INTWOVOLUMES
VOLUMEI。
PREFACETOTHESECONDEDITION。
Duringthesevenyearswhichhaveelapsedsincethepublicationin1868ofthefirsteditionofthisWork，Ihavecontinuedtoattendtothesamesubjects，asfaraslayinmypower;andIhavethusaccumulatedalargebodyofadditionalfacts，chieflythroughthekindnessofmanycorrespondents。OfthesefactsIhavebeenableheretouseonlythosewhichseemedtomethemoreimportant。Ihaveomittedsomestatements，andcorrectedsomeerrors，thediscoveryofwhichIowetomyreviewers。Manyadditionalreferenceshavebeengiven。Theeleventhchapter，andthatonPangenesis，arethosewhichhavebeenmostaltered，partshavingbeenre—
modelled;butIwillgivealistofthemoreimportantalterationsforthesakeofthosewhomaypossessthefirsteditionofthisbook。
CONTENTS。
INTRODUCTION。
CHAPTER1。I。
DOMESTICDOGSANDCATS。
ANCIENTVARIETIESOFTHEDOG——RESEMBLANCEOFDOMESTICDOGSINVARIOUS
COUNTRIESTONATIVECANINESPECIES——ANIMALSNOTACQUAINTEDWITHMANAT
FIRSTFEARLESS——DOGSRESEMBLINGWOLVESANDJACKALS——HABITOFBARKING
ACQUIREDANDLOST——FERALDOGS——TAN—COLOUREDEYE—SPOTS——PERIODOFGESTATION—
—OFFENSIVEODOUR——FERTILITYOFTHERACESWHENCROSSED——DIFFERENCESINTHE
SEVERALRACESINPARTDUETODESCENTFROMDISTINCTSPECIES——DIFFERENCESIN
THESKULLANDTEETH——DIFFERENCESINTHEBODY，INCONSTITUTION——FEW
IMPORTANTDIFFERENCESHAVEBEENFIXEDBYSELECTION——DIRECTACTIONOF
CLIMATE——WATER—DOGSWITHPALMATEDFEET——HISTORYOFTHECHANGESWHICH
CERTAINENGLISHRACESOFTHEDOGHAVEGRADUALLYUNDERGONETHROUGH
SELECTION——EXTINCTIONOFTHELESSIMPROVEDSUB—BREEDS。
CATS，CROSSEDWITHSEVERALSPECIES——DIFFERENTBREEDSFOUNDONLYIN
SEPARATEDCOUNTRIES——DIRECTEFFECTSOFTHECONDITIONSOFLIFE——FERALCATS——
INDIVIDUALVARIABILITY。
CHAPTER1。II。
HORSESANDASSES。
HORSE——DIFFERENCESINTHEBREEDS——INDIVIDUALVARIABILITYOF——DIRECTEFFECTS
OFTHECONDITIONSOFLIFE——CANWITHSTANDMUCHCOLD——BREEDSMUCHMODIFIEDBY
SELECTION——COLOURSOFTHEHORSE——DAPPLING——DARKSTRIPESONTHESPINE，LEGS，SHOULDERS，ANDFOREHEAD——DUN—COLOUREDHORSESMOSTFREQUENTLYSTRIPED——
STRIPESPROBABLYDUETOREVERSIONTOTHEPRIMITIVESTATEOFTHEHORSE。
ASSES——BREEDSOF——COLOUROF——LEG—ANDSHOULDER—STRIPES——SHOULDER—STRIPES
SOMETIMESABSENT，SOMETIMESFORKED。
CHAPTER1。III。
PIGS——CATTLE——SHEEP——GOATS。
PIGSBELONGTOTWODISTINCTTYPES，SUSSCROFAANDINDICUS——TORFSCHWEIN——
JAPANPIGS——FERTILITYOFCROSSEDPIGS——CHANGESINTHESKULLOFTHEHIGHLY
CULTIVATEDRACES——CONVERGENCEOFCHARACTER——GESTATION——SOLID—HOOFEDSWINE——
CURIOUSAPPENDAGESTOTHEJAWS——DECREASEINSIZEOFTHETUSKS——YOUNGPIGS
LONGITUDINALLYSTRIPED——FERALPIGS——CROSSEDBREEDS。
CATTLE——ZEBUADISTINCTSPECIES——EUROPEANCATTLEPROBABLYDESCENDEDFROM
THREEWILDFORMS——ALLTHERACESNOWFERTILETOGETHER——BRITISHPARKCATTLE——
ONTHECOLOUROFTHEABORIGINALSPECIES——CONSTITUTIONALDIFFERENCES——SOUTH
AFRICANRACES——SOUTHAMERICANRACES——NIATACATTLE——ORIGINOFTHEVARIOUS
RACESOFCATTLE。
SHEEP——REMARKABLERACESOF——VARIATIONSATTACHEDTOTHEMALESEX——
ADAPTATIONSTOVARIOUSCONDITIONS——GESTATIONOF——CHANGESINTHEWOOL——SEMI—
MONSTROUSBREEDS。
GOATS——REMARKABLEVARIATIONSOF。
CHAPTER1。IV。
DOMESTICRABBITS。
DOMESTICRABBITSDESCENDEDFROMTHECOMMONWILDRABBIT——ANCIENT
DOMESTICATION——ANCIENTSELECTION——LARGELOP—EAREDRABBITS——VARIOUSBREEDS——
FLUCTUATINGCHARACTERS——ORIGINOFTHEHIMALAYANBREED——CURIOUSCASEOF
INHERITANCE——FERALRABBITSINJAMAICAANDTHEFALKLANDISLANDS——PORTOSANTO
FERALRABBITS——OSTEOLOGICALCHARACTERS——SKULL——SKULLOFHALF—LOPRABBITS——
VARIATIONSINTHESKULLANALOGOUSTODIFFERENCESINDIFFERENTSPECIESOF
HARES——VERTEBRAE——STERNUM——SCAPULA——EFFECTSOFUSEANDDISUSEONTHE
PROPORTIONSOFTHELIMBSANDBODY——CAPACITYOFTHESKULLANDREDUCEDSIZE
OFTHEBRAIN——SUMMARYONTHEMODIFICATIONSOFDOMESTICATEDRABBITS。
CHAPTER1。V。
DOMESTICPIGEONS。
ENUMERATIONANDDESCRIPTIONOFTHESEVERALBREEDS——INDIVIDUALVARIABILITY——
VARIATIONSOFAREMARKABLENATURE——OSTEOLOGICALCHARACTERS:SKULL，LOWER
JAW，NUMBEROFVERTEBRAE——CORRELATIONOFGROWTH:TONGUEWITHBEAK;EYELIDS
ANDNOSTRILSWITHWATTLEDSKIN——NUMBEROFWING—FEATHERSANDLENGTHOFWING—
—COLOURANDDOWN——WEBBEDANDFEATHEREDFEET——ONTHEEFFECTSOFDISUSE——
LENGTHOFFEETINCORRELATIONWITHLENGTHOFBEAK——LENGTHOFSTERNUM，SCAPULA，ANDFURCULUM——LENGTHOFWINGS——SUMMARYONTHEPOINTSOFDIFFERENCE
INTHESEVERALBREEDS。
CHAPTER1。VI。
PIGEONS——continued。
ONTHEABORIGINALPARENT—STOCKOFTHESEVERALDOMESTICRACES——HABITSOF
LIFE——WILDRACESOFTHEROCK—PIGEON——DOVECOTE—PIGEONS——PROOFSOFTHE
DESCENTOFTHESEVERALRACESFROMCOLUMBALIVIA——FERTILITYOFTHERACES
WHENCROSSED——REVERSIONTOTHEPLUMAGEOFTHEWILDROCK—PIGEON——
CIRCUMSTANCESFAVOURABLETOTHEFORMATIONOFTHERACES——ANTIQUITYAND
HISTORYOFTHEPRINCIPALRACES——MANNEROFTHEIRFORMATION——SELECTION——
UNCONSCIOUSSELECTION——CARETAKENBYFANCIERSINSELECTINGTHEIRBIRDS——
SLIGHTLYDIFFERENTSTRAINSGRADUALLYCHANGEINTOWELL—MARKEDBREEDS——
EXTINCTIONOFINTERMEDIATEFORMS——CERTAINBREEDSREMAINPERMANENT，WHILST
OTHERSCHANGE——SUMMARY。
CHAPTER1。VII。
FOWLS。
BRIEFDESCRIPTIONSOFTHECHIEFBREEDS——ARGUMENTSINFAVOUROFTHEIR
DESCENTFROMSEVERALSPECIES——ARGUMENTSINFAVOUROFALLTHEBREEDSHAVING
DESCENDEDFROMGALLUSBANKIVA——REVERSIONTOTHEPARENT—STOCKINCOLOUR——
ANALOGOUSVARIATIONS——ANCIENTHISTORYOFTHEFOWL——EXTERNALDIFFERENCES
BETWEENTHESEVERALBREEDS——EGGS——CHICKENS——SECONDARYSEXUALCHARACTERS——
WING—ANDTAIL—FEATHERS，VOICE，DISPOSITION，ETC。——OSTEOLOGICALDIFFERENCES
INTHESKULL，VERTEBRAE，ETC。——EFFECTSOFUSEANDDISUSEONCERTAINPARTS——
CORRELATIONOFGROWTH。
CHAPTER1。VIII。
DUCK——GOOSE——PEACOCK——TURKEY——GUINEA—FOWL——CANARY—BIRD——GOLD—FISH——HIVE—
BEES——SILK—MOTHS。
DUCKS，SEVERALBREEDSOF——PROGRESSOFDOMESTICATION——ORIGINOFFROMTHE
COMMONWILD—DUCK——DIFFERENCESINTHEDIFFERENTBREEDS——OSTEOLOGICAL
DIFFERENCES——EFFECTSOFUSEANDDISUSEONTHELIMB—BONES。
GOOSE，ANCIENTLYDOMESTICATED——LITTLEVARIATIONOF——SEBASTOPOLBREED。
PEACOCK，ORIGINOFBLACK—SHOULDEREDBREED。
TURKEY，BREEDSOF——CROSSEDWITHTHEUNITEDSTATESSPECIES——EFFECTSOF
CLIMATEON。
GUINEA—FOWL，CANARY—BIRD，GOLD—FISH，HIVE—BEE。
SILK—MOTHS，SPECIESANDBREEDSOF——ANCIENTLYDOMESTICATED——CAREINTHEIR
SELECTION——DIFFERENCESINTHEDIFFERENTRACES——INTHEEGG，CATERPILLAR，AND
COCOONSTATES——INHERITANCEOFCHARACTERS——IMPERFECTWINGS——LOSTINSTINCTS——
CORRELATEDCHARACTERS。
CHAPTER1。IX。
CULTIVATEDPLANTS:CEREALANDCULINARYPLANTS。
PRELIMINARYREMARKSONTHENUMBERANDPARENTAGEOFCULTIVATEDPLANTS——FIRST
STEPSINCULTIVATION——GEOGRAPHICALDISTRIBUTIONOFCULTIVATEDPLANTS。
CEREALIA——DOUBTSONTHENUMBEROFSPECIES——WHEAT:VARIETIESOF——INDIVIDUAL
VARIABILITY——CHANGEDHABITS——SELECTION——ANCIENTHISTORYOFTHEVARIETIES——
MAIZE:GREATVARIATIONOF——DIRECTACTIONOFCLIMATEON。
CULINARYPLANTS——CABBAGES:VARIETIESOF，INFOLIAGEANDSTEMS，BUTNOTIN
OTHERPARTS——PARENTAGEOF——OTHERSPECIESOFBRASSICA——PEAS:AMOUNTOF
DIFFERENCEINTHESEVERALKINDS，CHIEFLYINTHEPODSANDSEED——SOME
VARIETIESCONSTANT，SOMEHIGHLYVARIABLE——DONOTINTERCROSS——BEANS——
POTATOES:NUMEROUSVARIETIESOF——DIFFERLITTLEEXCEPTINTHETUBERS——
CHARACTERSINHERITED。
CHAPTER1。X。
PLANTScontinued——FRUITS——ORNAMENTALTREES——FLOWERS。
FRUITS——GRAPES——VARYINODDANDTRIFLINGPARTICULARS——MULBERRY——THEORANGE
GROUP——SINGULARRESULTSFROMCROSSING——PEACHANDNECTARINE——BUD—VARIATION——
ANALOGOUSVARIATION——RELATIONTOTHEALMOND——APRICOT——PLUMS——VARIATIONIN
THEIRSTONES——CHERRIES——SINGULARVARIETIESOF——APPLE——PEAR——STRAWBERRY——
INTERBLENDINGOFTHEORIGINALFORMS——GOOSEBERRY——STEADYINCREASEINSIZEOF
THEFRUIT——VARIETIESOF——WALNUT——NUT——CUCURBITACEOUSPLANTS——WONDERFUL
VARIATIONOF。
ORNAMENTALTREES——THEIRVARIATIONINDEGREEANDKIND——ASH—TREE——SCOTCH—FIR—
—HAWTHORN。
FLOWERS——MULTIPLEORIGINOFMANYKINDS——VARIATIONINCONSTITUTIONAL
PECULIARITIES——KINDOFVARIATION——ROSES——SEVERALSPECIESCULTIVATED——PANSY—
—DAHLIA——HYACINTH——HISTORYANDVARIATIONOF。
CHAPTER1。XI。
ONBUD—VARIATION，ANDONCERTAINANOMALOUSMODESOFREPRODUCTIONAND
VARIATION。
BUD—VARIATIONINTHEPEACH，PLUM，CHERRY，VINE，GOOSEBERRY，CURRANT，AND
BANANA，ASSHOWNBYTHEMODIFIEDFRUIT——INFLOWERS:CAMELLIAS，AZALEAS，CHRYSANTHEMUMS，ROSES，ETC。——ONTHERUNNINGOFTHECOLOURINCARNATIONS
——BUD—VARIATIONSINLEAVES——VARIATIONSBYSUCKERS，TUBERS，ANDBULBS——ON
THEBREAKINGOFTULIPS——BUD—VARIATIONSGRADUATEINTOCHANGESCONSEQUENTON
CHANGEDCONDITIONSOFLIFE——GRAFT—HYBRIDS——ONTHESEGREGATIONOFTHE
PARENTALCHARACTERSINSEMINALHYBRIDSBYBUD—VARIATION——ONTHEDIRECTOR
IMMEDIATEACTIONOFFOREIGNPOLLENONTHEMOTHER—PLANT——ONTHEEFFECTSOFA
PREVIOUSIMPREGNATIONONTHESUBSEQUENTOFFSPRINGOFFEMALEANIMALS——
CONCLUSIONANDSUMMARY。
CHAPTER1。XII。
INHERITANCE。
WONDERFULNATUREOFINHERITANCE——PEDIGREESOFOURDOMESTICATEDANIMALS——
INHERITANCENOTDUETOCHANCE——TRIFLINGCHARACTERSINHERITED——DISEASES
INHERITED——PECULIARITIESINTHEEYEINHERITED——DISEASESINTHEHORSE——
LONGEVITYANDVIGOUR——ASYMMETRICALDEVIATIONSOFSTRUCTURE——POLYDACTYLISM
ANDREGROWTHOFSUPERNUMERARYDIGITSAFTERAMPUTATION——CASESOFSEVERAL
CHILDRENSIMILARLYAFFECTEDFROMNON—AFFECTEDPARENTS——WEAKANDFLUCTUATING
INHERITANCE:INWEEPINGTREES，INDWARFNESS，COLOUROFFRUITANDFLOWERS——
COLOUROFHORSES——NON—INHERITANCEINCERTAINCASES——INHERITANCEOF
STRUCTUREANDHABITSOVERBORNEBYHOSTILECONDITIONSOFLIFE，BY
INCESSANTLYRECURRINGVARIABILITY，ANDBYREVERSION——CONCLUSION。
THEVARIATIONOFANIMALSANDPLANTSUNDERDOMESTICATION。
INTRODUCTION。
Theobjectofthisworkisnottodescribeallthemanyracesofanimalswhichhavebeendomesticatedbyman，andoftheplantswhichhavebeencultivatedbyhim;evenifIpossessedtherequisiteknowledge，sogiganticanundertakingwouldbeheresuperfluous。ItismyintentiontogiveundertheheadofeachspeciesonlysuchfactsasIhavebeenabletocollectorobserve，showingtheamountandnatureofthechangeswhichanimalsandplantshaveundergonewhilstunderman’sdominion，orwhichbearonthegeneralprinciplesofvariation。Inonecasealone，namelyinthatofthedomesticpigeon，Iwilldescribefullyallthechiefraces，theirhistory，theamountandnatureoftheirdifferences，andtheprobablestepsbywhichtheyhavebeenformed。Ihaveselectedthiscase，because，asweshallhereaftersee，thematerialsarebetterthaninanyother;andonecasefullydescribedwillinfactillustrateallothers。ButIshallalsodescribedomesticatedrabbits，fowls，andducks，withconsiderablefulness。
Thesubjectsdiscussedinthisvolumearesoconnectedthatitisnotalittledifficulttodecidehowtheycanbebestarranged。Ihavedeterminedinthefirstparttogive，undertheheadsofthevariousanimalsandplants，alargebodyoffacts，someofwhichmayatfirstappearbutlittlerelatedtooursubject，andtodevotethelatterparttogeneraldiscussions。WheneverIhavefounditnecessarytogivenumerousdetails，insupportofanypropositionorconclusion，smalltypehasbeenused。
（Hereshownwith[]。）Thereaderwill，Ithink，findthisplanaconvenience，for，ifhedoesnotdoubttheconclusionorcareaboutthedetails，hecaneasilypassthemover;yetImaybepermittedtosaythatsomeofthediscussionsthusprinteddeserveattention，atleastfromtheprofessednaturalist。
ItmaybeusefultothosewhohavereadnothingaboutNaturalSelection，ifIheregiveabriefsketchofthewholesubjectandofitsbearingontheoriginofspecies。（Introduction/1。Toanyonewhohasattentivelyreadmy’OriginofSpecies’thisIntroductionwillbesuperfluous。AsIstatedinthatworkthatIshouldsoonpublishthefactsonwhichtheconclusionsgiveninitwerefounded，Iherebegpermissiontoremarkthatthegreatdelayinpublishingthisfirstworkhasbeencausedbycontinuedill—
health。）Thisisthemoredesirable，asitisimpossibleinthepresentworktoavoidmanyallusionstoquestionswhichwillbefullydiscussedinfuturevolumes。
Fromaremoteperiod，inallpartsoftheworld，manhassubjectedmanyanimalsandplantstodomesticationorculture。Manhasnopowerofalteringtheabsoluteconditionsoflife;hecannotchangetheclimateofanycountry;headdsnonewelementtothesoil;buthecanremoveananimalorplantfromoneclimateorsoiltoanother，andgiveitfoodonwhichitdidnotsubsistinitsnaturalstate。Itisanerrortospeakofman\"tamperingwithnature\"andcausingvariability。Ifamandropsapieceofironintosulphuricacid，itcannotbesaidstrictlythathemakesthesulphateofiron，heonlyallowstheirelectiveaffinitiestocomeintoplay。Iforganicbeingshadnotpossessedaninherenttendencytovary，mancouldhavedonenothing。（Introduction/2。M。Pouchethasrecently（’PluralityofRaces’EnglishTranslation1864page83etc。）insistedthatvariationunderdomesticationthrowsnolightonthenaturalmodificationofspecies。Icannotperceivetheforceofhisarguments，or，tospeakmoreaccurately，ofhisassertionstothiseffect。）Heunintentionallyexposeshisanimalsandplantstovariousconditionsoflife，andvariabilitysupervenes，whichhecannotevenpreventorcheck。Considerthesimplecaseofaplantwhichhasbeencultivatedduringalongtimeinitsnativecountry，andwhichconsequentlyhasnotbeensubjectedtoanychangeofclimate。Ithasbeenprotectedtoacertainextentfromthecompetingrootsofplantsofotherkinds;ithasgenerallybeengrowninmanuredsoil;butprobablynotricherthanthatofmanyanalluvialflat;andlastly，ithasbeenexposedtochangesinitsconditions，beinggrownsometimesinonedistrictandsometimesinanother，indifferentsoils。Undersuchcircumstances，scarcelyaplantcanbenamed，thoughcultivatedintherudestmanner，whichhasnotgivenbirthtoseveralvarieties。Itcanhardlybemaintainedthatduringthemanychangeswhichthisearthhasundergone，andduringthenaturalmigrationsofplantsfromonelandorislandtoanother，tenantedbydifferentspecies，thatsuchplantswillnotoftenhavebeensubjectedtochangesintheirconditionsanalogoustothosewhichalmostinevitablycausecultivatedplantstovary。Nodoubtmanselectsvaryingindividuals，sowstheirseeds，andagainselectstheirvaryingoffspring。Buttheinitialvariationonwhichmanworks，andwithoutwhichhecandonothing，iscausedbyslightchangesintheconditionsoflife，whichmustoftenhaveoccurredundernature。Man，therefore，maybesaidtohavebeentryinganexperimentonagiganticscale;anditisanexperimentwhichnatureduringthelonglapseoftimehasincessantlytried。Henceitfollowsthattheprinciplesofdomesticationareimportantforus。Themainresultisthatorganicbeingsthustreatedhavevariedlargely，andthevariationshavebeeninherited。
Thishasapparentlybeenonechiefcauseofthebelieflongheldbysomefewnaturaliststhatspeciesinastateofnatureundergochange。
Ishallinthisvolumetreat，asfullyasmymaterialspermit，thewholesubjectofvariationunderdomestication。Wemaythushopetoobtainsomelight，littlethoughitbe，onthecausesofvariability，——onthelawswhichgovernit，suchasthedirectactionofclimateandfood，theeffectsofuseanddisuse，andofcorrelationofgrowth，——andontheamountofchangetowhichdomesticatedorganismsareliable。Weshalllearnsomethingofthelawsofinheritance，oftheeffectsofcrossingdifferentbreeds，andonthatsterilitywhichoftensuperveneswhenorganicbeingsareremovedfromtheirnaturalconditionsoflife，andlikewisewhentheyaretoocloselyinterbred。DuringthisinvestigationweshallseethattheprincipleofSelectionishighlyimportant。Althoughmandoesnotcausevariabilityandcannotevenpreventit，hecanselect，preserve，andaccumulatethevariationsgiventohimbythehandofnaturealmostinanywaywhichhechooses;andthushecancertainlyproduceagreatresult。
Selectionmaybefollowedeithermethodicallyandintentionally，orunconsciouslyandunintentionally。Manmayselectandpreserveeachsuccessivevariation，withthedistinctintentionofimprovingandalteringabreed，inaccordancewithapreconceivedidea;andbythusaddingupvariations，oftensoslightastobeimperceptiblebyanuneducatedeye，hehaseffectedwonderfulchangesandimprovements。Itcan，also，beclearlyshownthatman，withoutanyintentionorthoughtofimprovingthebreed，bypreservingineachsuccessivegenerationtheindividualswhichheprizesmost，andbydestroyingtheworthlessindividuals，slowly，thoughsurely，inducesgreatchanges。Asthewillofmanthuscomesintoplay，wecanunderstandhowitisthatdomesticatedbreedsshowadaptationtohiswantsandpleasures。Wecanfurtherunderstandhowitisthatdomesticracesofanimalsandcultivatedracesofplantsoftenexhibitanabnormalcharacter，ascomparedwithnaturalspecies;fortheyhavebeenmodifiednotfortheirownbenefit，butforthatofman。
InanotherworkIshalldiscuss，iftimeandhealthpermit，thevariabilityoforganicbeingsinastateofnature;namely，theindividualdifferencespresentedbyanimalsandplants，andthoseslightlygreaterandgenerallyinheriteddifferenceswhicharerankedbynaturalistsasvarietiesorgeographicalraces。Weshallseehowdifficult，orratherhowimpossibleitoftenis，todistinguishbetweenracesandsub—species，asthelesswell—
markedformshavesometimesbeendenominated;andagainbetweensub—speciesandtruespecies。Ishallfurtherattempttoshowthatitisthecommonandwidelyranging，or，astheymaybecalled，thedominantspecies，whichmostfrequentlyvary;andthatitisthelargeandflourishinggenerawhichincludethegreatestnumberofvaryingspecies。Varieties，asweshallsee，mayjustlybecalledincipientspecies。
Butitmaybeurged，grantingthatorganicbeingsinastateofnaturepresentsomevarieties，——thattheirorganisationisinsomeslightdegreeplastic;grantingthatmanyanimalsandplantshavevariedgreatlyunderdomestication，andthatmanbyhispowerofselectionhasgoneonaccumulatingsuchvariationsuntilhehasmadestronglymarkedandfirmlyinheritedraces;grantingallthis，how，itmaybeasked，havespeciesariseninastateofnature？Thedifferencesbetweennaturalvarietiesareslight;whereasthedifferencesareconsiderablebetweenthespeciesofthesamegenus，andgreatbetweenthespeciesofdistinctgenera。Howdotheselesserdifferencesbecomeaugmentedintothegreaterdifference？Howdovarieties，orasIhavecalledthemincipientspecies，becomeconvertedintotrueandwell—definedspecies？Howhaseachnewspeciesbeenadaptedtothesurroundingphysicalconditions，andtotheotherformsoflifeonwhichitinanywaydepends？Weseeoneverysideofusinnumerableadaptationsandcontrivances，whichhavejustlyexcitedthehighestadmirationofeveryobserver。Thereis，forinstance，afly（Cecidomyia（Introduction/3。LeonDufourin’AnnalesdesScience。Nat。’（3rdseries，Zoolog。）tome5page6。））whichdepositsitseggswithinthestamensofaScrophularia，andsecretesapoisonwhichproducesagall，onwhichthelarvafeeds;butthereisanotherinsect（Misocampus）whichdepositsitseggswithinthebodyofthelarvawithinthegall，andisthusnourishedbyitslivingprey;sothathereahymenopterousinsectdependsonadipterousinsect，andthisdependsonitspowerofproducingamonstrousgrowthinaparticularorganofaparticularplant。Soitis，inamoreorlessplainlymarkedmanner，inthousandsandtensofthousandsofcases，withthelowestaswellaswiththehighestproductionsofnature。
Thisproblemoftheconversionofvarietiesintospecies，——thatis，theaugmentationoftheslightdifferencescharacteristicofvarietiesintothegreaterdifferencescharacteristicofspeciesandgenera，includingtheadmirableadaptationsofeachbeingtoitscomplexorganicandinorganicconditionsoflife，——hasbeenbrieflytreatedinmy’OriginofSpecies。’Itwasthereshownthatallorganicbeings，withoutexception，tendtoincreaseatsohigharatio，thatnodistrict，nostation，noteventhewholesurfaceofthelandorthewholeocean，wouldholdtheprogenyofasinglepairafteracertainnumberofgenerations。Theinevitableresultisanever—recurrentStruggleforExistence。Ithastrulybeensaidthatallnatureisatwar;thestrongestultimatelyprevail，theweakestfail;andwewellknowthatmyriadsofformshavedisappearedfromthefaceoftheearth。Ifthenorganicbeingsinastateofnaturevaryeveninaslightdegree，owingtochangesinthesurroundingconditions，ofwhichwehaveabundantgeologicalevidence，orfromanyothercause;if，inthelongcourseofages，inheritablevariationseverariseinanywayadvantageoustoanybeingunderitsexcessivelycomplexandchangingrelationsoflife;
anditwouldbeastrangefactifbeneficialvariationsdidneverarise，seeinghowmanyhavearisenwhichmanhastakenadvantageofforhisownprofitorpleasure;ifthenthesecontingencieseveroccur，andIdonotseehowtheprobabilityoftheiroccurrencecanbedoubted，thenthesevereandoften—recurrentstruggleforexistencewilldeterminethatthosevariations，howeverslight，whicharefavourableshallbepreservedorselected，andthosewhichareunfavourableshallbedestroyed。
Thispreservation，duringthebattleforlife，ofvarietieswhichpossessanyadvantageinstructure，constitution，orinstinct，IhavecalledNaturalSelection;andMr。HerbertSpencerhaswellexpressedthesameideabytheSurvivaloftheFittest。Theterm\"naturalselection\"isinsomerespectsabadone，asitseemstoimplyconsciouschoice;butthiswillbedisregardedafteralittlefamiliarity。Nooneobjectstochemistsspeakingof\"electiveaffinity;\"andcertainlyanacidhasnomorechoiceincombiningwithabase，thantheconditionsoflifehaveindeterminingwhetherornotanewformbeselectedorpreserved。Thetermissofaragoodoneasitbringsintoconnectiontheproductionofdomesticracesbyman’spowerofselection，andthenaturalpreservationofvarietiesandspeciesinastateofnature。ForbrevitysakeIsometimesspeakofnaturalselectionasanintelligentpower;——inthesamewayasastronomersspeakoftheattractionofgravityasrulingthemovementsoftheplanets，orasagriculturistsspeakofmanmakingdomesticracesbyhispowerofselection。Intheonecase，asintheother，selectiondoesnothingwithoutvariability，andthisdependsinsomemannerontheactionofthesurroundingcircumstancesontheorganism。Ihave，also，oftenpersonifiedthewordNature;forIhavefounditdifficulttoavoidthisambiguity;butImeanbynatureonlytheaggregateactionandproductofmanynaturallaws，——andbylawsonlytheascertainedsequenceofevents。
Ithasbeenshownfrommanyfactsthatthelargestamountoflifecanbesupportedoneacharea，bygreatdiversificationordivergenceinthestructureandconstitutionofitsinhabitants。Wehave，also，seenthatthecontinuedproductionofnewformsthroughnaturalselection，whichimpliesthateachnewvarietyhassomeadvantageoverothers，inevitablyleadstotheexterminationoftheolderandlessimprovedforms。Theselatterarealmostnecessarilyintermediateinstructure，aswellasindescent，betweenthelast—producedformsandtheiroriginalparent—species。Now，ifwesupposeaspeciestoproducetwoormorevarieties，andtheseinthecourseoftimetoproduceothervarieties，theprincipalofgoodbeingderivedfromdiversificationofstructurewillgenerallyleadtothepreservationofthemostdivergentvarieties;thusthelesserdifferencescharacteristicofvarietiescometobeaugmentedintothegreaterdifferencescharacteristicofspecies，and，bytheexterminationoftheolderintermediateforms，newspeciesendbybeingdistinctlydefinedobjects。Thus，also，weshallseehowitisthatorganicbeingscanbeclassedbywhatiscalledanaturalmethodindistinctgroups——speciesundergenera，andgeneraunderfamilies。
Asalltheinhabitantsofeachcountrymaybesaid，owingtotheirhighrateofreproduction，tobestrivingtoincreaseinnumbers;aseachformcomesintocompetitionwithmanyotherformsinthestruggleforlife，——fordestroyanyoneanditsplacewillbeseizedbyothers;aseverypartoftheorganisationoccasionallyvariesinsomeslightdegree，andasnaturalselectionactsexclusivelybythepreservationofvariationswhichareadvantageousundertheexcessivelycomplexconditionstowhicheachbeingisexposed，nolimitexiststothenumber，singularity，andperfectionofthecontrivancesandco—adaptationswhichmaythusbeproduced。Ananimaloraplantmaythusslowlybecomerelatedinitsstructureandhabitsinthemostintricatemannertomanyotheranimalsandplants，andtothephysicalconditionsofitshome。Variationsintheorganisationwillinsomecasesbeaidedbyhabit，orbytheuseanddisuseofparts，andtheywillbegovernedbythedirectactionofthesurroundingphysicalconditionsandbycorrelationofgrowth。
Ontheprinciplesherebrieflysketchedout，thereisnoinnateornecessarytendencyineachbeingtoitsownadvancementinthescaleoforganisation。Wearealmostcompelledtolookatthespecialisationordifferentiationofpartsororgansfordifferentfunctionsasthebestorevensolestandardofadvancement;forbysuchdivisionoflaboureachfunctionofbodyandmindisbetterperformed。Andasnaturalselectionactsexclusivelythroughthepreservationofprofitablemodificationsofstructure，andastheconditionsoflifeineachareagenerallybecomemoreandmorecomplexfromtheincreasingnumberofdifferentformswhichinhabititandfrommostoftheseformsacquiringamoreandmoreperfectstructure，wemayconfidentlybelieve，that，onthewhole，organisationadvances。Neverthelessaverysimpleformfittedforverysimpleconditionsoflifemightremainforindefiniteagesunalteredorunimproved;forwhatwoulditprofitaninfusorialanimalcule，forinstance，oranintestinalworm，tobecomehighlyorganised？Membersofahighgroupmightevenbecome，andthisapparentlyhasoftenoccurred，fittedforsimplerconditionsoflife;andinthiscasenaturalselectionwouldtendtosimplifyordegradetheorganisation，forcomplicatedmechanismforsimpleactionswouldbeuselessorevendisadvantageous。
TheargumentsopposedtothetheoryofNaturalSelection，havebeendiscussedinmy’OriginofSpecies，’asfarasthesizeofthatworkpermitted，underthefollowingheads:thedifficultyinunderstandinghowverysimpleorganshavebeenconvertedbysmallandgraduatedstepsintohighlyperfectandcomplexorgans;themarvellousfactsofInstinct;thewholequestionofHybridity;and，lastly，theabsenceinourknowngeologicalformationsofinnumerablelinksconnectingallalliedspecies。
Althoughsomeofthesedifficultiesareofgreatweight，weshallseethatmanyofthemareexplicableonthetheoryofnaturalselection，andareotherwiseinexplicable。
Inscientificinvestigationsitispermittedtoinventanyhypothesis，andifitexplainsvariouslargeandindependentclassesoffactsitrisestotherankofawell—groundedtheory。Theundulationsoftheetherandevenitsexistencearehypothetical，yeteveryonenowadmitstheundulatorytheoryoflight。Theprincipleofnaturalselectionmaybelookedatasamerehypothesis，butrenderedinsomedegreeprobablebywhatwepositivelyknowofthevariabilityoforganicbeingsinastateofnature，——bywhatwepositivelyknowofthestruggleforexistence，andtheconsequentalmostinevitablepreservationoffavourablevariations，——andfromtheanalogicalformationofdomesticraces。Nowthishypothesismaybetested，——andthisseemstometheonlyfairandlegitimatemannerofconsideringthewholequestion，——bytryingwhetheritexplainsseverallargeandindependentclassesoffacts;suchasthegeologicalsuccessionoforganicbeings，theirdistributioninpastandpresenttimes，andtheirmutualaffinitiesandhomologies。Iftheprincipleofnaturalselectiondoesexplaintheseandotherlargebodiesoffacts，itoughttobereceived。Ontheordinaryviewofeachspecieshavingbeenindependentlycreated，wegainnoscientificexplanationofanyoneofthesefacts。WecanonlysaythatithassopleasedtheCreatortocommandthatthepastandpresentinhabitantsoftheworldshouldappearinacertainorderandincertainareas;thatHehasimpressedonthemthemostextraordinaryresemblances，andhasclassedthemingroupssubordinatetogroups。Butbysuchstatementswegainnonewknowledge;wedonotconnecttogetherfactsandlaws;weexplainnothing。
Itwastheconsiderationofsuchlargegroupsoffactsasthesewhichfirstledmetotakeupthepresentsubject。WhenIvisitedduringthevoyageofH。M。S。\"Beagle，\"theGalapagosArchipelago，situatedinthePacificOceanabout500milesfromSouthAmerica，Ifoundmyselfsurroundedbypeculiarspeciesofbirds，reptiles，andplants，existingnowhereelseintheworld。
YettheynearlyallboreanAmericanstamp。Inthesongofthemocking—
thrush，intheharshcryofthecarrion—hawk，inthegreatcandlestick—likeopuntias，IclearlyperceivedtheneighbourhoodofAmerica，thoughtheislandswereseparatedbysomanymilesofoceanfromthemainland，anddifferedmuchintheirgeologicalconstitutionandclimate。Stillmoresurprisingwasthefactthatmostoftheinhabitantsofeachseparateislandinthissmallarchipelagowerespecificallydifferent，thoughmostcloselyrelatedtoeachother。Thearchipelago，withitsinnumerablecratersandbarestreamsoflava，appearedtobeofrecentorigin;andthusIfanciedmyselfbroughtneartotheveryactofcreation。Ioftenaskedmyselfhowthesemanypeculiaranimalsandplantshadbeenproduced:thesimplestanswerseemedtobethattheinhabitantsoftheseveralislandshaddescendedfromeachother，undergoingmodificationinthecourseoftheirdescent;andthatalltheinhabitantsofthearchipelagoweredescendedfromthoseofthenearestland，namelyAmerica，whencecolonistswouldnaturallyhavebeenderived。Butitlongremainedtomeaninexplicableproblemhowthenecessarydegreeofmodificationcouldhavebeeneffected，anditwouldhavethusremainedforever，hadInotstudieddomesticproductions，andthusacquiredajustideaofthepowerofSelection。AssoonasIhadfullyrealisedthisidea，Isaw，onreadingMalthusonPopulation，thatNaturalSelectionwastheinevitableresultoftherapidincreaseofallorganicbeings;forIwaspreparedtoappreciatethestruggleforexistencebyhavinglongstudiedthehabitsofanimals。
BeforevisitingtheGalapagosIhadcollectedmanyanimalswhilsttravellingfromnorthtosouthonbothsidesofAmerica，andeverywhere，underconditionsoflifeasdifferentasitispossibletoconceive，Americanformsweremetwith——speciesreplacingspeciesofthesamepeculiargenera。ThusitwaswhentheCordilleraswereascended，orthethicktropicalforestspenetrated，orthefreshwatersofAmericasearched。
SubsequentlyIvisitedothercountries，whichinalltheirconditionsoflifewereincomparablymorelikepartsofSouthAmerica，thanthedifferentpartsofthatcontinentaretoeachother;yetinthesecountries，asinAustraliaorSouthernAfrica，thetravellercannotfailtobestruckwiththeentiredifferenceoftheirproductions。AgainthereflectionwasforcedonmethatcommunityofdescentfromtheearlyinhabitantsofSouthAmericawouldaloneexplainthewideprevalenceofAmericantypesthroughoutthatimmensearea。
Toexhumewithone’sownhandsthebonesofextinctandgiganticquadrupedsbringsthewholequestionofthesuccessionofspeciesvividlybeforeone’smind;andIfoundinSouthAmericagreatpiecesoftesselatedarmourexactlylike，butonamagnificentscale，thatcoveringthepigmyarmadillo;Ihadfoundgreatteethlikethoseofthelivingsloth，andboneslikethoseofthecavy。AnanalogoussuccessionofalliedformshadbeenpreviouslyobservedinAustralia。Herethenweseetheprevalence，asifbydescent，intimeasinspace，ofthesametypesinthesameareas;
andinneitherthecasedoesthesimilarityoftheconditionsbyanymeansseemsufficienttoaccountforthesimilarityoftheformsoflife。Itisnotoriousthatthefossilremainsofcloselyconsecutiveformationsarecloselyalliedinstructure，andwecanatonceunderstandthefactiftheyarecloselyalliedbydescent。Thesuccessionofthemanydistinctspeciesofthesamegenusthroughoutthelongseriesofgeologicalformationsseemstohavebeenunbrokenorcontinuous。Newspeciescomeingraduallyonebyone。Ancientandextinctformsoflifeareoftenintermediateincharacter，likethewordsofadeadlanguagewithrespecttoitsseveraloffshootsorlivingtongues。Allthesefactsseemedtometopointtodescentwithmodificationasthemeansofproductionofnewspecies。
Theinnumerablepastandpresentinhabitantsoftheworldareconnectedtogetherbythemostsingularandcomplexaffinities，andcanbeclassedingroupsundergroups，inthesamemannerasvarietiescanbeclassedunderspeciesandsub—varietiesundervarieties，butwithmuchhighergradesofdifference。Thesecomplexaffinitiesandtherulesforclassification，receivearationalexplanationonthetheoryofdescent，combinedwiththeprincipleofnaturalselection，whichentailsdivergenceofcharacterandtheextinctionofintermediateforms。Howinexplicableisthesimilarpatternofthehandofaman，thefootofadog，thewingofabat，theflipperofaseal，onthedoctrineofindependentactsofcreation！howsimplyexplainedontheprincipleofthenaturalselectionofsuccessiveslightvariationsinthedivergingdescendantsfromasingleprogenitor！Soitiswithcertainpartsororgansinthesameindividualanimalorplant，forinstance，thejawsandlegsofacrab，orthepetals，stamens，andpistilsofaflower。Duringthemanychangestowhichinthecourseoftimeorganicbeingshavebeensubjected，certainorgansorpartshaveoccasionallybecomeatfirstoflittleuseandultimatelysuperfluous;andtheretentionofsuchpartsinarudimentaryanduselessconditionisintelligibleonthetheoryofdescent。Itcanbeshownthatmodificationsofstructurearegenerallyinheritedbytheoffspringatthesameageatwhicheachsuccessivevariationappearedintheparents;itcanfurtherbeshownthatvariationsdonotcommonlysuperveneataveryearlyperiodofembryonicgrowth，andonthesetwoprincipleswecanunderstandthatmostwonderfulfactinthewholecircuitofnaturalhistory，namely，theclosesimilarityoftheembryoswithinthesamegreatclass——forinstance，thoseofmammals，birds，reptiles，andfish。
Itistheconsiderationandexplanationofsuchfactsasthesewhichhasconvincedmethatthetheoryofdescentwithmodificationbymeansofnaturalselectionisinthemaintrue。ThesefactshaveasyetreceivednoexplanationonthetheoryofindependentCreation;theycannotbegroupedtogetherunderonepointofview，buteachhastobeconsideredasanultimatefact。Asthefirstoriginoflifeonthisearth，aswellasthecontinuedlifeofeachindividual，isatpresentquitebeyondthescopeofscience，Idonotwishtolaymuchstressonthegreatersimplicityoftheviewofafewformsorofonlyoneformhavingbeenoriginallycreated，insteadofinnumerablemiraculouscreationshavingbeennecessaryatinnumerableperiods;thoughthismoresimpleviewaccordswellwithMaupertuis’sphilosophicalaxiomof\"leastaction。\"
Inconsideringhowfarthetheoryofnaturalselectionmaybeextended，——thatis，indeterminingfromhowmanyprogenitorstheinhabitantsoftheworldhavedescended，——wemayconcludethatatleastallthemembersofthesameclasshavedescendedfromasingleancestor。Anumberoforganicbeingsareincludedinthesameclass，becausetheypresent，independentlyoftheirhabitsoflife，thesamefundamentaltypeofstructure，andbecausetheygraduateintoeachother。Moreover，membersofthesameclasscaninmostcasesbeshowntobecloselyalikeatanearlyembryonicage。
Thesefactscanbeexplainedonthebeliefoftheirdescentfromacommonform;thereforeitmaybesafelyadmittedthatallthemembersofthesameclassaredescendedfromoneprogenitor。Butasthemembersofquitedistinctclasseshavesomethingincommoninstructureandmuchincommoninconstitution，analogywouldleadusonestepfurther，andtoinferasprobablethatalllivingcreaturesaredescendedfromasingleprototype。
Ihopethatthereaderwillpausebeforecomingtoanyfinalandhostileconclusiononthetheoryofnaturalselection。Thereadermayconsultmy’OriginofSpecies’forageneralsketchofthewholesubject;butinthatworkhehastotakemanystatementsontrust。Inconsideringthetheoryofnaturalselection，hewillassuredlymeetwithweightydifficulties，butthesedifficultiesrelatechieflytosubjects——suchasthedegreeofperfectionofthegeologicalrecord，themeansofdistribution，thepossibilityoftransitionsinorgans，etc。——onwhichweareconfessedlyignorant;nordoweknowhowignorantweare。Ifwearemuchmoreignorantthanisgenerallysupposed，mostofthesedifficultieswhollydisappear。
Letthereaderreflectonthedifficultyoflookingatwholeclassesoffactsfromanewpointofview。Lethimobservehowslowly，butsurely，thenobleviewsofLyellonthegradualchangesnowinprogressontheearth’ssurfacehavebeenacceptedassufficienttoaccountforallthatweseeinitspasthistory。Thepresentactionofnaturalselectionmayseemmoreorlessprobable;butIbelieveinthetruthofthetheory，becauseitcollects，underonepointofview，andgivesarationalexplanationof，manyapparentlyindependentclassesoffacts。（Introduction/4。IntreatingtheseveralsubjectsincludedinthepresentandmyotherworksIhavecontinuallybeenledtoaskforinformationfrommanyzoologists，botanists，geologists，breedersofanimals，andhorticulturists，andIhaveinvariablyreceivedfromthemthemostgenerousassistance。WithoutsuchaidIcouldhaveeffectedlittle。Ihaverepeatedlyappliedforinformationandspecimenstoforeigners，andtoBritishmerchantsandofficersoftheGovernmentresidingindistantlands，and，withtherarestexceptions，I
havereceivedprompt，open—handed，andvaluableassistance。Icannotexpresstoostronglymyobligationstothemanypersonswhohaveassistedme，andwho，Iamconvinced，wouldbeequallywillingtoassistothersinanyscientificinvestigation。）
CHAPTER1。I。
DOMESTICDOGSANDCATS。
ANCIENTVARIETIESOFTHEDOG。
RESEMBLANCEOFDOMESTICDOGSINVARIOUSCOUNTRIESTONATIVECANINESPECIES。
ANIMALSNOTACQUAINTEDWITHMANATFIRSTFEARLESS。
DOGSRESEMBLINGWOLVESANDJACKALS。
HABITOFBARKINGACQUIREDANDLOST。
FERALDOGS。
TAN—COLOUREDEYE—SPOTS。
PERIODOFGESTATION。
OFFENSIVEODOUR。
FERTILITYOFTHERACESWHENCROSSED。
DIFFERENCESINTHESEVERALRACESINPARTDUETODESCENTFROMDISTINCT
SPECIES。
DIFFERENCESINTHESKULLANDTEETH。
DIFFERENCESINTHEBODY，INCONSTITUTION。
FEWIMPORTANTDIFFERENCESHAVEBEENFIXEDBYSELECTION。
DIRECTACTIONOFCLIMATE。
WATER—DOGSWITHPALMATEDFEET。
HISTORYOFTHECHANGESWHICHCERTAINENGLISHRACESOFTHEDOGHAVE
GRADUALLYUNDERGONETHROUGHSELECTION。
EXTINCTIONOFTHELESSIMPROVEDSUB—BREEDS。
CATS，CROSSEDWITHSEVERALSPECIES。
DIFFERENTBREEDSFOUNDONLYINSEPARATEDCOUNTRIES。
DIRECTEFFECTSOFTHECONDITIONSOFLIFE。
FERALCATS。
INDIVIDUALVARIABILITY。
Thefirstandchiefpointofinterestinthischapteris，whetherthenumerousdomesticatedvarietiesofthedoghavedescendedfromasinglewildspecies，orfromseveral。Someauthorsbelievethatallhavedescendedfromthewolf，orfromthejackal，orfromanunknownandextinctspecies。
Othersagainbelieve，andthisoflatehasbeenthefavouritetenet，thattheyhavedescendedfromseveralspecies，extinctandrecent，moreorlesscommingledtogether。Weshallprobablyneverbeabletoascertaintheiroriginwithcertainty。Palaeontology（1/1。Owen’BritishFossilMammals’
pages123to133。Pictet’TraitedePal。’1853tome1page202。DeBlainvilleinhis’Osteographie，Canidae’page142haslargelydiscussedthewholesubject，andconcludesthattheextinctparentofalldomesticateddogscamenearesttothewolfinorganisation，andtothejackalinhabits。SeealsoBoydDawkins，’CaveHunting’1874page131etc。
andhisotherpublications。Jeitteleshasdiscussedingreatdetailthecharacterofthebreedsofpre—historicdogs:’DievorgeschichtlichenAlterthumerderStadtOlmutz’II。Theil，1872page44toend。）doesnotthrowmuchlightonthequestion，owing，ontheonehand，totheclosesimilarityoftheskullsofextinctaswellaslivingwolvesandjackals，andowing，ontheotherhand，tothegreatdissimilarityoftheskullsoftheseveralbreedsofthedomesticdogs。Itseems，however，thatremainshavebeenfoundinthelatertertiarydepositsmorelikethoseofalargedogthanofawolf，whichfavoursthebeliefofDeBlainvillethatourdogsarethedescendantsofasingleextinctspecies。Ontheotherhand，someauthorsgosofarastoassertthateverychiefdomesticbreedmusthavehaditswildprototype。Thislatterviewisextremelyimprobable:itallowsnothingforvariation;itpassesoverthealmostmonstrouscharacterofsomeofthebreeds;anditalmostnecessarilyassumesthatalargenumberofspecieshavebecomeextinctsincemandomesticatedthedog;whereasweplainlyseethatwildmembersofthedog—familyareextirpatedbyhumanagencywithmuchdifficulty;evensorecentlyas1710thewolfexistedinsosmallanislandasIreland。
Thereasonswhichhaveledvariousauthorstoinferthatourdogshavedescendedfrommorethanonewildspeciesareasfollows。（1/2。Pallas，I
believe，originatedthisdoctrinein’Act。Acad。St。Petersburgh’1780Part2。Ehrenberghasadvocatedit，asmaybeseeninDeBlainville’s’Osteographie’page79。IthasbeencarriedtoanextremeextentbyCol。
HamiltonSmithinthe’NaturalistLibrary’volumes9and10。Mr。W。C。
Martinadoptsitinhisexcellent’HistoryoftheDog’1845;asdoesDr。
Morton，aswellasNottandGliddon，intheUnitedStates。Prof。Low，inhis’DomesticatedAnimals’1845page666，comestothissameconclusion。NoonehasarguedonthissidewithmoreclearnessandforcethanthelateJamesWilson，ofEdinburgh，invariouspapersreadbeforetheHighlandAgriculturalandWernerianSocieties。IsidoreGeoffroySaint—Hilaire（’Hist。Nat。Gen。’1860tome3page107），thoughhebelievesthatmostdogshavedescendedfromthejackal，yetinclinestothebeliefthatsomearedescendedfromthewolf。Prof。Gervais（’Hist。Nat。Mamm。’1855tome2page69，referringtotheviewthatallthedomesticracesarethemodifieddescendantsofasinglespecies，afteralongdiscussion，says，\"Cetteopinionest，suivantnousdumoins，lamoinsprobable。\"）Firstly，thegreatdifferencebetweentheseveralbreeds;butthiswillappearofcomparativelylittleweight，afterweshallhaveseenhowgreatarethedifferencesbetweentheseveralracesofvariousdomesticatedanimalswhichcertainlyhavedescendedfromasingleparent—form。Secondly，themoreimportantfact，that，atthemostancientlyknownhistoricalperiods，severalbreedsofthedogexisted，veryunlikeeachother，andcloselyresemblingoridenticalwithbreedsstillalive。
Wewillbrieflyrunbackthroughthehistoricalrecords。ThematerialsareremarkablydeficientbetweenthefourteenthcenturyandtheRomanclassicalperiod。（1/3。Berjeau’TheVarietiesoftheDog;inoldSculpturesandPictures’1863。’DerHund’vonDr。F。L。Walther，Giessen1817s。48:thisauthorseemscarefullytohavestudiedallclassicalworksonthesubject。
SeealsoVolz’BeitragezurKulturgeschichte’Leipzig1852s。115，’YouattontheDog’1845page6。AveryfullhistoryisgivenbyDeBlainvilleinhis’Osteographie，Canidae。’）Atthislatterperiodvariousbreeds，namelyhounds，house—dogs，lapdogs，etc，existed;but，asDr。Waltherhasremarked，itisimpossibletorecognisethegreaternumberwithanycertainty。Youatt，however，givesadrawingofabeautifulsculptureoftwogreyhoundpuppiesfromtheVillaofAntoninus。OnanAssyrianmonument，about640B。C。，anenormousmastiff（1/4。IhaveseendrawingsofthisdogfromthetombofthesonofEsarHaddon，andclaymodelsintheBritishMuseum。NottandGliddon，intheir’TypesofMankind’1854page393，giveacopyofthesedrawings。ThisdoghasbeencalledaThibetanmastiff，butMr。H。A。Oldfield，whoisfamiliarwiththeso—calledThibetmastiff，andhasexaminedthedrawingsintheBritishMuseum，informsmethatheconsidersthemdifferent。）isfigured;andaccordingtoSirH。Rawlinson（asIwasinformedattheBritishMuseum），similardogsarestillimportedintothissamecountry。IhavelookedthroughthemagnificentworksofLepsiusandRosellini，andontheEgyptianmonumentsfromthefourthtothetwelfthdynasties（i。e。fromabout3400B。C。to2100B。C。）severalvarietiesofthedogarerepresented;mostofthemarealliedtogreyhounds;atthelateroftheseperiodsadogresemblingahoundisfigured，withdroopingears，butwithalongerbackandmorepointedheadthaninourhounds。Thereis，also，aturnspit，withshortandcrookedlegs，closelyresemblingtheexistingvariety;butthiskindofmonstrosityissocommonwithvariousanimals，aswiththeanconsheep，andeven，accordingtoRengger，withjaguarsinParaguay，thatitwouldberashtolookatthemonumentalanimalastheparentofallourturnspits:ColonelSykes（1/5。’Proc。Zoolog。Soc。’July12，1831。）alsohasdescribedanIndianpariahdogaspresentingthesamemonstrouscharacter。ThemostancientdogrepresentedontheEgyptianmonumentsisoneofthemostsingular;itresemblesagreyhound，buthaslongpointedearsandashortcurledtail:acloselyalliedvarietystillexistsinNorthernAfrica;forMr。E。VernonHarcourt（1/6。’SportinginAlgeria’page51。）statesthattheArabboar—houndis\"aneccentrichieroglyphicanimal，suchasCheopsoncehuntedwith，somewhatresemblingtheroughScotchdeer—hound;theirtailsarecurledtightroundontheirbacks，andtheirearsstickoutatrightangles。\"Withthismostancientvarietyapariah—likedogcoexisted。
Wethusseethat，ataperiodbetweenfourandfivethousandyearsago，variousbreeds，viz。pariahdogs，greyhounds，commonhounds，mastiffs，house—dogs，lapdogs，andturnspits，existed，moreorlesscloselyresemblingourpresentbreeds。Butthereisnotsufficientevidencethatanyoftheseancientdogsbelongedtothesameidenticalsub—varietieswithourpresentdogs。（1/7。BerjeaugivesfacsimilesoftheEgyptiandrawings。
Mr。C。L。Martininhis’HistoryoftheDog’1845copiesseveralfiguresfromtheEgyptianmonuments，andspeakswithmuchconfidencewithrespecttotheiridentitywithstilllivingdogs。Messrs。NottandGliddon（’TypesofMankind’1854page388）givestillmorenumerousfigures。Mr。Gliddonassertsthatacurl—tailedgreyhound，likethatrepresentedonthemostancientmonuments，iscommoninBorneo;buttheRajah，SirJ。Brooke，informsmethatnosuchdogexiststhere。）Aslongasmanwasbelievedtohaveexistedonthisearthonlyabout6000years，thisfactofthegreatdiversityofthebreedsatsoearlyaperiodwasanargumentofmuchweightthattheyhadproceededfromseveralwildsources，fortherewouldnothavebeensufficienttimefortheirdivergenceandmodification。Butnowthatweknow，fromthediscoveryofflinttoolsembeddedwiththeremainsofextinctanimalsindistrictswhichhavesinceundergonegreatgeographicalchanges，thatmanhasexistedforanincomparablylongerperiod，andbearinginmindthatthemostbarbarousnationspossessdomesticdogs，theargumentfrominsufficienttimefallsawaygreatlyinvalue。
LongbeforetheperiodofanyhistoricalrecordthedogwasdomesticatedinEurope。IntheDanishMiddensoftheNeolithicorNewerStoneperiod，bonesofacanineanimalareembedded，andSteenstrupingeniouslyarguesthatthesebelongedtoadomesticdog;foraverylargeproportionofthebonesofbirdspreservedintherefuseconsistsoflongbones，whichitwasfoundontrialdogscannotdevour。（1/8。These，andthefollowingfactsontheDanishremains，aretakenfromM。Morlot’smostinterestingmemoirin’Soc。