr。Blythhasgivenatranslationofpartofthe’AyeenAkbery’in’AnnalsandMag。ofNat。
Hist。’volume191847page104。）;atthisdate，judgingfromAldrovandi，thebreedwasunknowninEurope。In1677WillughbyspeaksofaFantailwith26tail—feathers;in1735Mooresawonewith36feathers;andin1824MM。
BoitardandCorbieassertthatinFrancebirdscaneasilybefoundwith42
tail—feathers。InEngland，thenumberofthetail—feathersisnotatpresentsomuchregardedastheirupwarddirectionandexpansion。Thegeneralcarriageofthebirdislikewisenowmuchvalued。Theolddescriptionsdonotsufficetoshowwhetherintheselatterrespectstherehasbeenmuchimprovement:butifFantailswiththeirheadsandtailstouchinghadformerlyexisted，asatthepresenttime，thefactwouldalmostcertainlyhavebeennoticed。TheFantailswhicharenowfoundinIndiaprobablyshowthestateoftherace，asfarascarriageisconcerned，atthedateoftheirintroductionintoEurope;andsome，saidtohavebeenbroughtfromCalcutta，whichIkeptalive，wereinamarkedmannerinferiortoourexhibitionbirds。TheJavaFantailshowsthesamedifferenceincarriage;andalthoughMr。Swinhoehascounted18and24tail—feathersinhisbirds，afirst—ratespecimensenttomehadonly14tail—feathers。
JACOBINS。
Thisbreedexistedbefore1600，butthehood，judgingfromthefiguregivenbyAldrovandi，didnotenclosetheheadnearlysoperfectlyasatpresent:
norwastheheadthenwhite;norwerethewingsandtailsolong，butthislastcharactermighthavebeenoverlookedbytherudeartist。InMoore’stime，in1735，theJacobinwasconsideredthesmallestkindofpigeon，andthebillissaidtobeveryshort。HenceeithertheJacobin，ortheotherkindswithwhichitwasthencompared，mustsincethattimehavebeenconsiderablymodified;forMoore’sdescription（anditmustberememberedthathewasafirst—ratejudge）isclearlynotapplicable，asfarassizeofbodyandlengthofbeakareconcerned，toourpresentJacobins。In1795，judgingfromBechstein，thebreedhadassumeditspresentcharacter。
TURBITS。
Ithasgenerallybeensupposedbytheolderwritersonpigeons，thattheTurbitistheCortbeckofAldrovandi;butifthisbethecase，itisanextraordinaryfactthatthecharacteristicfrillshouldnothavebeennoticed。Thebeak，moreover，oftheCortbeckisdescribedascloselyresemblingthatoftheJacobin，whichshowsachangeintheoneortheotherrace。TheTurbit，withitscharacteristicfrill，andbearingitspresentname，isdescribedbyWillughbyin1677;andthebillissaidtobelikethatofthebullfinch，——agoodcomparison，butnowmorestrictlyapplicabletothebeakoftheBarb。Thesub—breedcalledtheOwlwaswellknowninMoore’stime，in1735。
TUMBLERS。
CommonTumblers，aswellasGroundTumblers，perfectasfarastumblingisconcerned，existedinIndiabeforetheyear1600;andatthisperioddiversifiedmodesofflight，suchasflyingatnight，theascenttoagreatheight，andmannerofdescent，seemtohavebeenmuchattendedtoinIndia，asatthepresenttime。Belon（6/40。’L’HistoiredelaNaturedesOiseaux’
page314。）in1555sawinPaphlagoniawhathedescribesas\"averynewthing，viz。pigeonswhichflewsohighintheairthattheywerelosttoview，butreturnedtotheirpigeon—housewithoutseparating。\"ThismannerofflightischaracteristicofourpresentTumblers，butitisclearthatBelonwouldhavementionedtheactoftumblingifthepigeonsdescribedbyhimhadtumbled。TumblerswerenotknowninEuropein1600，astheyarenotmentionedbyAldrovandi，whodiscussestheflightofpigeons。TheyarebrieflyalludedtobyWillughby，in1687，assmallpigeons\"whichshowlikefootballsintheair。\"Theshort—facedracedidnotexistatthisperiod，asWillughbycouldnothaveoverlookedbirdssoremarkablefortheirsmallsizeandshortbeaks。Wecaneventracesomeofthestepsbywhichthisracehasbeenproduced。Moorein1735enumeratescorrectlythechiefpointsofexcellence，butdoesnotgiveanydescriptionoftheseveralsub—breeds;
andfromthisfactMr。Eatoninfers（6/41。’TreatiseonPigeons’1852page64。）thattheShort—facedTumblerhadnotthencometofullperfection。
MooreevenspeaksoftheJacobinasbeingthesmallestpigeon。Thirtyyearsafterwards，in1765，intheTreatisededicatedtoMayor，short—facedAlmondTumblersarefullydescribed，buttheauthor，anexcellentfancier，expresslystatesinhisPreface（page14）that，\"fromgreatcareandexpenseinbreedingthem，theyhavearrivedtosogreatperfectionandaresodifferentfromwhattheywere20or30yearspast，thatanoldfancierwouldhavecondemnedthemfornootherreasonthanbecausetheyarenotlikewhatusedtobethoughtgoodwhenhewasinthefancybefore。\"Henceitwouldappearthattherewasarathersuddenchangeinthecharacteroftheshort—facedTumblerataboutthisperiod;andthereisreasontosuspectthatadwarfedandhalf—monstrousbird，theparent—formoftheseveralshort—facedsub—breeds，thenappeared。Isuspectthisbecauseshort—facedTumblersarebornwiththeirbeaks（ascertainedbycarefulmeasurement）asshort，proportionallywiththesizeoftheirbodies，asintheadultbird;andinthisrespecttheydiffergreatlyfromallotherbreeds，whichslowlyacquireduringgrowththeirvariouscharacteristicqualities。
Sincetheyear1765therehasbeensomechangeinoneofthechiefcharactersoftheshort—facedTumbler，namely，inthelengthofthebeak。
Fanciersmeasurethe\"headandbeak\"fromthetipofthebeaktothefrontcorneroftheeyeball。Abouttheyear1765a\"headandbeak\"wasconsideredgood（6/42。J。M。Eaton’TreatiseontheBreedingandManagingoftheAlmondTumbler’1851。Comparepage5ofPreface，page9andpage32），which，measuredintheusualmanner，was7/8ofaninchinlength;nowitoughtnottoexceed5/8ofaninch;\"itishoweverpossible，\"asMr。Eatoncandidlyconfesses，\"forabirdtobeconsideredaspleasantorneatevenat6/8ofaninch，butexceedingthatlengthitmustbelookeduponasunworthyofattention。\"Mr。Eatonstatesthathehasneverseeninthecourseofhislifemorethantwoorthreebirdswiththe\"headandbeak\"
notexceedinghalfaninchinlength;\"stillIbelieveinthecourseofafewyearsthattheheadandbeakwillbeshortened，andthathalf—inchbirdswillnotbeconsideredsogreatacuriosityasatthepresenttime。\"
ThatMr。Eaton’sopiniondeservesattentioncannotbedoubted，consideringhissuccessinwinningprizesatourexhibitions。FinallyinregardtotheTumbleritmaybeconcludedfromthefactsabovegiventhatitwasoriginallyintroducedintoEurope，probablyfirstintoEngland，fromtheEast;andthatitthenresembledourcommonEnglishTumbler，ormoreprobablythePersianorIndianTumbler，withabeakonlyjustperceptiblyshorterthanthatofthecommondovecote—pigeon。Withrespecttotheshort—
facedTumbler，whichisnotknowntoexistintheEast，therecanhardlybeadoubtthatthewholewonderfulchangeinthesizeofthehead，beak，bodyandfeet，andingeneralcarriage，hasbeenproducedduringthelasttwocenturiesbycontinuedselection，aidedprobablybythebirthofasemi—
monstrousbirdsomewhereabouttheyear1750。
RUNTS。
Oftheirhistorylittlecanbesaid。InthetimeofPlinythepigeonsofCampaniawerethelargestknown;andfromthisfactalonesomeauthorsassertthattheywereRunts。InAldrovandi’stime，in1600，twosub—breedsexisted;butoneofthem，theshort—beaked，isnowextinctinEurope。
BARBS。
Notwithstandingstatementstothecontrary，itseemstomeimpossibletorecognisetheBarbinAldrovandi’sdescriptionandfigures;fourbreeds，however，existedintheyear1600whichevidentlywerealliedbothtoBarbsandCarriers。ToshowhowdifficultitistorecognisesomeofthebreedsdescribedbyAldrovandiIwillgivethedifferentopinionsinregardtotheabovefourkinds，namedbyhimC。indica，cretensis，gutturosa，andpersica。WillughbythoughtthattheColumbaindicawasaTurbit，buttheeminentfancierMr。BrentbelievesthatitwasaninferiorBarb:C。
cretensis，withashortbeakandaswellingontheuppermandible，cannotberecognised:C。（falselycalled）gutturosa，whichfromitsrostrum，breve，crassum，ettuberosumseemstometocomenearesttotheBarb，Mr。
BrentbelievestobeaCarrier;andlastly，theC。persicaetturcica，Mr。
Brentthinks，andIquiteconcurwithhim，wasashort—beakedCarrierwithverylittlewattle。In1687theBarbwasknowninEngland，andWillughbydescribesthebeakaslikethatoftheTurbit;butitisnotcrediblethathisBarbsshouldhavehadabeaklikethatofourpresentbirds，forsoaccurateanobservercouldnothaveoverlookeditsgreatbreadth。
ENGLISHCARRIER。
WemaylookinvaininAldrovandi’sworkforanybirdresemblingourprizeCarriers;theC。persicaetturcicaofthisauthorcomesthenearest，butissaidtohavehadashortthickbeak;thereforeitmusthaveapproachedincharacteraBarb，andhavedifferedgreatlyfromourCarriers。InWillughby’stime，in1677，wecanclearlyrecognisetheCarrier，yetheadds，\"thebillisnotshort，butofamoderatelength;\"adescriptionwhichnoonewouldapplytoourpresentCarriers，soconspicuousfortheextraordinarylengthoftheirbeaks。TheoldnamesgiveninEuropetotheCarrier，andtheseveralnamesnowinuseinIndia，indicatethatCarriersoriginallycamefromPersia;andWillughby’sdescriptionwouldperfectlyapplytotheBussorahCarrierasitnowexistsinMadras。InlatertimeswecanpartiallytracetheprogressofchangeinourEnglishCarriers:Moore，in1735，says\"aninchandahalfisreckonedalongbeak，thoughthereareverygoodCarriersthatarefoundnottoexceedaninchandaquarter。\"
ThesebirdsmusthaveresembledorperhapsbeenalittlesuperiortotheCarriers，previouslydescribed，nowfoundinPersia。InEnglandatthepresentday\"thereare，\"asMr。Eaton（6/43。’TreatiseonPigeons’1852
page41。）states，\"beaksthatwouldmeasure（fromedgeofeyetotipofbeak）oneinchandthree—quarters，andsomefeweventwoinchesinlength。\"]
Fromthesehistoricaldetailsweseethatnearlyallthechiefdomesticracesexistedbeforetheyear1600。Someremarkableonlyforcolourappeartohavebeenidenticalwithourpresentbreeds，somewerenearlythesame，someconsiderablydifferent，andsomehavesincebecomeextinct。Severalbreeds，suchasFinnikinsandTurners，theswallow—tailedpigeonofBechsteinandtheCarmelite，seemtohaveoriginatedandtohavedisappearedwithinthissameperiod。Anyonenowvisitingawell—stockedEnglishaviarywouldcertainlypickoutasthemostdistinctkinds，themassiveRunt，theCarrierwithitswonderfullyelongatedbeakandgreatwattles，theBarbwithitsshortbroadbeakandeye—wattles，theshort—
facedTumblerwithitssmallconicalbeak，thePouterwithitsgreatcrop，longlegsandbody，theFantailwithitsupraised，widely—expanded，well—
featheredtail，theTurbitwithitsfrillandshortbluntbeak，andtheJacobinwithhishood。Now，ifthissamepersoncouldhaveviewedthepigeonskeptbefore1600byAkberKhaninIndiaandbyAldrovandiinEurope，hewouldhaveseentheJacobinwithalessperfecthood;theTurbitapparentlywithoutitsfrill;thePouterwithshorterlegs，andineverywaylessremarkable——thatis，ifAldrovandi’sPouterresembledtheoldGermankind;theFantailwouldhavebeenfarlesssingularinappearance，andwouldhavehadmuchfewerfeathersinitstail;hewouldhaveseenexcellentflyingTumblers，buthewouldinvainhavelookedforthemarvellousshort—facedbreeds;hewouldhaveseenbirdsalliedtoBarbs，butitisextremelydoubtfulwhetherhewouldhavemetwithouractualBarbs;andlastly，hewouldhavefoundCarrierswithbeaksandwattleincomparablylessdevelopedthaninourEnglishCarriers。Hemighthaveclassedmostofthebreedsinthesamegroupsasatpresent;butthedifferencesbetweenthegroupswerethenfarlessstronglypronouncedthanatpresent。Inshort，theseveralbreedshadatthisearlyperiodnotdivergedinsogreatadegreeasnowfromtheiraboriginalcommonparent，thewildrock—pigeon。
MANNEROFFORMATIONOFTHECHIEFRACES。
Wewillnowconsidermorecloselytheprobablestepsbywhichthechiefraceshavebeenformed。Aslongaspigeonsarekeptsemi—domesticatedindovecotesintheirnativecountry，withoutanycareinselectingandmatchingthem，theyareliabletolittlemorevariationthanthewildC。
livia，namely，inthewingsbecomingchequeredwithblack，inthecroupbeingblueorwhite，andinthesizeofthebody。When，however，dovecote—
pigeonsaretransportedintodiversifiedcountries，suchasSierraLeone，theMalayarchipelago，andMadeira，theyareexposedtonewconditionsoflife;andapparentlyinconsequencevaryinasomewhatgreaterdegree。Whencloselyconfined，eitherforthepleasureofwatchingthem，ortopreventtheirstraying，theymustbeexposed，evenintheirnativeclimate，toconsiderablydifferentconditions;fortheycannotobtaintheirnaturaldiversityoffood;and，whatisprobablymoreimportant，theyareabundantlyfed，whilstdebarredfromtakingmuchexercise。Underthesecircumstanceswemightexpecttofind，fromtheanalogyofallotherdomesticatedanimals，agreateramountofindividualvariabilitythanwiththewildpigeon;andthisisthecase。Thewantofexerciseapparentlytendstoreducethesizeofthefeetandorgansofflight;andthen，fromthelawofcorrelationofgrowth，thebeakapparentlybecomesaffected。
Fromwhatwenowseeoccasionallytakingplaceinouraviaries，wemayconcludethatsuddenvariationsorsports，suchastheappearanceofacrestoffeathersonthehead，offeatheredfeet，ofanewshadeofcolour，ofanadditionalfeatherinthetailorwing，wouldoccuratrareintervalsduringthemanycenturieswhichhaveelapsedsincethepigeonwasfirstdomesticated。Atthepresentdaysuch\"sports\"aregenerallyrejectedasblemishes;andthereissomuchmysteryinthebreedingofpigeonsthat，ifavaluablesportdidoccur，itshistorywouldoftenbeconcealed。Beforethelasthundredandfiftyyears，thereishardlyachanceofthehistoryofanysuchsporthavingbeenrecorded。Butitbynomeansfollowsfromthisthatsuchsportsinformertimes，whenthepigeonhadundergonemuchlessvariation，wouldhavebeenrejected。Weareprofoundlyignorantofthecauseofeachsuddenandapparentlyspontaneousvariation，aswellasoftheinfinitelynumerousshadesofdifferencebetweenthebirdsofthesamefamily。Butinafuturechapterweshallseethatallsuchvariationsappeartobetheindirectresultofchangesofsomekindintheconditionsoflife。
Hence，afteralongcourseofdomestication，wemightexpecttoseeinthepigeonmuchindividualvariability，andoccasionalsuddenvariations，aswellasslightmodificationsfromthelesseneduseofcertainparts，togetherwiththeeffectsofcorrelationofgrowth。Butwithoutselectionallthiswouldproduceonlyatriflingornoresult;forwithoutsuchaiddifferencesofallkindswould，fromthetwofollowingcauses，soondisappear。Inahealthyandvigorouslotofpigeonsmanymoreyoungbirdsarekilledforfoodordiethanarerearedtomaturity;sothatanindividualhavinganypeculiarcharacter，ifnotselected，wouldrunagoodchanceofbeingdestroyed;andifnotdestroyed，thepeculiarityinquestionwouldgenerallybeobliteratedbyfreeintercrossing。Itmight，however，occasionallyhappenthatthesamevariationrepeatedlyoccurred，owingtotheactionofpeculiaranduniformconditionsoflife，andinthiscaseitwouldprevailindependentlyofselection。Butwhenselectionisbroughtintoplayallischanged;forthisisthefoundation—stoneintheformationofnewraces;andwiththepigeon，circumstances，aswehavealreadyseen，areeminentlyfavourableforselection。Whenabirdpresentingsomeconspicuousvariationhasbeenpreserved，anditsoffspringhavebeenselected，carefullymatched，andagainpropagated，andsoonwardsduringsuccessivegenerations，theprincipleissoobviousthatnothingmoreneedbesaidaboutit。ThismaybecalledMETHODICALSELECTION，forthebreederhasadistinctobjectinview，namely，topreservesomecharacterwhichhasactuallyappeared;ortocreatesomeimprovementalreadypicturedinhismind。
Anotherformofselectionhashardlybeennoticedbythoseauthorswhohavediscussedthissubject，butisevenmoreimportant。ThisformmaybecalledUNCONSCIOUSSELECTION，forthebreederselectshisbirdsunconsciously，unintentionally，andwithoutmethod，yethesurelythoughslowlyproducesagreatresult。Irefertotheeffectswhichfollowfromeachfancieratfirstprocuringandafterwardsrearingasgoodbirdsashecan，accordingtohisskill，andaccordingtothestandardofexcellenceateachsuccessiveperiod。Hedoesnotwishpermanentlytomodifythebreed;hedoesnotlooktothedistantfuture，orspeculateonthefinalresultoftheslowaccumulationduringmanygenerationsofsuccessiveslightchanges;
heiscontentifhepossessesagoodstock，andmorethancontentifhecanbeathisrivals。ThefancierinthetimeofAldrovandi，whenintheyear1600headmiredhisownJacobins，Pouters，orCarriers，neverreflectedwhattheirdescendantsintheyear1860wouldbecome:hewouldhavebeenastonishedcouldhehaveseenourJacobins，ourimprovedEnglishCarriers，andourPouters;hewouldprobablyhavedeniedthattheywerethedescendantsofhisownonce—admiredstock，andhewouldperhapsnothavevaluedthem，fornootherreason，aswaswrittenin1765，\"thanbecausetheywerenotlikewhatusedtobethoughtgoodwhenhewasinthefancy。\"
NoonewillattributethelengthenedbeakoftheCarrier，theshortenedbeakoftheShort—facedTumbler，thelengthenedlegofthePouter，themoreperfectlyenclosedhoodoftheJacobin，etc。——changeseffectedsincethetimeofAldrovandi，orevensinceamuchlaterperiod，——tothedirectandimmediateactionoftheconditionsoflife。Fortheseseveralraceshavebeenmodifiedinvariousandevenindirectlyoppositeways，thoughkeptunderthesameclimateandtreatedinallrespectsinasnearlyuniformamanneraspossible。Eachslightchangeinthelengthorshortnessofthebeak，inthelengthofleg，etc。，hasnodoubtbeenindirectlyandremotelycausedbysomechangeintheconditionstowhichthebirdhasbeensubjected，butwemustattributethefinalresult，asismanifestinthosecasesofwhichwehaveanyhistoricalrecord，tothecontinuedselectionandaccumulationofmanyslightsuccessivevariations。
Theactionofunconsciousselection，asfaraspigeonsareconcerned，dependsonauniversalprincipleinhumannature，namely，onourrivalry，anddesiretooutdoourneighbours。Weseethisineveryfleetingfashion，eveninourdress，anditleadsthefanciertoendeavourtoexaggerateeverypeculiarityinhisbreeds。Agreatauthorityonpigeons（6/44。Eaton’TreatiseonPigeons’1858page86。），says，\"Fanciersdonotandwillnotadmireamediumstandard，thatis，halfandhalf，whichisneitherherenorthere，butadmireextremes。\"AfterremarkingthatthefancierofShort—
facedBeardTumblerswishesforaveryshortbeak，andthatthefancierofLong—facedBeardTumblerswishesforaverylongbeak，hesays，withrespecttooneofintermediatelength，\"Don’tdeceiveyourself。Doyousupposeforamomenttheshortorthelong—facedfancierwouldacceptsuchabirdasagift？Certainlynot;theshort—facedfanciercouldseenobeautyinit;thelong—facedfancierwouldsweartherewasnouseinit，etc。\"Inthesecomicalpassages，writtenseriously，weseetheprinciplewhichhaseverguidedfanciers，andhasledtosuchgreatmodificationsinallthedomesticraceswhicharevaluedsolelyfortheirbeautyorcuriosity。
Fashionsinpigeon—breedingendureforlongperiods;wecannotchangethestructureofabirdasquicklyaswecanthefashionofourdress。InthetimeofAldrovandi，nodoubtthemorethepouterinflatedhiscrop，themorehewasvalued。Nevertheless，fashionsdotoacertainextentchange;
firstonepointofstructureandthenanotherisattendedto;ordifferentbreedsareadmiredatdifferenttimesandindifferentcountries。Astheauthorjustquotedremarks，\"thefancyebbsandflows;athoroughfanciernow—a—daysneverstoopstobreedtoy—birds;\"yetthesevery\"toys\"arenowmostcarefullybredinGermany。BreedswhichatthepresenttimearehighlyvaluedinIndiaareconsideredworthlessinEngland。Nodoubt，whenbreedsareneglected，theydegenerate;stillwemaybelievethat，aslongastheyarekeptunderthesameconditionsoflife，charactersoncegainedwillbepartiallyretainedforalongtime，andmayformthestarting—pointforafuturecourseofselection。
Letitnotbeobjectedtothisviewoftheactionofunconsciousselectionthatfancierswouldnotobserveorcareforextremelyslightdifferences。
Thosealonewhohaveassociatedwithfancierscanbethoroughlyawareoftheiraccuratepowersofdiscriminationacquiredbylongpractice，andofthecareandlabourwhichtheybestowontheirbirds。Ihaveknownafancierdeliberatelystudyhisbirdsdayafterdaytosettlewhichtomatchtogetherandwhichtoreject。Observehowdifficultthesubjectappearstooneofthemosteminentandexperiencedfanciers。Mr。Eaton，thewinnerofmanyprizes，says，\"Iwouldhereparticularlyguardyouagainstkeepingtoogreatavarietyofpigeons，otherwiseyouwillknowalittleaboutallthekinds，butnothingaboutoneasitoughttobeknown。\"\"Itispossibletheremaybeafewfanciersthathaveagoodgeneralknowledgeoftheseveralfancypigeons，buttherearemanywholabourunderthedelusionofsupposingtheyknowwhattheydonot。\"Speakingexclusivelyofonesub—
varietyofonerace，namely，theshort—facedalmondtumbler，andaftersayingthatsomefancierssacrificeeverypropertytoobtainagoodheadandbeak，andthatotherfancierssacrificeeverythingforplumage，heremarks:\"Someyoungfancierswhoareovercovetousgoinforallthefivepropertiesatonce，andtheyhavetheirrewardbygettingnothing。\"InIndia，asIhearfromMr。Blyth，pigeonsarelikewiseselectedandmatchedwiththegreatestcare。Wemustnotjudgeoftheslightdivergencesfromexistingvarietieswhichwouldhavebeenvaluedinancientdays，bythosewhicharenowvaluedaftertheformationofsomanyraces，eachwithitsownstandardofperfection，keptuniformbyournumerousExhibitions。Theambitionofthemostenergeticfanciermaybefullysatisfiedbythedifficultyofexcellingotherfanciersinthebreedsalreadyestablished，withouttryingtoformanewone。
Adifficultywithrespecttothepowerofselectionwillperhapsalreadyhaveoccurredtothereader，namely，whatcouldhaveledfanciersfirsttoattempttomakesuchsingularbreedsasPouters，Fantails，Carriers，etc。？
Butitisthisverydifficultywhichtheprincipleofunconsciousselectionremoves。Undoubtedlynofanciereverdidintentionallymakesuchanattempt。Allthatweneedsupposeisthatavariationoccurredsufficientlymarkedtocatchthediscriminatingeyeofsomeancientfancier，andthenunconsciousselectioncarriedonformanygenerations，thatis，thewishofsucceedingfancierstoexceltheirrivals，woulddotherest。InthecaseoftheFantailwemaysupposethatthefirstprogenitorofthebreedhadatailonlyslightlyerected，asmaynowbeseenincertainRunts（6/45。SeeNeumeister’sfigureoftheFlorenceRunt，tab。13in’DasGanzederTaubenzucht。’）withsomeincreaseinthenumberofthetail—feathers，asnowoccasionallyoccurswithNuns。InthecaseofthePouterwemaysupposethatsomebirdinflateditscropalittlemorethanotherpigeons，asisnowthecaseinaslightdegreewiththeoesophagusoftheTurbit。WedonotknowtheoriginofthecommonTumbler，butwemaysupposethatabirdwasbornwithsomeaffectionofthebrain，leadingittomakesomersaultsintheair（6/46。Mr。W。J。MooregivesafullaccountoftheGroundTumblersofIndia（’IndianMedicalGazette’JanuaryandFebruary1873），andsaystheprickingthebaseofthebrain，andgivinghydrocyanicacid，togetherwithstrychnine，toanordinarypigeon，bringsonconvulsivemovementsexactlylikethoseofaTumbler。Onepigeon，thebrainofwhichhadbeenpricked，completelyrecovered，andeverafterwardsoccasionallymadesomersaults。）andbeforetheyear1600pigeonsremarkablefortheirdiversifiedmannerofflightweremuchvaluedinIndia，andbytheorderoftheEmperorAkberKhanweresedulouslytrainedandcarefullymatched。
Intheforegoingcaseswehavesupposedthatasuddenvariation，conspicuousenoughtocatchafancier’seye，firstappeared;buteventhisdegreeofabruptnessintheprocessofvariationisnotnecessaryfortheformationofanewbreed。Whenthesamekindofpigeonhasbeenkeptpure，andhasbeenbredduringalongperiodbytwoormorefanciers，slightdifferencesinthestraincanoftenberecognised。ThusIhaveseenfirst—
rateJacobinsinoneman’spossessionwhichcertainlydifferedslightlyinseveralcharactersfromthosekeptbyanother。IpossessedsomeexcellentBarbsdescendedfromapairwhichhadwonaprize，andanotherlotdescendedfromastockformerlykeptbythatfamousfancierSirJohnSebright，andtheseplainlydifferedintheformofthebeak;butthedifferencesweresoslightthattheycouldhardlybegivenbywords。Again，thecommonEnglishandDutchTumblerdifferinasomewhatgreaterdegree，bothinlengthofbeakandshapeofhead。Whatfirstcausedtheseslightdifferencescannotbeexplainedanymorethanwhyonemanhasalongnoseandanotherashortone。Inthestrainslongkeptdistinctbydifferentfanciers，suchdifferencesaresocommonthattheycannotbeaccountedforbytheaccidentofthebirdsfirstchosenforbreedinghavingbeenoriginallyasdifferentastheynoware。Theexplanationnodoubtliesinselectionofaslightlydifferentnaturehavingbeenappliedineachcase;
fornotwofanciershaveexactlythesametaste，andconsequentlynotwo，inchoosingandcarefullymatchingtheirbirds，preferorselectexactlythesame。Aseachmannaturallyadmireshisownbirds，hegoesoncontinuallyexaggeratingbyselectionwhateverslightpeculiaritiestheymaypossess。Thiswillmoreespeciallyhappenwithfancierslivingindifferentcountries，whodonotcomparetheirstocksoraimatacommonstandardofperfection。Thus，whenamerestrainhasoncebeenformed，unconsciousselectionsteadilytendstoaugmenttheamountofdifference，andthusconvertsthestrainintoasub—breedandthisultimatelyintoawell—markedbreedorrace。
Theprincipleofcorrelationofgrowthshouldneverbelostsightof。Mostpigeonshavesmallfeet，apparentlycausedbytheirlesseneduse，andfromcorrelation，asitwouldappear，theirbeakshavelikewisebecomereducedinlength。Thebeakisaconspicuousorgan，and，assoonasithadthusbecomeperceptiblyshortened，fancierswouldalmostcertainlystrivetoreduceitstillmorebythecontinuedselectionofbirdswiththeshortestbeaks;whilstatthesametimeotherfanciers，asweknowhasactuallybeenthecase，wouldinothersub—breeds，strivetoincreaseitslength。Withtheincreasedlengthofthebeak，thetonguebecomesgreatlylengthened，asdotheeyelidswiththeincreaseddevelopmentoftheeye—wattles;withthereducedorincreasedsizeofthefeet，thenumberofthescutellaevary;
withthelengthofthewing，thenumberoftheprimarywing—feathersdiffer;andwiththeincreasedlengthofthebodyinthepouterthenumberofthesacralvertebraeisaugmented。Theseimportantandcorrelateddifferencesofstructuredonotinvariablycharacteriseanybreed;butiftheyhadbeenattendedtoandselectedwithasmuchcareasthemoreconspicuousexternaldifferences，therecanhardlybeadoubtthattheywouldhavebeenrenderedconstant。FancierscouldassuredlyhavemadearaceofTumblerswithnineinsteadoftenprimarywing—feathers，seeinghowoftenthenumbernineappearswithoutanywishontheirpart，andindeedinthecaseofthewhite—wingedvarietiesinoppositiontotheirwish。Inasimilarmanner，ifthevertebraehadbeenvisibleandhadbeenattendedtobyfanciers，assuredlyanadditionalnumbermighteasilyhavebeenfixedinthePouter。Iftheselattercharactershadoncebeenrenderedconstant，weshouldneverhavesuspectedthattheyhadatfirstbeenhighlyvariable，orthattheyhadarisenfromcorrelation，intheonecasewiththeshortnessofthewings，andintheothercasewiththelengthofthebody。
Inordertounderstandhowthechiefdomesticraceshavebecomedistinctlyseparatedfromeachother，itisimportanttobearinmind，thatfanciersconstantlytrytobreedfromthebestbirds，andconsequentlythatthosewhichareinferiorintherequisitequalitiesareineachgenerationneglected;sothatafteratimethelessimprovedparent—stocksandmanysubsequentlyformedintermediategradesbecomeextinct。ThishasoccurredinthecaseofthePouter，Turbit，andTrumpeter，forthesehighlyimprovedbreedsarenowleftwithoutanylinkscloselyconnectingthemeitherwitheachotherorwiththeaboriginalrock—pigeon。Inothercountries，indeed，wherethesamecarehasnotbeenapplied，orwherethesamefashionhasnotprevailed，theearlierformsmaylongremainunaltered，oralteredonlyinaslightdegree，andwearethussometimesenabledtorecovertheconnectinglinks。ThisisthecaseinPersiaandIndiawiththeTumblerandCarrier，whichtheredifferbutslightlyfromtherock—pigeonintheproportionsoftheirbeaks。SoagaininJava，theFantailsometimeshasonlyfourteencaudalfeathers，andthetailismuchlesselevatedandexpandedthaninourimprovedbirds;sothattheJavabirdformsalinkbetweenafirst—rateFantailandtherock—pigeon。
Occasionallyabreedmayberetainedforsomeparticularqualityinanearlyunalteredconditioninthesamecountry，togetherwithhighlymodifiedoff—shootsorsub—breeds，whicharevaluedforsomedistinctproperty。WeseethisexemplifiedinEngland，wherethecommonTumbler，whichisvaluedonlyforitsflight，doesnotdiffermuchfromitsparent—
form，theEasternTumbler;whereastheShort—facedTumblerhasbeenprodigiouslymodified，frombeingvalued，notforitsflight，butforotherqualities。Butthecommon—flyingTumblerofEuropehasalreadybeguntobranchoutintoslightlydifferentsub—breeds，suchasthecommonEnglishTumbler，theDutchRoller，theGlasgowHouse—tumbler，andtheLong—facedBeardTumbler，etc。;andinthecourseofcenturies，unlessfashionsgreatlychange，thesesub—breedswilldivergethroughtheslowandinsensibleprocessofunconsciousselection，andbecomemodified，inagreaterandgreaterdegree。Afteratimetheperfectlygraduatedlinkswhichnowconnectallthesesub—breedstogether，willbelost，fortherewouldbenoobjectandmuchdifficultyinretainingsuchahostofintermediatesub—varieties。
Theprincipleofdivergence，togetherwiththeextinctionofthemanypreviouslyexistingintermediateforms，issoimportantforunderstandingtheoriginofdomesticraces，aswellasofspeciesinastateofnature，thatIwillenlargealittlemoreonthissubject。OurthirdmaingroupincludesCarriers，Barbs，andRunts，whichareplainlyrelatedtooneanother，yetwonderfullydistinctinseveralimportantcharacters。
Accordingtotheviewgiveninthelastchapter，thesethreeraceshaveprobablydescendedfromanunknownracehavinganintermediatecharacter，andthisracefromtherock—pigeon。Theircharacteristicdifferencesarebelievedtobeduetodifferentbreedershavingatanearlyperiodadmireddifferentpointsofstructure;andthen，ontheacknowledgedprincipleofadmiringextremes，havinggoneonbreeding，withoutanythoughtofthefuture，asgoodbirdsastheycould，——Carrier—fancierspreferringlongbeakswithmuchwattle，——Barb—fancierspreferringshortthickbeakswithmucheye—wattle，——andRunt—fanciersnotcaringaboutthebeakorwattle，butonlyforthesizeandweightofthebody。Thisprocesswouldhaveledtotheneglectandfinalextinctionoftheearlier，inferior，andintermediatebirds;andthusithascometopass，thatinEuropethesethreeracesarenowsoextraordinarilydistinctfromeachother。ButintheEast，whencetheywereoriginallybrought，thefashionhasbeendifferent，andwethereseebreedswhichconnectthehighlymodifiedEnglishCarrierwiththerock—pigeon，andotherswhichtoacertainextentconnectCarriersandRunts。LookingbacktothetimeofAldrovandi，wefindthatthereexistedinEurope，beforetheyear1600，fourbreedswhichwerecloselyalliedtoCarriersandBarbs，butwhichcompetentauthoritiescannotnowidentifywithourpresentBarbsandCarriers;norcanAldrovandi’sRuntsbeidentifiedwithourpresentRunts。ThesefourbreedscertainlydidnotdifferfromeachothernearlysomuchasdoourexistingEnglishCarriers，Barbs，andRunts。Allthisisexactlywhatmighthavebeenanticipated。Ifwecouldcollectallthepigeonswhichhaveeverlived，frombeforethetimeoftheRomanstothepresentday，weshouldbeabletogrouptheminseverallines，divergingfromtheparentrock—pigeon。Eachlinewouldconsistofalmostinsensiblesteps，occasionallybrokenbysomeslightlygreatervariationorsport，andeachwouldculminateinoneofourpresenthighlymodifiedforms。Ofthemanyformerconnectinglinks，somewouldbefoundtohavebecomeabsolutelyextinctwithouthavingleftanyissue，whilstothers，thoughextinct，wouldberecognisedastheprogenitorsoftheexistingraces。
Ihavehearditremarkedasastrangecircumstancethatweoccasionallyhearofthelocalorcompleteextinctionofdomesticraces，whilstwehearnothingoftheirorigin。How，ithasbeenasked，cantheselossesbecompensated，andmorethancompensated，forweknowthatwithalmostalldomesticatedanimalstheraceshavelargelyincreasedinnumbersincethetimeoftheRomans？Butontheviewheregiven，wecanunderstandthisapparentcontradiction。Theextinctionofaracewithinhistoricaltimesisaneventlikelytobenoticed;butitsgradualandscarcelysensiblemodificationthroughunconsciousselection，anditssubsequentdivergence，eitherinthesameormorecommonlyindistantcountries，intotwoormorestrains，andtheirgradualconversionintosub—breeds，andtheseintowell—
markedbreedsareeventswhichwouldrarelybenoticed。Thedeathofatree，thathasattainedgiganticdimensions，isrecorded;theslowgrowthofsmallertreesandtheirincreaseinnumberexcitenoattention。
Inaccordancewiththebeliefinthegreatpowerofselection，andofthelittledirectpowerofchangedconditionsoflife，exceptincausinggeneralvariabilityorplasticityoforganisation，itisnotsurprisingthatdovecote—pigeonshaveremainedunalteredfromtimeimmemorial;andthatsometoy—pigeons，whichdifferinlittleelsebesidescolourfromthedovecote—pigeon，haveretainedthesamecharacterforseveralcenturies。
Forwhenoneofthesetoy—pigeonshadoncebecomebeautifullyandsymmetricallycoloured，——when，forinstance，aSpothadbeenproducedwiththecrownofitshead，itstail，andtail—covertsofauniformcolour，therestofthebodybeingsnow—white，——noalterationorimprovementwouldbedesired。Ontheotherhand，itisnotsurprisingthatduringthissameintervaloftimeourhighly—bredpigeonshaveundergoneanastonishingamountofchange;forinregardtothemthereisnodefinedlimittothewishofthefancier，andthereisnoknownlimittothevariabilityoftheircharacters。WhatistheretostopthefancierdesiringtogivetohisCarrieralongerandlongerbeak，ortohisTumblerashorterandshorterbeak？norhastheextremelimitofvariabilityinthebeak，iftherebeanysuchlimit，asyetbeenreached。NotwithstandingthegreatimprovementeffectedwithinrecenttimesintheShort—facedAlmondTumbler，Mr。Eatonremarks，\"thefieldisstillasopenforfreshcompetitorsasitwasonehundredyearsago;\"butthisisperhapsanexaggeratedassertion，fortheyoungofallhighly—improvedfancybirdsareextremelyliabletodiseaseanddeath。
IhavehearditobjectedthattheformationoftheseveraldomesticracesofthepigeonthrowsnolightontheoriginofthewildspeciesoftheColumbidae，becausetheirdifferencesarenotofthesamenature。Thedomesticraces，forinstancedonotdiffer，ordifferhardlyatall，intherelativelengthsandshapeoftheprimarywing—feathers，intherelativelengthofthehindtoe，orinhabitsoflife，asinroostingandbuildingintrees。Buttheaboveobjectionshowshowcompletelytheprincipleofselectionhasbeenmisunderstood。Itisnotlikelythatcharactersselectedbythecapriceofmanshouldresembledifferencespreservedundernaturalconditionseitherfrombeingofdirectservicetoeachspecies，orfromstandingincorrelationwithothermodifiedandserviceablestructures。