\"Insomeplaces，\"saysM。deLavergne，（25*）\"inthe
neighbourhoodofParis，forexample，wheretheadvantagesofthe
grandeculturebecomeevident，thesizeoffarmstendsto
increase，severalfarmsarethrowntogetherintoone，andfarmers
enlargetheirholdingsbyrentingparcellesfromanumberof
differentproprietors。Elsewherefarmsaswellaspropertiesof
toogreatextent，tendtodivision。Cultivationspontaneously
findsouttheorganizationwhichsuitsitbest。\"Itisastriking
fact，statedbythesameeminentwriter，（26*）thatthe
departmentswhichhavethegreatestnumberofsmallc魌es
fonci鑢es，aretheNord，theSomme，thePasdeCalais，theSeine
Inf閞ieure，theAisne，andtheOise;allofthemamongthe
richestandbestcultivated，andthefirst—mentionedofthemthe
veryrichestandbestcultivated，inFrance。
Unduesubdivision，andexcessivesmallnessofholdings，are
undoubtedlyaprevalentevilinsomecountriesofpeasant
proprietors，andparticularlyinpartsofGermanyandFrance。The
governmentsofBavariaandNassauhavethoughtitnecessaryto
imposealegallimittosubdivision，andthePrussianGovernment
unsuccessfullyproposedthesamemeasurestotheEstatesofits
RhenishProvinces。ButIdonotthinkitwillanywherebefound
thatthepetitecultureisthesystemofthepeasants，andthe
grandeculturethatofthegreatlandlords:onthecontrary，
whereverthesmallpropertiesaredividedamongtoomany
proprietors，Ibelieveittobetruethatthelargeproperties
alsoareparcelledoutamongtoomanyfarmers，andthatthecause
isthesameinbothcases，abackwardstateofcapital，skill，
andagriculturalenterprise。Thereisreasontobelievethatthe
subdivisioninFranceisnotmoreexcessivethanisaccountedfor
bythiscause;thatitisdiminishing，notincreasing;andthat
theterrorexpressedinsomequarters，attheprogressofthe
morcellement，isoneofthemostgroundlessofrealorpretended
panics。（27*）
Ifpeasantpropertieshaveanyeffectinpromoting
subdivisionbeyondthedegreewhichcorrespondstothe
agriculturalpracticesofthecountry，andwhichiscustomaryon
itslargeestates，thecausemustlieinoneofthesalutary
influencesofthesystem;theeminentdegreeinwhichitpromotes
providenceonthepartofthosewho，notbeingyetpeasant
proprietors，hopetobecomeso。InEngland，wherethe
agriculturallabourerhasnoinvestmentforhissavingsbutthe
savingsbank，andnopositiontowhichhecanrisebyany
exerciseofeconomy，exceptperhapsthatofapettyshopkeeper，
withitschancesofbankruptcy，thereisnothingatall
resemblingtheintensespiritofthriftwhichtakespossessionof
onewho，frombeingadaylabourer，canraisehimselfbysaving
totheconditionofalandedproprietor。Accordingtoalmostall
authorities，therealcauseofthemorcellementisthehigher
pricewhichcanbeobtainedforlandbysellingittothe
peasantry，asaninvestmentfortheirsmallaccumulations，than
bydisposingofitentiretosomerichpurchaserwhohasno
objectbuttoliveonitsincome，withoutimprovingit。Thehope
ofobtainingsuchaninvestmentisthemostpowerfulinducements，
tothosewhoarewithoutland，topractisetheindustry，
frugality，andself—restraint，onwhichtheirsuccessinthis
objectofambitionisdependent。
Astheresultofthisenquiryintothedirectoperationand
indirectinfluencesofpeasantproperties，Iconceiveittobe
established，thatthereisnonecessaryconnexionbetweenthis
formoflandedpropertyandanimperfectstateoftheartsof
production;thatitisfavourableinquiteasmanyrespectsasit
isunfavourable，tothemosteffectiveuseofthepowersofthe
soil;thatnootherexistingstateofagriculturaleconomyhasso
beneficialaneffectontheindustry，theintelligence，the
frugality，andprudenceofthepopulation，nortendsonthewhole
somuchtodiscourageanimprovidentincreaseoftheirnumbers;
andthatnoexistingstate，therefore，isonthewholeso
favourablebothtotheirmoralandtheirphysicalwelfare。
ComparedwiththeEnglishsystemofcultivationbyhiredlabour，
itmustberegardedaseminentlybeneficialtothelabouring
class。（28*）Wearenotonthepresentoccasioncalleduponto
compareitwiththejointownershipofthelandbyassociations
oflabourers。
NOTES:
1。\"FastubermenschlicheFleiss\"。DerCantonSchaffhausen（ut
supra），p。53。
2。Supra，Booki，ch。ix，sec。4。
3。ReadthegraphicdescriptionbythehistorianMichelet，ofthe
feelingsofapeasantproprietortowardshisland。
\"Sinousvoulonsconnaitrelapenseeintime，lapassion，du
paysandeFrance，celaestfortaise。Promenons—nousledimanche
danslacampagne，suivons—le。Levoilaquis’envala—basdevant
nous。Ilestdeuxheures;safemmeestavepres;ilest
endimanche;jerepondsqu’ilvavoirsamaitresse。
\"Quellemaitresse？saterre。
\"Jenedispasqu’ilyailletoutdroit。Non，ilestlibrece
jour—la，ilestmaitred’yallerouden’ypasaller。N’yva—t—il
pasasseztouslesjoursdelasemaine？Aussi，ilsedetourne，il
vaailleurs，ilaaffaireailleurs。Etpourtant，ilyva。
\"Ilestvraiqu’ilpassaitbienpres;c’etaitunoccasion。Il
laregarde，maisapparemmentiln’yenterapas;qu’yferait—il？
——Etpourtantilyentre。
\"Dumoins，ilestprobablequ’iln’ytravaillerapas;ilest
endimanche;ilablouseetchemiseblanches。——Rienn’empeche
cependantd’oterquelquemauvaiseherbe，derejetercettepierre。
Ilyabienencorecettesouchequigene，maisiln’apassa
pioche，ceserapourdemain。
\"Alors，ilcroisesesbrasets’arrete，regarde，serieux，
soucieux。Ilregardelongtemps，tres—longtemps，etsemble
s’oublier。Alafin，s’ilsecroitobserve，s’ilappercoitun
passant，ils’eloigneapaslents。Atrentepasencore，il
s’arrete，seretourne，etjettesursaterreundernierregard，
regardprofondetsombre;maispourquisaitbienvoir，ilest
toutpassionne，ceregard，toutdecoeur，pleindedevotion。\"——
LePeuple，parJ。Michelet，1repartie，ch。1。
4。Essaisurl’EconomieRuraledel’Angleterre，del’Ecosse，et
del’Irlande，3meed。p。127。
5。EssayontheDistributionofWealth，p。146。
6。Ibid。p。68。
7。NotesofaTraveller，p。46。
8。NouveauxPrincipes，Bookiii。ch。3。
9。ResidenceinNorway，p。18。
10。Vol。i。pp。67—9。
11。Ibid。pp。75—9。
12。Ibid。p。90。
13。ThePrussianministerofstatistics，inawork（Der
VolkswohlstandimPreussischenStaate）whichIamobligedto
quoteatsecondhandfromMrKay，afterprovingbyfiguresthe
greatandprogressiveincreaseoftheconsumptionoffoodand
clothingperheadofthepopulation，fromwhichhejustlyinfers
acorrespondingincreaseoftheproductivenessofagriculture，
continues:\"Thedivisionofestateshas，since1831，proceeded
moreandmorethroughoutthecountry。Therearenowmanymore
smallindependentproprietorsthanformerly。Yet，howevermany
complaintsofpauperismareheardamongthedependentlabourers，
weneverhearitcomplainedthatpauperismisincreasingamong
thepeasantproprietors。\"——Kay，i。262—6。
14。InacommunicationtotheCommissionersofPoorLawEnquiry，
p。640oftheirForeignCommunication，AppendixFtotheirFirst
Report。
15。Ibid。268。
16。Thefollowingisthetable（seep。168oftheBelgian
translationofMrRau’slargework:
percent
UnitedStates1820—302。92
Hungary（accordingtoRohrer）2。40
England1811—211。78
England1821—311。60
Austria（Rohrer）1。30
Prussia1816—271。54
Prussia1820—301。37
Prussia1821—311。27
Netherlands1821—281。28
Scotland1821—311。30
Saxony1815—301。15
Baden1820—30（Heunisch）1。13
Bavaria1814—281。08
Naples1814—240。83
France1817—27（Mathieu）0。63
andmorerecentlyMoreaudeJonnes0。55
ButthenumbergivenbyMoreaudeJonnes，headds，isnot
entitledtoimplicitconfidence。
ThefollowingtablegivenbyM。Quetelet（Surl’Hommeetle
DeveloppmentdeseFacultes，vol。i，ch。7，alsoontheauthority
ofRau，containsadditionalmatter，anddiffersinsomeitems
fromthepreceding，probablyfromtheauthor’shavingtaken，in
thosecases，anaverageofdifferentyears:
percent
Ireland2。45
Hungary2。40
Spain1。66
England1。65
RhenishPrussia1。33
Austria1。30
Bavaria1。08
Netherlands0。94
Naples0。83
France0。63
Sweden0。58
Lombardy0。45
Averycarefullypreparedstatement，byM。Legoyt，inthe
JournalofEconomistesforMay1847，whichbringsuptheresults
forFrancetothecensusoftheprecedingyear1846，issummedup
inthefollowingtable:
AccordingtotheCensusAccordingtotheexcess
of
birthsoverdeaths
percentpercent
Sweden0。831。14
Norway1。361。30
Denmark——0。95
Russia——0。65
Austria0。850。90
Prussia1。841。18
Saxony1。450。90
Hanover——0。85
Bavaria——0。71
Wurtemburg0。011。00
Holland0。901。03
Belgium——0。76
Sardinia1。08——
GreatBritain
（exclusiveofIreland）
1。951。00
France0。680。50
UnitedStates
3。27——
17。JournaldesEconomistesforMarchandMay1847。
18。M。Legoytisofopinionthatthepopulationwasunderstated
in1841，andtheincreasebetweenthattimeand1846consequently
overstated，andthattherealincreaseduringthewholeperiod
wassomethingintermediatebetweenthelasttwoaverages，ornot
muchmorethanoneintwohundred。
19。JournaldesEconomistesforFebruary1847。IntheJournalfor
January1865，M。Legoytgivessomeofthenumbersslightly
altered，andIpresumecorrected。Theseriesofpercentagesis
1。28，0。31，0。69，0。60，0。41，0。68，0。22，and0。20。Thelast
censusinthetablethatof1861，showsaslightreaction，the
percentage，independentlyofthenewlyacquireddepartments，
being0。32。
20。ThefollowingarethenumbersgivenbyM。Legoyt:
From1824to1828annualnumberofbirths981，914，being1in
32。30ofthepopulation。
From1829to1833annualnumberofbirths965，444，being1in
34。00
From1834to1838annualnumberofbirths972，993，being1in
34。39
From1839to1843annualnumberofbirths970，617，being1in
35。27
From1844to1845annualnumbrrofbirths983，573，being1in
35。58
Inthelasttwoyearsthebirths，accordingtoM。Legoyt，
wereswelledbytheeffectsofconsiderableimmigration。\"Cette
diminutiondesnaissances。\"heobserves，\"enpresenced’un
accroissementconstant，quoiquepeurapide，delapopulation
generaleetdesmariages，nepeutetreattribuequ’auxprogresde
l’espritd’ordreetdeprevisiondanslesfamiles。C’est
d’ailleurslaconsequenceprevuedenosinstitutionscivileset
sociales，qui，enamenantchaquejouruneplusgrandesubdivision
delafortuneterritorialeetmobilieredelaFrance，developpent
auseindespopulationslesinstinctsdeconservationetde
bien—etre。\"
Infourdepartments，amongwhicharetwoofthemostthriving
inNormandy，thedeathseventhenexceededthebirths。Thecensus
of1856exhibitstheremarkablefactofapositivediminutionin
thepopulationof54outofthe86departments。Asignificant
commentonthepauper—warrentheory。SeeM。deLavergne’s
analysisofthereturns。
21。\"Lesclassesdenotrepopulationquin’ontqueleursalaire，
cellesqui，parcetteraison，sontlesplusexposeesa
l’indigence，sontaujourd’huibeaucoupmieuxpourvuesdesobjets
necessairesalanourriture，aulogementetauvetement，qu’elles
nel’etaientaucommencementdusiecle……Onpeutappuyer[ce
fait]dutemoignagedetouteslespersonnesquiontsouvenirde
lapremieredesepoquescomparees……S’ilrestaitdesdoutesa
cetegard，onpourraitfacilementlesdissiperenconsultantles
ancienscultivateursetlesanciensouvriers，ainsiquenous
l’avonsfaitnous—memesdansdiverseslocalites，sansrencontrer
unseultemoignagecontradictoire;onpeutinvoqueraussiles
renseignemensrecueillisacesujetparunobservateurexact，M。
Villerme（Tableaydel’EtatPhysiqueetMoraldesOyvriers，liv。
ii。ch。i）\"Fromanintelligentworkpublishedin1846，
RecherchessurlesCaysesdel’Indigence，parA。Clement，pp。
84—5。Thesamewriterspeaks（p。118）of\"lahausseconsiderable
quis’estmanifestedepuis1789dansletauxdusalairedenos
cultivateursjournaliers;\"andaddsthefollowingevidenceofa
higherstandardofhabitualrequirements，eveninthatportionof
thetownpopulation，thestateofwhichisusuallyrepresentedas
mostdeplorable。\"Depuisquinzeavingtans，unchangement
considerables’estmanifestedansleshabitudesdesouvriersde
nosvillesmanufacturieres:ilsdepensentaujourd’huibeaucoup
plusqueparlepassepourlevetementetlaparure……Les
ouvriersdecertainesclasses，telsquelesancienscanutsde
Lyon，\"（accordingtoallrepresentations，liketheir
counterpart，ourhandloomweavers，theveryworstpaidclassof
artizans，）\"nesemontrentpluscommeautrefoiscouvertsdesales
haillons。\"（page164。）
Theprecedingstatementsweregiveninformereditionsof
thiswork，beingthebesttowhichIhadatthetimeaccess;but
evidence，bothofamorerecent，andofamoreminuteandprecise
character，willnowbefoundintheimportantworkofM。Leonce
deLavergne，EconomieRuraledelaFrancedepuis1789。According
tothatpains—taking，well—informed，andmostimpartialenquirer，
theaveragedailywagesofaFrenchlabourerhaverisen，since
thecommencementoftheRevolution，intheratioof19to30，
while，owingtothemoreconstantemployment，thetotalearnings
haveincreasedinastillneaterratio，notshortofdouble。The
followingarethewordsofM。deLavergne（2nded。p。57）:
\"ArthurYoungevalueadix—neufsolsleprixmoyendela
journeedutravail，quidoitetreaujourd’huid’unfranc
cinquantecentimes，etcetteaugmentationnerepresenteencore
qu’unepartiedugainrealise。Bienquelanationruralesoit
resteeapeupreslameme，l’excedantdepopulationsurvenu
depuis1789s’etantconcentredanslesvilles，lenombreeffectif
desjourneesdetravailagrossi，d’abordparcequelavie
moyennes’etantallongee，lenombredeshommesvalidess’est
eleve，etensuiteparcequeletravailestmieuxorganise，soit
parlasuppressiondeplusieursfeteschomees，soitparleseul
effetd’unedemandeplusactive。Entenantcomptede
l’accroissementdunombredesjournees，legainannuelde
l’ouvrierruraldoitavoirdouble……Cetteaugmentationdansle
salairesetraduitpourl’ouvrierenuneaugmentationaumoins
correspondantedebien—etre，puisqueleprixdesprincipaux
objetsnecessairesalavieapeuchange，etqueceluidesobjets
fabriques，destissus，parexemple，asensiblementbaisse。
L’habitationestegalementdevenuemeilleure，sinonpartout，du
moinsdanslaplupartdenosprovinces。\"
M。deLavergne’sestimateoftheaverageamountofaday’s
wagesisgroundedonacarefulcomparison，inthisandallother
economicalpointsofview，ofallthedifferentprovincesof
France。
22。InhislittlebookontheAgricultureofthePalatinate，
alreadycited。Hesaysthatthedailywagesoflabour，which
duringthelastyearsofthewarwereunusuallyhigh，andso
continueduntil1817，afterwardssanktoalowermoney—rate，but
thatthepricesofmanycommoditieshavingfalleninastill
greaterproportion，theconditionofthepeoplewasunequivocally
improved。Thefoodgiventofarmlabourersbytheiremployershas
alsoneatlyimprovedinquantityandquality。\"SieheutigenTages
bedeutendbesserist，alsvorungefahr40Jahren，wodasGesinde
wenigerFleischundMehlspeisen，keinenKasezumBroteu。dgl。
erhielt。\"（p。20）\"Suchanincreaseofwages\"（addsthe
Professor）\"whichmustbeestimatednotinmoney，butinthe
quantityofnecessariesandconvenienceswhichthelaboureris
enabledtoprocure，is，byuniversaladmission，aproofthatthe
massofcapitalmusthaveincreased。\"Itprovesnotonlythis，
butalsothatthelabouringpopulationhasnotincreasedinan
equaldegree;andthatinthisinstanceaswellasinthatof
France，thedivisionoftheland，evenwhenexcessive，hasbeen
compatiblewithastrengtheningoftheprudentialchecksto
population。
23。Hecitesasanauthority，Schwerz，Landwirthschaftliche
Mittheilungen，i。185。
24。Oneofthemanyimportantpaperswhichhaveappearedinthe
JournalofEconomistes，theorganoftheprincipalpolitical
economistsofFrance，anddoinggreatandincreasinghonourto
theirknowledgeandability。M。Passy’sessayhasbeenreprinted
separatelyasapamphlet。
25。EconomieRuraledelaFrance，p。455。
26。See，forfactsofasimilartendency，pp。141，250，andother
passagesofthesameimportanttreatise:which，ontheother
hand，equallyaboundswithevidenceofthemischievouseffectof
subdivisionwhentoominute，orwhenthenatureofthesoiland
ofitsproductsisnotsuitabletoit。
27。Mr。Laing，inhislatestpublication，\"Observationsonthe
SocialandPoliticalStateoftheEuropeanPeoplein1848and
1849\"，abookdevotedtotheglorificationofEngland，andthe
disparagementofeverythingelsewherewhichothers，orevenhe
himselfinformerworks，hadthoughtworthyofpraise，argues
that\"althoughthelanditselfisnotdividedandsubdivided\"on
thedeathoftheproprietor，\"thevalueofthelandis，andwith
effectsalmostasprejudicialtosocialprogress。Thevalueof
eachsharebecomesadebtorburdenupontheland。\"Consequently
theconditionoftheagriculturalpopulationisretrograde;\"each
generationisworseoffthantheprecedingone，althoughtheland
isneitherlessnormoredivided，norworsecultivated。\"Andthis
hegivesastheexplanationofthegreatindebtednessofthe
smalllandedproprietorsinFrance（pp。97—9）。Ifthese
statementswerecorrect，theywouldinvalidateallwhichMr。
Laingaffirmedsopositivelyinotherwritings，andrepeatsin
this，respectingthepeculiarefficacyofthepossessionofland
inpreventingover—population。Butheisentirelymistakenasto
thematteroffact。Intheonlycountryofwhichhespeaksfrom
actualresidence，Norway，hedoesnotpretendthatthecondition
ofthepeasantproprietorsisdeteriorating。Thefactsalready
citedprovethatinrespecttoBelgium，Germany，andSwitzerland，
theassertionisequallywideofthemark;andwhathasbeen
shownrespectingtheslowincreaseofpopulationinFrance，
demonstratesthatiftheconditionoftheFrenchpeasantrywas
deteriorating，itcouldnotbefromthecausesupposedbyMr。
Laing。ThetruthIbelievetobethatineverycountrywithout
exception，inwhichpeasantpropertiesprevail，theconditionof
thepeopleisimproving，theproduceofthelandandevenits
fertilityincreasing，andfromthelargersurpluswhichremains
afterfeedingtheagriculturalclasses，thetownsareaugmenting
bothinpopulationandinthewell—beingoftheirinhabitants。On
thisquestion，aswellasonthatofthemorcellement，sofaras
regardsFrance，additionalfactsandobservations，broughtupto
alaterdate，will[52，57observationswill]befoundinthe
Appendix。
28。Frenchhistorystrikinglyconfirmstheseconclusions。Three
timesduringthecourseofagesthepeasantryhavebeen
purchasersofland;andthesetimesimmediatelyprecededthe
threeprincipalerasofFrenchagriculturalprosperity。
\"Auxtempslesplusmauvais，\"saysthehistorianMichelet，
（LePeyple，lrepartie，ch。1）\"auxmomentsdepauvrete
universelle，oulerichememeestpauvreetvendparforce，alors
lepauvresetrouveenetatd’acheter;nulacquereurnese
presentant，lepaysanenguenillesarriveavecsapieced’or，et
ilacquiertunboutdeterre。Cesmomentsdedesastreoule
paysanapuacquerirlaterreabonmarche，onttoujoursete
suivisd’unelansubitdefeconditequ’onnes’expliquaitpas。
Vers1500，parexample，quandlaFranceepuiseeparLouisXI
sembleacheversaruineenItalie，lanoblessequipartest
obligeedevendre;laterre，passantadenouvellesmains，
refleurittout—a—coup;ontravaille，onbatit。Cebeaumoment
（danslestyledel’histoiremonarchique）s’estappelelebon
LouisXII。
\"Ildurepeu，malheureusement。Laterreestapeineremiseen
bonetat，lefiscfonddessus;lesguerresdereligionarrivent，
quisemblentrasertoutjusqu’ausol，misereshorribles，famines
atrocesoulesmeresmangeaientleursenfants。Quicroiraitque
lepaysserelevedela？Ehbien，laguerrefinitapeine，dece
champravage，decettechaumiereencorenoireetbrulee，sort
l’Epargnedupaysan。Ilachete;endixans，laFranceachangede
face;envingtoutrente，touslesbiensontdouble，triplede
valeur。Cemomentencorebaptised’unnomroyal，s’appellelebon
HenriIVetlegrandRichelieu。\"
Ofthethirderaitisneedlessagaintospeak:itwasthat
oftheRevolution。
Whoeverwouldstudythereverseofthepicture，maycompare
thesehistoricperiods，characterizedbythedismembermentof
largeandtheconstructionofsmallproperties，withthe
wide—spreadnationalsufferingwhichaccompanied，andthe
permanentdeteriorationoftheconditionofthelabouringclasses
whichfollowed，the\"clearing\"awayofsmallyeomentomakeroom
forlargegrazingfarms，whichwasthegrandeconomicaleventof
Englishhistoryduringthesixteenthcentury。
ThePrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy
byJohnStuartMill
Book2，Chapter8
OfMetayers
1。Fromthecaseinwhichtheproduceoflandandlabour
belongsundividedlytothelabourer，weproceedtothecasesin
whichitisdivided，butbetweentwoclassesonly，thelabourers
andthelandowners:thecharacterofcapitalistsmerginginthe
oneortheother，asthecasemaybe。Itispossibleindeedto
conceivethattheremightbeonlytwoclassesofpersonstoshare
theproduce，andthataclassofcapitalistsmightbeoneof
them;thecharacteroflabourerandthatoflandownerbeing
unitedtoformtheother。Thismightoccurintwoways。The
labourers，thoughowningtheland，mightletittoatenant，and
workunderhimashiredservants。Butthisarrangement，evenin
theveryrarecaseswhichcouldgiverisetoit，wouldnot
requireanyparticulardiscussion，sinceitwouldnotdifferin
anymaterialrespectfromthethreefoldsystemoflabourers，
capitalists，andlandlords。Theothercaseisthenotuncommon
one，inwhichapeasantproprietorownsandcultivatestheland，
butrisesthelittlecapitalrequired，byamortgageuponit。
Neitherdoesthiscasepresentanyimportantpeculiarity。There
isbutoneperson，thepeasanthimself，whohasanyrightor
powerofinterferenceinthemanagement。Hepaysafixedannuity
asinteresttoacapitalist，ashepaysanotherfixedsumin
taxestothegovernment。Withoutdwellingfurtheronthesecases，
wepasstothosewhichpresentmarkedfeaturesofpeculiarity。
Whenthetwopartiessharingintheproducearethelabourer
orlabourersandthelandowner，itisnotaverymaterial
circumstanceinthecase，whichofthetwofurnishesthestock，
orwhether，assometimeshappens，theyfurnishit，ina
determinateproportion，betweenthem。Theessentialdifference
doesnotlieinthis，butinanothercircumstance，namely，
whetherthedivisionoftheproducebetweenthetwoisregulated
bycustomorbycompetition。Wewillbeginwiththeformercase;
ofwhichthemetayercultureistheprincipal，andinEurope
almostthesole，example。
Theprincipleofthemetayersystem，isthatthelabourer，or
peasant，makeshisengagementdirectlywiththelandowner，and
pays，notafixedrent，eitherinmoneyorinkind，butacertain
proportionoftheproduce，orratherofwhatremainsofthe
produceafterdeductingwhatisconsiderednecessarytokeepup
thestock。Theproportionisusually，asthenameimports，
one—half;butinseveraldistrictsinItalyitistwo—thirds。
Respectingthesupplyofstock，thecustomvariesfromplaceto
place;insomeplacesthelandlordfurnishesthewhole，inothers
half，inotherssomeparticularpart，asforinstancethecattle
andseed，thelabourerprovidingtheimplements。（1*）\"This
connexion，\"saysSismondi，speakingchieflyofTuscany，（2*）\"is
oftenthesubjectofacontract，todefinecertainservicesand
certainoccasionalpaymentstowhichthemetayerbindshimself;
neverthelessthedifferencesintheobligationsofonesuch
contractandanotherareinconsiderable;usagegovernsalikeall
theseengagements，andsuppliesthestipulationswhichhavenot
beenexpressed;andthelandlordwhoattemptedtodepartfrom
usage，whoexactedmorethanhisneighbour，whotookforthe
basisoftheagreementanythingbuttheequaldivisionofthe
crops，wouldrenderhimselfsoodious，hewouldbesosureofnot
obtainingametayerwhowasanhonestman，thatthecontractof
allthemetayersmaybeconsideredasidentical，atleastineach
province，andnevergivesrisetoanycompetitionamongpeasants
insearchofemployment，oranyoffertocultivatethesoilon
cheapertermsthanoneanother。\"Tothesameeffect
Ch鈚eauvieux，（3*）speakingofthemetayersofPiedmont。\"They
considerit，\"（thefarm）\"asapatrimony，andneverthinkof
renewingthelease，butgoonfromgenerationtogeneration，on
thesameterms，withoutwritingsorregistries。\"（4*）
2。Whenthepartitionoftheproduceisamatteroffixed
usage，notofvaryingconvention，politicaleconomyhasnolaws
ofdistributiontoinvestigate。Ithasonlytoconsider，asin
thecaseofpeasantproprietors，theeffectsofthesystemfirst
ontheconditionofthepeasantry，morallyandphysically，and
secondly，ontheefficiencyofthelabour。Inboththese
particularsthemetayersystemhasthecharacteristicadvantages
ofpeasantproperties，buthastheminalessdegree。Themetayer
haslessmotivetoexertionthanthepeasantproprietor，since
onlyhalfthefruitsofhisindustry，insteadofthewhole，are
hisown。Buthehasamuchstrongermotivethanadaylabourer，
whohasnootherinterestintheresultthannottobedismissed。
Ifthemetayercannotbeturnedoutexceptforsomeviolationof
hiscontract，hehasastrongermotivetoexertionthanany
tenant—farmerwhohasnotalease。Themetayerisatleasthis
landlord’spartner，andahalf—sharerintheirjointgains。
Where，too，thepermanenceofhistenureisguaranteedbycustom，
heacquireslocalattachments，andmuchofthefeelingsofa
proprietor。Iamsupposingthatthishalfproduceissufficient
toyieldhimacomfortablesupport。Whetheritisso，depends（in
anygivenstateofaciculture）onthedeCeeofsubdivisionofthe
land;whichdependsontheoperationofthepopulationprinciple。
Amultiplicationofpeople，beyondthenumberthatcanbe
properlysupportedonthelandortakenoffbymanufactures，is
incidenteventoapeasantproprietary，andofcoursenotless
butrathermoreincidenttoametayerpopulation。Thetendency，
however，whichwenoticedintheproprietarysystem，topromote
prudenceonthispoint，isinnosmalldegreecommontoitwith
themetayersystem。There，also，itisamatterofeasyandexact
calculationwhetherafamilycanhesupportedornot。Ifitis
easytoseewhethertheownerofthewholeproducecanincrease
theproductionsoastomaintainagreaternumberofpersons
equallywell，itisanotlesssimpleproblemwhethertheowner
ofhalftheproducecandoso。（5*）Thereisonecheckwhichthis
systemseemstooffer，overandabovethoseheldoutevenbythe
proprietarysystem;thereisalandlord，whomayexerta
controllingpower，byrefusinghisconsenttoasubdivision。Ido
not，however，attachgreatimportancetothischeck，becausethe
farmmaybeloadedwithsuperfluoushandswithoutbeing
subdivided;andbecause，solongastheincreaseofhands
increasesthegrossproduce，whichisalmostalwaysthecase，the
landlord，whoreceiveshalftheproduce，isanimmediategainer，
theinconveniencefallingonlyonthelabourers。Thelandlordis
nodoubtliableintheendtosufferfromtheirpoverty，bybeing
forcedtomakeadvancestothem，especiallyinbadseasons;anda
foresightofthisultimateinconveniencemayoperatebeneficially
onsuchlandlordsaspreferfuturesecuritytopresentprofit。
Thecharacteristicdisadvantageofthemetayersystemisvery
fairlystatedbyAdamSmith。Afterpointingoutthatmetayers
\"haveaplaininterestthatthewholeproduceshouldbeasgreat
aspossible，inorderthattheirownproportionmaybeso，\"he
continues，（6*）\"itcouldnever，however，betheinterestofthis
speciesofcultivatorstolayout，inthefurtherimprovementof
theland，anypartofthelittlestockwhichtheymightsavefrom
theirownshareoftheproduce，becausethelordwholaidout
nothing，wastogetone—halfofwhateveritproduced。Thetithe，
whichisbutatenthoftheproduce，isfoundtobeaverygreat
hindrancetoimprovement。Atax，therefore，whichamountedto
one—half，musthavebeenaneffectualbartoit。Itmightbethe
interestofametayertomakethelandproduceasmuchascould
bebroughtoutofitbymeansofthestock，butitcouldneverbe
hisinteresttomixanyfurnishedbytheproprietor;partofhis
ownwithit。InFrance，wherefivepartsoutofsixofthewhole
kingdomaresaidtobestilloccupiedbythisspeciesof
cultivators，theproprietorscomplainthattheirmetayerstake
everyopportunityofemployingthemaster’scattleratherin
carriagethanincultivation;becauseintheonecasetheyget
thewholeprofitstothemselves，intheothertheysharethem
withtheirlandlord。\"
Itisindeedimpliedintheverynatureofthetenure，that
allimprovementswhichrequireexpenditureofcapitalmustbe
madewiththecapitalofthelandlord。This，however，is
essentiallythecaseeveninEngland，wheneverthefarmersare
tenants—at—will:or（ifArthurYoungisright）evenona\"nine
years’lease。\"Ifthelandlordiswillingtoprovidecapitalfor
improvements，themetayerhasthestrongestinterestinpromoting
them，sincehalfthebenefitofthemwillaccruetohimself。As
howevertheperpetuityoftenurewhich，inthecaseweare
discussing，heenjoysbycustom，rendershisconsentanecessary
condition;thespiritofroutine，anddislikeofinnovation，
characteristicofanagriculturalpeoplewhennotcorrectedby
education，arenodoubt，astheadvocatesofthesystemseemto
admit，aserioushindrancetoimprovement。
3。ThemetayersystemhasmetwithnomercyfromEnglish
authorities。\"Thereisnotonewordtobesaidinfavourofthe
practice，\"saysArthurYoung，（7*）anda\"thousandargumentsthat
mightbeusedagainstit。Thehardpleaofnecessitycanalonebe
urgedinitsfavour;thepovertyofthefarmersbeingsoceat，
thatthelandlordmuststockthefarm，oritcouldnotbestocked
atall:thisisamostcruelburdentoaproprietor，whoisthus
obligedtorunmuchofthehazardoffarminginthemost
dangerousofallmethods，thatoftrustinghisproperty
absolutelyinthehandsofpeoplewhoaregenerallyignorant，
manycareless，andsomeundoubtedlywicked……Inthismost
miserableofallthemodesoflettingland，thedefrauded
landlordredeivesacontemptiblerent;thefarmerisinthe
loweststateofpoverty;thelandismiserablycultivated;and
thenationsuffersasseverelyasthepartiesthemselves……
Wherever（8*）thissystemprevails，itmaybetakenforgranted
thatauselessandmiserablepopulationisfound……Whereverthe
country（thatIsaw）ispoorandunwatered，intheMilanese，it
isinthehandsofmetayers:\"theyarealmostalwaysindebtto
theirlandlordforseedorfood，and\"theirconditionismore
wretchedthanthatofadaylabourer……There（9*）arebutfew
districts\"（inItaly）\"wherelandsarelettotheoccupying
tenantatamoney—rent;butwhereveritisfound，theircropsare
greater;aclearproofoftheimbecilityofthemetayingsystem。\"
\"Whereverit\"（themetayersystem）\"hasbeenadopted，\"saysMr。
M’Culloch，（10*）\"ithasputastoptoallimprovement，andhas
reducedthecultivatorstothemostabjectpoverty\"Mr。
Jones（11*）sharesthecommonopinion，andquotesTurgotand
Destutt—Tracyinsupportofit。Theimpression，however，ofall
thesewriters（notwithstandingArthurYoung’soccasional
referencestoItaly）seemstobechieflyderivedfromFrance，and
FrancebeforetheRevolution。（12*）NowthesituationofFrench
metayersundertheoldr間imebynomeansrepresentsthetypical
formofthecontract。Itisessentialtothatform，thatthe
proprietorpaysallthetaxes。ButinFrancetheexemptionofthe
noblessefromdirecttaxationhadledtheGovernmenttothrowthe
wholehurthenoftheirever—increasingfiscalexactionsuponthe
occupiers:anditistotheseexactionsthatTurgotascribedthe
extremewretchednessofthemetayers:awretchednessinsome
casessoexcessive，thatinLimousinandAngounmois（the
provinceswhichheadministered）theyhadseldommore，according
tohim，afterdeductingallburthens，thanfromtwenty—fiveto
thirtylivres（20to24shillings）perheadfortheirwhole
annualconsumption:\"jenedispasenargent，maisencomptant
toutcequ’ilsconsommentennaturesurcequ’ilsont
r閏olt？\"（13*）Whenweaddthattheyhadnotthevirtualfixity
oftenureofthemetayersofItaly，（\"inLimousin，\"saysArthur
Young，（14*）\"themetayersareconsideredaslittlebetterthan
menialservants，removableatpleasure，andobligedtoconformin
allthingstothewillofthelandlords，\"）itisevidentthat
theircaseaffordsnoargumentagainstthemetayersysteminits
betterform。Apopulationwhocouldcallnothingtheirown，who，
liketheIrishcottiers，couldnotinanycontingencybeworse
off，hadnothingtorestrainthemfrommultiplying，and
subdividingtheland，untilstoppedbyactualstarvation。
Weshallfindaverydifferentpicture，bythemostaccurate
authorities，ofthemetayercultivationofItaly。Inthefirst
place，astosubdivision。InLombardy，accordingto
Ch鈚eauvieux，（15*）therearefewfarmswhichexceedfiftyacres，
andfewwhichhavelessthanten。Thesefarmsarealloccupiedby
metayersathalfprofit。Theyinvariablydisplay\"anextent（16*）
andarichnessinbuildingsrarelyknowninanyothercountryin
Europe。\"Theirplan\"affordsthegreatestroomwiththeleast
extentofbuilding;isbestadaptedtoarrangeandsecurethe
crop;andis，atthesametime，themosteconomical，andthe
leastexposedtoaccidentshyfire。\"Thecourt—yard\"exhibitsa
wholesoregularandcommodious，andasystemofsuchcareand
goodorder，andthatourdirtyandill—arrangedfarmscanconvey
noadequateideaof。\"ThesamedescriptionappliestoPiedmont。
Therotationofcropsisexcellent。\"Ishouldthink（17*）no
countrycanbringsolargeaportionofitsproducetomarketas
Piedmont。\"Thoughthesoilisnotnaturallyveryfertile，\"the
numberofcitiesisprodigiouslygreat。\"Theagriculturemust，
therefore，beeminentlyfavourabletothenetaswellastothe
grossproduceoftlheland。\"Eachploughworksthirty—twoacres
intheseason……Nothngcanbemoreperfectorneaterthanthe
hoeingandmouldingupthemaize，wheninfullgrowth，bya
singleplough，withapairofoxen，withoutinjurytoasingle
plant，whilealltheweedsareeffectuallydestroyed。\"Somuch
foragriculturalskill。\"Nothingcanbesoexcellentasthecrop
whichprecedesandthatwhichfollowsit。\"Thewheat\"isthrashed
byacylinder，drawnhyahorse，andguidedbyaboy，whilethe
labourersturnoverthestrawwithforks。Thisprocesslasts
nearlyafortnight;itisquickandeconomical，andcompletely
getsoutthegrain……Innopartoftheworldaretheeconomy
andthemanagementofthelandbetterunderstoodthanin
Piedmont，andthisexplainsthephenomenonofitsgreat
population，andimmenseexportofprovisions。\"Allthisunder
metayercultivation。
OfthevalleyoftheArno，initswholeextent，bothabove
andbelowFlorence，thesamewriterthusspeaks:（18*）——\"Forests
ofolive—treescoveredthelowerpartsofthemountains，andby
theirfoliageconcealedaninfinitenumberofsmallfarms，which
peopledthesepartsofthemountains;chestnut—treesraisedtheir
headsonthehigherslopes，theirhealthyverdurecontrasting
withthepaletintoftheolive—trees，andspreadingabrightness
overthisamphitheatre。Theroadwasborderedoneachsidewith
villagehouses，notmorethanahundredpacesfromeachother……
Theyareplacedatalittledistancefromtheroad，andseparated
fromitbyawall，andaterraceofsomefeetinextent。Onthe
wallarecommonlyplacedmanyvasesofantiqueforms，inwhich
flowers，aloes，andyoungorange—treesaregrowing。Thehouse
itselfiscompletelycoveredwithvines……Beforethesehouses
wesawgroupsofpeasantfemalesdressedinwhitelinen，silk
corsets，andstraw—hats，ornamentedwithflowers……These
housesbeingsoneareachother，itisevidentthattheland
annexedtothemmustbesmall，andthatproperty，inthese
valleys，mustbeverymuchdivided;theextentofthesedomains
beingfromthreetotenacres。Thelandliesroundthehouses，
andisdividedintofieldsbysmallcanals，orrowsoftrees，
someofwhicharemulberry—trees，butthegreatestnumber
poplars，theleavesofwhichareeatenbythecattle。Eachtree
supportsavine……Thesedivisions，arrayedinoblongsquares，
arelargeenoughtobecultivatedbyaploughwithoutwheels，and
apairofoxen。Thereisapairofoxenbetweentenortwelveof
thefarmers;theyemploythemsuccessivelyinthecultivationof
allthefarms……Almosteveryfarmmaintainsawell—looking
horse，whichgoesinasmalltwo—wheeledcart，neatlymade，and
paintedred;theyserveforallthepurposesofdraughtforthe
farm，andalsotoconveythefarmer’sdaughterstomassandto
balls。Thus，onholidays，hundredsoftheselittlecartsareseen
flyinginalldirections，Carryingtheyoungwomen，decorated
withflowersandribbons。\"
Thisisnotapictureofpoverty;andsofarasagriculture
isconcerned，iteffectuallyredeemsmetayercultivation，as
existinginthesecountries，fromthereproachesofEnglish
writers;butwithrespecttotheconditionofthecultivators，
Ch鈚eauvieux’stestimonyis，insomepoints，notsofavourable。
\"Itis（19*）neitherthenaturalfertilityofthesoil，northe
abundancewhichstrikestheeyeofthetraveller，which
constitutethewell—beingofitsinhabitants。Itisthenumberof
individualsamongwhomthetotalproduceisdivided，whichfixes
theportionthateachisenabledtoenjoy。Hereitisverysmall。
Ihavethusfar，indeed，exhibitedadelightfulcountry，well
watered，fertile，andcoveredwithaperpetualvegetation;Ihave
shownitdividedintocountlessenclosures，which，likesomany
bedsinagarden，displayathousandvaryingproductions;Ihave
shown，thattoalltheseenclosuresareattachedwell—built
houses，clothedwithvines，anddecoratedwithflowers;but，on
enteringthem，wefindatotalwantofalltheconveniencesof
life，atablemorethanfrugal，andageneralappearanceof
privation。\"IsnotCh鈚eauvieuxhereunconsciouslycontrasting
theconditionofthemetayerswiththatofthefarmersofother
countries，whentheproperstandardwithwhichtocompareitis
thatoftheaciculturalday—labourers？
ArthurYoungsays，（20*）\"Iwasassuredthatthesemetayers
are（especiallynearflorence）muchattheirease;thaton
holidaystheyaredressedremarkablywell，andnotwithout
objectsofluxury，assilver，gold，andsilk;andlivewell，on
plentyofbread，wine，andlegumes。Insomeinstancesthismay
possiblybethecase，butthegeneralfactiscontrary。Itis
absurdtothinkthatmetayers，uponsuchafarmasiscultivated
byapairofoxen，canliveattheirease;andaclearproofof
theirpovertyisthis，thatthelandlord，whoprovideshalfthe
livestock，isoftenobligedtolendthepeasantmoneytoprocure
hishalf……Themetayers，notinthevicinityofthecity，are
sopoor，thatlandlordsevenlendthemcorntoeat:theirfoodis
blackbread，madeofamixturewithvetches;andtheirdrinkis
verylittlewine，mixedwithwater，andcalledaquarolle;meaton
Sundaysonly;theirdressveryordinary。\"Mr。Jonesadmitsthe
superiorcomfortofthemetayersnearFlorence，andattributesit
partlytostraw—platting，bywhichthewomenofthepeasantrycan
earn，accordingtoCh鈚eauvieux，（21*）fromfifteentotwenty
penceaday。Buteventhisfacttellsinfavourofthemetayer
system:forinthosepartsofEnglandinwhicheither
straw—plattingorlace—makingiscarriedonbythewomenand
childrenofthelabouringclass，asinBedfordshireand
Buckinghamshire，theconditionoftheclassisnotbetter，but
ratherworsethanelsewhere，thewagesofagriculturallabour
beingdepressedbyafullequivalent。
InspiteofCh鈚eauvieux’sstatementrespectingthepoverty
ofthemetayers，hisopinion，inrespecttoItalyatleast，is
giveninfavourofthesystem。\"Itoccupies（22*）andconstantly
intereststheproprietors，whichisneverthecasewithgreat
proprietorswholeasetheirestatesatfixedrents。It
establishesacommunityofinterests，andrelationsofkindness
betweentheproprietorsandthemetayers;akindnesswhichIhave
oftenwitnessed，andfromwhichresultgreatadvantagesinthe
moralconditionofsociety。Theproprietor，underthissystem，
alwaysinterestedinthesuccessofthecropneverrefusesto
makeanadvanceuponit，whichthelandpromisestorepaywith
interest。Itisbytheseadvancesandbythehopethusinspired，
thattherichproprietorsoflandhavecaduallyperfectedthe
wholeruraleconomyofItaly。Itistothemthatitowesthe
numeroussystemsofirrigationwhichwateritssoil，asalsothe
establishmentoftheterracecultureonthehills:gradualbut
permanentimprovements，whichcommonpeasants，forwantofmeans，
couldneverhaveaffected，andwhichcouldneverhavebeen
accomplishedbythefarmers，norbytheceatproprietorswholet
theirestatesatfixedrents，becausetheyarenotsufficiently
interested。Thustheinterestedsystemformsofitselfthat
alliancebetweentherichproprietor，whosemeansprovideforthe
improvementoftheculture，andthemetayerwhosecareandlabour
aredirected，byacommoninterest，tomakethemostofthese
advances。\"
Butthetestimonymostfavourabletothesystemisthatof
Sismondi，whichhastheadvantageofbeingspecific，andfrom
accurateknowledge;hisinformationbeingnotthatofa
traveller，butofaresidentproprietor，intimatelyacquainted
withrurallife。HisstatementsapplytoTuscanygenerally，and
moreparticularlytotheValdiNievole，inwhichhisown
propertylay，andwhichisnotwithinthesupposedprivileged
circleimmediatelyroundFlorence。Itisoneofthedistrictsin
whichthesizeoffarmsappearstobethesmallest。Thefollowing
ishisdescriptionofthedwellingsandmodeoflifeofthe
metayersofthatdistrict。（23*）
\"Cettemaison，b鈚ieenbonnesmurailles？chauxet？ciment，
atoujoursaumoinsun閠age，quelquefoisdeux，au—dessusdu
rez—de—chauss閑。Leplussouventontrouve？cerez—de—chauss閑
lacuisine，une閠ablepourdeuxb阾es？corne，etlemagasin，
quiprendsonnom，tinaia，desgrandescuves（tini）o？l’onfait
fermenterlevin，sanslesoumettreaupressoir:c’estl？encore
quelem閠ayerenfermesouscl？sestonneaux，sonhuile，etson
bl？Presquetoujoursilposs鑔eencoreunhangarappuy？contre
lamaison，pourqu’ilpuisseytravailler？couvert？raccommoder
sesoutils，ou？hacherlefourragepoursonb閠ail。Aupremier
etausecond閠agesontdeux，trois，etsouventquatrechambres？
lit……Laplusspacieuseetlamieuxa閞閑deceschambresest
eng閚閞aldestin閑parlem閠ayer，pendantlesmoisdeMaietde
Juin，？l’閐ucationdesvers？soie:degrandscoffrespour
enfermerleshabitsetlelinge，etquelqueschaisesdebois，
sontlesprincipauxmeublesdeceschambres;maisunenouvelle
閜ouseyapportetoujourssacommodedeboisdenoyer。Leslits
sontsansrideaux，sanstourdelit;maissurchacun，outreun
bongarde—pailleremplidelapaille閘astiquedubl？deTurquie，
Onvoitunoudeuxmatelasenlaine，ou，chezlespluspauvres，
en閠oupe，unebonnecouverturepiqu閑，desdrapsdefortetoile
dechanvre，etsurlemeilleurlitdelafamille，untapisde
bourredesoiequ’on閠alelesjoursdef阾e。Iln’yade
chemin閑qu’？lacuisine;danslam阭epi鑓eontrouvetoujours
lagrandetabledeboiso？d頽elafamille，avecsesbancs;le
grandcoffre，quisertenm阭etempsd’armoirepourconserverle
painetlesprovisions，etdep閠rin;unassortimentassez
completetfortpeuco鹴euxdepots，deplatsetd’assiettesen
terrecuite;uneoudeuxlampesdelaiton，unpoids？laromaine，
etaumoinsdeuxcruchesencuivrerougepourpuiseretpour
conserverl’eau。Toutlelingeettousleshabitsdetravailde
lafamilleont閠？fil閟parlesfemmesdelamaison。Ceshabits，
tantpourleshommesquepourlesfemmes，sontdel’閠offequ’ils
nommentmezzalanasielleest閜aisse，molasielleestl間ere。
Latrameestungrosfiloudechanvreoud’閠oupe，le
remplissageestdelaineoudecoton;elleestteinteparles
m阭espaysannesquil’ontfil閑。Onsefigureraitdifficilement
combien，paruntravailassidu，lespaysannessaventaccumuleret
detoileetdemezzalana;combiendedrapssetrouventaud閜魌
commun:comhienchaquemembredelafamilleadechemises，de
vestes，depantalons，dejupons，etderobes。Pourlefaire
comprendre，nousjoignonsennoteunepartiedel’inventairede
lafamilledepaysansquenousconnaissonslemieux;ellen’est
niparmilespluspauvresniparmilesplusriches，etellevit
heureuseparsontravailsurlamoiti？desr閏oltesdemoinsde
dixarpensdeterre。（24*）Cette閜ouseavaiteu50閏usdedot，
dont20pay閟comptant，etlereste？terme，？2閏usparann閑。
L’閏udeToscanevaut6francs。Ladotlapluscommunepourles
paysannes，danslerestedelaToscaneo？lesm閠airiessontplus
grandes，estde100閏us，600francs。\"
Isthispoverty，orconsistentwithpoverty？Whenacommon，
M。deSismondievensaysthecommon，marriageportionofa
metayer’sdaughteris24l。Englishmoney，equivalenttoatleast
50l。inItalyandinthatrankoflife;whenonewhosedowryis
onlyhalfthatamount，hasthewardrobedescribed，whichis
representedbySismondiasafairaverage;theclassmustbe
fullycomparable，ingeneralcondition，toalargeproportion
evenofcapitalistfarmersinothercountries;andincomparably
abovethedaylabourersofanycountry，exceptanewcolony，or
theUnitedStates。Verylittlecanbeinferred，againstsuch
evidence，fromatraveller’simpressionofthepoorqualityof
theirfood。Itsunexpensivecharactermayberathertheeffectof
economythanofnecessity。Costlyfeedingisnotthefavourite
luxuryofasouthernpeople;theirdietinallclassesis
principallyvegetable，andnopeasantryontheContinenthasthe
superstitionoftheEnglishlabourerrespectingwhitebread。But
thenourishmentoftheTuscanpeasant，accordingtoSismondi，\"is
wholesomeandvarious:itsbasisisanexcellentwheatenbread，
brown，butpurefrombranandfromallmixture。\"\"Dansla
mauvaisesaison，ilnefaitquedeuxrepaspar。jour。？dix
heuresdumatinilmangesapollenta，？l’entr閑delanuitil
mangelasoupe，puisdupainavecquelqueassaisonnement
（companatico）。En閠？ilfaittroisrepas，？huitheures，？une
heure，etausoir，maisiln’allumedefeuqu’uneseulefoispar
jour，poursondiner，quisecomposedesoupe，puisd’unplatou
deviandesal閑oudepoissonsec，oudeharicots，oud’herbages，
qu’ilmangeavecdupain。Laviandesal閑n’entrequepourune
quantit？bienminimedanscetordinaire，carilestimeque
quarantelivresdeporcsal？parindividusuffisentamplement？
saprovisiondel’ann閑;ilenmetdeuxfoisparsemaineunpetit
morceaudanssonpotage。Ledimancheilatoujourssursatable
unplatdeviandefraiche，maisunmorceauquinep鑣equ’une
livreouunelivreetdemiesuffit？toutelafamille，quelque
nombreusequ’ellesoit。Ilnefautpointoublierquelepaysan
Toscanr閏olteeng閚閞aldel’huiled’olivepoursonusage:il
s’ensert，nonseulementpours’閏lairer，maispourassaisonner
touslesv間閠auxqu’ilappr阾epoursatable，etquideviennent
ainsibienplussavoureuxetplusnutritifs。Ad閖eunerilmange
dupain，etquelquefoisdufromageetdesfruits;？souper，du
painetdelasalade。Saboissonsecomposeduvininf閞ieurdu
pays，etdelavinelleoupiquettefaitd’eauferment閑surle
marcduraisin。Ilr閟ervecependanttoujoursquelquepeudeson
meilleurvinpourlejouro？ilbattrasongrain，etpour
quelquesf阾esquisec閘閎rentenfamille。Ilestime？dix
barilsdevinelleparann閑（environcinquantebouteilles）et？
cinqsacsdefroment（environmillelivresdepain）laportion
requisepourunhommefait。\"