Therearemanycircumstances，which，inEngland，givea
peculiarforcetotheaccumulatingpropensity。Thelongexemption
ofthecountryfromtheravagesofwar，andthefarearlier
periodthanelsewhereatwhichpropertywassecurefrommilitary
violenceorarbitraryspoliation，haveproducedalong—standing
andhereditaryconfidenceinthesafetyoffundswhentrustedout
oftheowner’shands，whichinmostothercountriesisofmuch
morerecentorigin，andlessfirmlyestablished。Thegeographical
causeswhichhavemadeindustryratherthanwarthenatural
sourceofpowerandimportancetoGreatBritain，haveturnedan
unusualproportionofthemostenterprisingandenergetic
charactersintothedirectionofmanufacturesandcommerce;into
supplyingtheirwantsandgratifyingtheirambitionbyproducing
andsaving，ratherthanbyappropriatingwhathasbeenproduced
andsaved。Muchalsodependedonthebetterpolitical
institutionsofthiscountry，whichbythescopetheyhave
allowedtoindividualfreedomofaction，haveencouragedpersonal
activityandself—reliance，whilebythelibertytheyconferof
associationandcombination，theyfacilitateindustrial
enterpriseonalargescale。Thesameinstitutionsinanotherof
theiraspects，giveamostdirectandpotentstimulustothe
desireofacquiringwealth。Theearlierdeclineoffeudalism
havingremovedormuchweakenedinvidiousdistinctionsbetween
theoriginallytradingclassesandthosewhohadbeenaccustomed
todespisethem;andapolityhavinggrownupwhichmadewealth
therealsourceofpoliticalinfluence;itsacquisitionwas
investedwithafactitiousvalue，independentofitsintrinsic
utility。Itbecamesynonymouswithpower;andsincepowerwith
thecommonherdofmankindgivespower，wealthbecamethechief
sourceofpersonalconsideration，andthemeasureandstampof
successinlife。Togetoutofonerankinsocietyintothenext
aboveit，isthegreataimofEnglishmiddle—classlife，andthe
acquisitionofwealththemeans。Andinasmuchastoberich
withoutindustry，hasalwayshithertoconstitutedastepinthe
socialscaleabovethosewhoarerichbymeansofindustry，it
becomestheobjectofambitiontosavenotmerelyasmuchaswill
affordalargeincomewhileinbusiness，butenoughtoretire
frombusinessandliveinaffluenceonrealizedgains。These
causeshave，inEngland，beengreatlyaidedbythatextreme
incapacityofthepeopleforpersonalenjoyment，whichisa
characteristicofcountriesoverwhichpuritanismhaspassed。But
ifaccumulationis，ononehand，renderedeasierbytheabsence
ofatasteforpleasure，itis，ontheother，mademoredifficult
bythepresenceofaveryrealtasteforexpense。Sostrongis
theassociationbetweenpersonalconsequenceandthesignsof
wealth，thatthesillydesirefortheappearanceofalarge
expenditurehastheforceofapassion，amonglargeclassesofa
nationwhichderiveslesspleasurethanperhapsanyotherinthe
worldfromwhatitspends。Owingtothiscircumstance，the
effectivedesireofaccumulationhasneverreachedsohigha
pitchinEnglandasitdidinHolland，where，therebeingnorich
idleclasstosettheexampleofarecklessexpenditure，andthe
mercantileclasses，whopossessedthesubstantialpoweronwhich
socialinfluencealwayswaits，beinglefttoestablishtheirown
scaleoflivingandstandardofpropriety，theirhabitsremained
frugalandunostentatious。
InEnglandandHolland，then，foralongtimepast，andnow
inmostothercountriesinEurope（whicharerapidlyfollowing
Englandinthesamerace），thedesireofaccumulationdoesnot
require，tomakeiteffective，thecopiousreturnswhichit
requiresinAsia，butissufficientlycalledintoactionbya
rateofprofitsolow，thatinsteadofslackening，accumulation
seemsnowtoproceedmorerapidlythanever。andthesecond
requisiteofincreasedproduction，increaseofcapital，showsno
tendencytobecomedeficient。Sofarasthatelementis
concerned，productionissusceptibleofanincreasewithoutany
assignablebounds。
Theprogressofaccumulationwouldnodoubtbeconsiderably
checked，ifthereturnstocapitalweretobereducedstilllower
thanatpresent。Butwhyshouldanypossibleincreaseofcapital
havethateffect？Thisquestioncarriesthemindforwardtothe
remainingoneofthethreerequisitesofproduction。The
limitationtoproduction，notconsistinginanynecessarylimit
totheincreaseoftheothertwoelements，labourandcapital，
mustturnuponthepropertiesoftheonlyelementwhichis
inherently，andinitself，limitedinquantity。Itmustdependon
thepropertiesofland。
NOTES:
1。Thistreatiseisanexample，suchasnotunfrequentlypresents
itself，howmuchmoredependsonaccident，thanonthequalities
ofabook，indeterminingitsreception。Haditappearedata
suitabletime，andbeenfavouredbycircumstances，itwouldhave
hadeveryrequisiteforgreatsuccess。Theauthor，aScotchman
settledintheUnitedStates，unitesmuchknowledge，anoriginal
veinofthought，aconsiderableturnforphilosophic
generalities，andamannerofexpositionandillustration
calculatedtomakeideastellnotonlyforwhattheyareworth，
butformorethantheyareworth，andwhichsometimes，Ithink，
hasthateffectinthewriter’sownmind。Theprincipalfaultof
thebookisthepositionofantagonisminwhich，withthe
controversialspiritapttobefoundinthosewhohavenew
thoughtsonoldsubjects，hehasplacedhimselftowardsAdam
Smith。Icallthisafault，（thoughIthinkmanyofthe
criticismsjust，andsomeofthemfar—seeing，）becausethereis
muchlessrealdifferenceofopinionthanmightbesupposedfrom
DrRae’sanimadversionsandbecausewhathehasfoundvulnerable
inhisgreatpredecessorischieflythe\"humantoomuch\"inhis
premises;theportionofthemthatisoverandabovewhatwas
eitherrequiredorisactuallyusedfortheestablishmentofhis
conclusions。
ThePrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy
byJohnStuartMill
Book1，Chapter12
OftheLawoftheIncreaseofProductionfromLand
1。Landdiffersfromtheotherelementsofproduction，labour
andcapital，innotbeingsusceptibleofindefiniteincrease。Its
extentislimited，andtheextentofthemoreproductivekindsof
itmorelimitedstill。Itisalsoevidentthatthequantityof
producecapableofbeingraisedonanygivenpieceoflandisnot
indefinite。Thislimitedquantityofland，andlimited
productivenessofit，arethereallimitstotheincreaseof
production。
Thattheyaretheultimatelimits，mustalwayshavebeen
clearlyseen。Butsincethefinalbarrierhasneverinany
instancebeenreached;sincethereisnocountryinwhichallthe
land，capableofyieldingfood，issohighlycultivatedthata
largerproducecouldnot（evenwithoutsupposinganyfresh
advanceinagriculturalknowledge）beobtainedfromit，andsince
alargeportionoftheearth’ssurfacestillremainsentirely
uncultivated;itiscommonlythought，andisverynaturalat
firsttosuppose，thatforthepresentalllimitationof
productionorpopulationfromthissourceisatanindefinite
distance，andthatagesmustelapsebeforeanypractical
necessityarisesfortakingthelimitingprincipleintoserious
consideration。
Iapprehendthistobenotonlyanerror，butthemost
seriousone，tobefoundinthewholefieldofpoliticaleconomy。
Thequestionismoreimportantandfundamentalthananyother;it
involvesthewholesubjectofthecausesofpoverty，inarich
andindustriouscommunity:andunlessthisonematterbe
thoroughlyunderstood，itistonopurposeproceedinganyfurther
inourinquiry。
2。Thelimitationtoproductionfromthepropertiesofthe
soil，isnotliketheobstacleopposedbyawall，whichstands
immovableinoneparticularspot，andoffersnohindranceto
motionshortofstoppingitentirely。Wemayrathercompareitto
ahighlyelasticandextensibleband，whichishardyeverso
violentlystretchedthatitcouldnotpossiblybestretchedany
more，yetthepressureofwhichisfeltlongbeforethefinal
limitisreached，andfeltmoreseverelythenearerthatlimitis
approached。
Afteracertain，andnotveryadvanced，stageintheprogress
ofagriculture，itisthelawofproductionfromtheland，that
inanygivenstateofagriculturalskillandknowledge，by
increasingthelabour，theproduceisnotincreasedinanequal
degree;doublingthelabourdoesnotdoubletheproduce;or，to
expressthesamethinginotherwords，everyincreaseofproduce
isobtainedbyamorethanproportionalincreaseinthe
applicationoflabourtotheland。
Thisgenerallawofagriculturalindustryisthemost
importantpropositioninpoliticaleconomy。Werethelaw
different，nearlyallthephenomenaoftheproductionand
distributionofwealthwouldbeotherthantheyare。Themost
fundamentalerrorswhichstillprevailonoursubject，result
fromnotperceivingthislawatworkunderneaththemore
superficialagenciesonwhichattentionfixesitself;but
mistakingthoseagenciesfortheultimatecausesofeffectsof
whichtheymayinfluencetheformandmode，butofwhichitalone
determinestheessence。
When，forthepurposeofraisinganincreaseofproduce，
recourseishadtoinferiorland，itisevidentthat，sofar，the
producedoesnotincreaseinthesameproportionwiththelabour。
Theverymeaningofinferiorland，islandwhichwithequal
labourreturnsasmalleramountofproduce。Landmaybeinferior
eitherinfertilityorinsituation。Theonerequiresagreater
proportionalamountoflabourforgrowingtheproduce，theother
forcarryingittomarket。IfthelandAyieldsathousand
quartersofwheat，toagivenoutlayinwages，manure，&c。，and
inordertoraiseanotherthousandrecoursemustbehadtothe
landB，whichiseitherlessfertileormoredistantfromthe
market，thetwothousandquarterswillcostmorethantwiceas
muchlabourastheoriginalthousand，andtheproduceof
agriculturewillbeincreasedinalessratiothanthelabour
employedinprocuringit。
InsteadofcultivatingthelandB，itwouldbepossible，by
highercultivation，tomakethelandAproducemore。Itmightbe
ploughedorharrowedtwiceinsteadofonce，orthreetimes
insteadoftwice;itmightbeduginsteadofbeingploughed;
afterploughing，itmightbegoneoverwithahoeinsteadofa
harrow，andthesoilmorecompletelypulverized;itmightbe
oftenerormorethoroughlyweeded;theimplementsusedmightbe
ofhigherfinish，ormoreelaborateconstruction;agreater
quantityormoreexpensivekindsofmanuremightbeapplied，or
whenapplied，theymightbemorecarefullymixedandincorporated
withthesoil。Thesearesomeofthemodesbywhichthesameland
maybemadetoyieldagreaterproduce;andwhenagreater
producemustbehad，someoftheseareamongthemeansusually
employedforobtainingit。But，thatitisobtainedatamore
thanproportionalincreaseofexpense，isevidentfromthefact
thatinferiorlandsarecultivated。Inferiorlands，orlandsata
greaterdistancefromthemarket，ofcourseyieldaninferior
return，andanincreasingdemandcannotbesuppliedfromthem
unlessatanaugmentationofcost，andthereforeofprice。Ifthe
additionaldemandcouldcontinuetobesuppliedfromthesuperior
lands，byapplyingadditionallabourandcapital，atnogreater
proportionalcostthanthatatwhichtheyyieldthequantity
firstdemandedofthem，theownersorfarmersofthoselands
couldundersellallothers，andengrossthewholemarket。Lands
ofalowerdegreeoffertilityorinamoreremotesituation，
mightindeedbecultivatedbytheirproprietors，forthesakeof
subsistenceorindependence;butitnevercouldbetheinterest
ofanyonetofarmthemforprofit。Thataprofitcanbemade
fromthem，sufficienttoattractcapitaltosuchaninvestment，
isaproofthatcultivationonthemoreeligiblelandshas
reachedapoint，beyondwhichanygreaterapplicationoflabour
andcapitalwouldyield，atthebest，nogreaterreturnthancan
beobtainedatthesameexpensefromlessfertileorless
favourablysituatedlands。
Thecarefulcultivationofawell—farmeddistrictofEngland
orScotlandisasymptomandaneffectofthemoreunfavourable
termswhichthelandhasbeguntoexactforanyincreaseofits
fruits。Suchelaboratecultivationcostsmuchmoreinproportion，
andrequiresahigherpricetorenderitprofitable，thanfarming
onamoresuperficialsystem;andwouldnotbeadoptedifaccess
couldbehadtolandofequalfertility，previouslyunoccupied。
Wherethereisthechoiceofraisingtheincreasingsupplywhich
societyrequires，fromfreshlandofasgoodqualityasthat
alreadycultivated，noattemptismadetoextractfromland
anythingapproachingtowhatitwillyieldonwhatareesteemed
thebestEuropeanmodesofcultivating。Thelandistaskedupto
thepointatwhichthegreatestreturnisobtainedinproportion
tothelabouremployed，butnofurther:anyadditionallabouris
carriedelsewhere。\"Itislong，\"saysanintelligenttravellerin
theUnitedStates，（1*）\"beforeanEnglisheyebecomesreconciled
tothelightnessofthecropsandthecarelessfarming（aswe
shouldcallit）whichisapparent。Oneforgetsthatwherelandis
soplentifulandlaboursodearasitishere，atotally
differentprinciplemustbepursuedtothatwhichprevailsin
populouscountries，andthattheconsequencewillofcoursebea
wantoftidiness，asitwere，andfinish，abouteverythingwhich
requireslabour。\"Ofthetwocausesmentioned，theplentifulness
oflandseemstomethetrueexplanation，ratherthanthe
dearnessoflabour;for，howeverdearlabourmaybe，whenfoodis
wanted，labourwillalwaysbeappliedtoproducingitin
preferencetoanythingelse。Butthislabourismoreeffective
foritsendbybeingappliedtofreshsoil，thanifitwere
employedinbringingthesoilalreadyoccupiedintohigher
cultivation。Onlywhennosoilsremaintobebrokenupbutsuch
aseitherfromdistanceorinferiorqualityrequirea
considerableriseofpricetorendertheircultivation
profitable，canitbecomeadvantageoustoapplythehighfarming
ofEuropetoanyAmericanlands;except，perhaps，inthe
immediatevicinityoftowns，wheresavingincostofcarriagemay
compensateforgreatinferiorityinthereturnfromthesoil
itself。AsAmericanfarmingistoEnglish，soistheordinary
EnglishtothatofFlanders，Tuscany，ortheTerradiLavoro;
wherebytheapplicationofafargreaterquantityoflabour
thereisobtainedaconsiderablylargergrossproduce，buton
suchtermsaswouldneverbeadvantageoustoamerespeculator
forprofit，unlessmadesobymuchhigherpricesofagricultural
produce。
Theprinciplewhichhasnowbeenstatedmustbereceived，no
doubt，withcertainexplanationsandlimitations。Evenafterthe
landissohighlycultivatedthatthemereapplicationof
additionallabour，orofanadditionalamountofordinary
dressing，wouldyieldnoreturnproportionedtotheexpense，it
maystillhappenthattheapplicationofamuchgreater
additionallabourandcapitaltoimprovingthesoilitself，by
drainingorpermanentmanures，wouldbeasliberallyremunerated
bytheproduce，asanyportionofthelabourandcapitalalready
employed。Itwouldsometimesbemuchmoreamplyremunerated。This
couldnotbe，ifcapitalalwayssoughtandfoundthemost
advantageousemployment;butifthemostadvantageousemployment
hastowaitlongestforitsremuneration，itisonlyinarather
advancedstageofindustrialdevelopmentthatthepreferencewill
begiventoit;andeveninthatadvancedstage，thelawsor
usagesconnectedwithpropertyinlandandthetenureoffarms，
areoftensuchastopreventthedisposablecapitalofthe
countryfromflowingfreelyintothechannelofagricultural
improvement:andhencetheincreasedsupply，requiredby
increasingpopulation，issometimesraisedatanaugmentingcost
byhighercultivation，whenthemeansofproducingitwithout
increaseofcostareknownandaccessible。Therecanbenodoubt，
thatifcapitalwereforthcomingtoexecute，withinthenext
year，allknownandrecognisedimprovementsinthelandofthe
UnitedKingdomwhichwouldpayattheexistingprices，thatis，
whichwouldincreasetheproduceinasgreatoragreaterratio
thantheexpense;theresultwouldbesuch（especiallyifwe
includeIrelandinthesupposition）thatinferiorlandwouldnot
foralongtimerequiretobebroughtundertillage:probablya
considerablepartofthelessproductivelandsnowcultivated，
whicharenotparticularlyfavouredbysituation，wouldgooutof
culture;or（astheimprovementsinquestionarenotsomuch
applicabletogoodland，butoperateratherbyconvertingbad
landintogood）thecontractionofcultivationmightprincipally
takeplacebyalesshighdressingandlesselaboratetillingof
landgenerally;afallingbacktosomethingnearerthecharacter
ofAmericanfarming;suchonlyofthepoorlandsbeingaltogether
abandonedaswerenotfoundsusceptibleofimprovement。Andthus
theaggregateproduceofthewholecultivatedlandwouldbeara
largerproportionthanbeforetothelabourexpendedonit;and
thegenerallawofdiminishingreturnfromlandwouldhave
undergone，tothatextent，atemporarysupersession。Noone，
however，cansupposethateveninthesecircumstances，thewhole
producerequiredforthecountrycouldberaisedexclusivelyfrom
thebestlands，togetherwiththosepossessingadvantagesof
situationtoplacethemonaparwiththebest。Muchwould
undoubtedlycontinuetobeproducedunderlessadvantageous
conditions，andwithasmallerproportionalreturn，thanthat
obtainedfromthebestsoilsandsituations。Andinproportionas
thefurtherincreaseofpopulationrequiredastillgreater
additiontothesupply，thegenerallawwouldresumeitscourse，
andthefurtheraugmentationwouldbeobtainedatamorethan
proportionateexpenseoflabourandcapital。
3。Thattheproduceoflandincreases，caeterisparibus，ina
diminishingratiototheincreaseinthelabouremployed，isa
truthmoreoftenignoredordisregardedthanactuallydenied。It
has，however，metwithadirectimpugnerinthewell—known
Americanpoliticaleconomist，Mr。H。C。Carey，whomaintainsthat
thereallawofagriculturalindustryistheveryreverse;the
produceincreasinginagreaterratiothanthelabour，orin
otherwordsaffordingtolabouraperpetuallyincreasingreturn。
Tosubstantiatethisassertion，hearguesthatcultivationdoes
notbeginwiththebettersoils，andextendfromthem，asthe
demandincreases，tothepoorer，butbeginswiththepoorer，and
doesnot，tilllongafter，extenditselftothemorefertile。
Settlersinanewcountryinvariablycommenceonthehighand
thinlands;therichbutswampysoilsoftheriverbottomscannot
atfirstbebroughtintocultivation，byreasonoftheir
unhealthiness，andofthegreatandprolongedlabourrequiredfor
clearinganddrainingthem。Aspopulationandwealthincrease，
cultivationtravelsdownthehillsides，clearingthemasit
goes，andthemostfertilesoils，thoseofthelowgrounds，are
generally（heevensaysuniversally）thelatestcultivated。These
propositions，withtheinferenceswhichMr。Careydrawsfrom
them，aresetforthatmuchlengthinhislatestandmost
elaboratetreatise，\"PrinciplesofSocialScience;\"andhe
considersthemassubvertingtheveryfoundationofwhathecalls
theEnglishpoliticaleconomy，withallitspractical
consequences，especiallythedoctrineoffreetrade。
Asfaraswordsgo，Mr。Careyhasagoodcaseagainstseveral
ofthehighestauthoritiesinpoliticaleconomy，whocertainly
didenunciateintoouniversalamannerthelawwhichtheylaid
down，notremarkingthatitisnottrueofthefirstcultivation
inanewlysettledcountry。Wherepopulationisthinandcapital
scanty，landwhichrequiresalargeoutlaytorenderitfitfor
tillagemustremainuntilled;thoughsuchlands，whentheirtime
hascome，oftenyieldagreaterproducethanthoseearlier
cultivated，notonlyabsolutely，butproportionallytothelabour
employed，evenifweincludethatwhichhadbeenexpendedin
originallyfittingthemforculture。Butitisnotpretendedthat
thelawofdiminishingreturnwaSoperativefromthevery
beginningofsociety:andthoughsomepoliticaleconomistsmay
havebelievedittocomeintooperationearlierthanitdoes，it
beginsquiteearlyenoughtosupporttheconclusionstheyfounded
onit。Mr。Careywillhardlyassertthatinanyoldcountry——in
EnglandorFrance，forexample——thelandsleftwasteare，or
haveforcenturiesbeen，morenaturallyfertilethanthoseunder
tillage。Judgingevenbyhisownimperfecttest，thatoflocal
situation——howimperfectIneednotstoptopointout——isit
truethatinEnglandorFranceatthepresentdaythe
uncultivatedpartofthesoilconsistsoftheplainsandvalleys，
andthecultivated，ofthehills？Everyoneknows，onthe
contrary，thatitisthehighlandsandthinsoilswhichareleft
tonature，andwhentheprogressofpopulationdemandsan
increaseofcultivation，theextensionisfromtheplainstothe
hills。Onceinacentury，perhaps，aBedfordLevelmaybe
drained，oraLakeofHarlempumpedout:buttheseareslightand
transientexceptionstothenormalprogressofthings;andinold
countrieswhichareatalladvancedincivilization，littleof
thissortremainstobedone。（2*）
Mr。Careyhimselfunconsciouslybearsthestrongesttestimony
totherealityofthelawhecontendsagainst:foroneofthe
propositionsmoststrenuouslymaintainedbyhimis，thattheraw
productsofthesoil，inanadvancingcommunity，steadilytendto
riseinprice。Now，themostelementarytruthsofpolitical
economyshowthatthiscouldnothappen，unlessthecostof
production，measuredinlabour，ofthoseproducts，tendedto
rise。Iftheapplicationofadditionallabourtothelandwas，as
ageneralrule，attendedwithanincreaseintheproportional
return，thepriceofproduce，insteadofrising，mustnecessity
fallassocietyadvances，unlessthecostofproductionofgold
andsilverfellstillmore:acasesorare，thatthereareonly
twoperiodsinallhistorywhenitisknowntohavetakenplace;
theone，thatwhichfollowedtheopeningoftheMexicanand
Peruvianmines;theother，thatinwhichwenowlive。Atall
knownperiods，exceptthesetwo，thecostofproductionofthe
preciousmetalshasbeeneitherstationaryorrising。If，
therefore，itbetruethatthetendencyofagriculturalproduce
istoriseinmoneypriceaswealthandpopulationincrease，
thereneedsnootherevidencethatthelabourrequiredforrising
itfromthesoiltendstoaugmentwhenagreaterquantityis
demanded。
IdonotgosofarasMr。Carey:Idonotassertthatthe
costofproduction，andconsequentlytheprice，ofagricultural
produce，alwaysandnecessityrisesaspopulationincreases。It
tendstodoso;butthetendencymaybe，andsometimesis，even
duringlongperiods，heldincheck。Theeffectdoesnotdependon
asingleprinciple，butontwoantagonizingprinciples。Thereis
anotheragency，inhabitualantagonismtothelawofdiminishing
returnfromland;andtotheconsiderationofthisweshallnow
proceed。Itisnootherthantheprogressofcivilization。Iuse
thisgeneralandsomewhatvagueexpression，becausethethingsto
beincludedaresovarious，thathardlyanytermofamore
restrictedsignificationwouldcomprehendthemall。
Ofthese，themostobviousistheprogressofagricultural
knowledge，skill，andinvention。Improvedprocessesof
agricultureareoftwokinds:someenablethelandtoyielda
greaterabsoluteproduce，withoutanequivalentincreaseof
labour;othershavenotthepowerofincreasingtheproduce，but
havethatofdiminishingthelabourandexpensebywhichitis
obtained。Amongthefirstaretobereckonedthedisuseof
fallows，bymeansoftherotationofcrops;andtheintroduction
ofnewarticlesofcultivationcapableofenteringadvantageously
intotherotation。ThechangemadeinBritishagriculturetowards
thecloseofthelastcentury，bytheintroductionofturnip
husbandry，isspokenofasamountingtoarevolution。These
improvementsoperatenotonlybyenablingthelandtoproducea
cropeveryyear，insteadofremainingidleoneyearineverytwo
orthreetorenovateitspowers，butalsobydirectincreaseof
itsproductiveness;sincethegreatadditionmadetothenumber
ofcattlebytheincreaseoftheirfood，affordsmoreabundant
manuretofertilizethecornlands。Nextinordercomesthe
introductionofnewarticlesoffood，containingagreateramount
ofsustenance，likethepotato，ormoreproductivespeciesor
varietiesofthesameplant，suchastheSwedishturnip。Inthe
sameclassofimprovementsmustbeplacedabetterknowledgeof
thepropertiesofmanures，andofthemosteffectualmodesof
applyingthem;theintroductionofnewandmorepowerful
fertilizingagents，suchasguano，andtheconversiontothesame
purpose，ofsubstancespreviouslywasted;inventionslike
subsoil—ploughingortile—draining;improvementsinthebreeor
feedingoflabouringcattle;augmentedstockortheanimals
whichconsumeandconvertintohumanfoodwhatwouldotherwisebe
wasted;andthelike。Theothersortsofimprovements，those
whichdiminishlabour，butwithoutincreasingthecapacityofthe
landtoproduce，aresuchastheimprovedconstructionoftools;
theintroductionofnewinstrumentswhichsparemanuallabour，as
thewinnowingandthreshingmachines;amoreskilfuland
economicalapplicationofmuscularexertion，suchasthe
introduction，soslowlyaccomplishedinEngland，ofScotch
ploughing，withtwohorsesabreastandoneman，insteadofthree
orfourhorsesinateamandtwomen，&c。Theseimprovementsdo
notaddtotheproductivenessoftheland，buttheyareequally
calculatedwiththeformertocounteractthetendencyinthecost
ofproductionofagriculturalproduce，torisewiththeprogress
ofpopulationanddemand。
Analogousineffecttothissecondclassofagricultural
improvements，areimprovedmeansofcommunication。Goodroadsare
equivalenttogoodtools。Itisofnoconsequencewhetherthe
economyoflabourtakesplaceinextractingtheproducefromthe
soil，orinconveyingittotheplacewhereitistobeconsumed。
Nottosayinaddition，thatthelabourofcultivationitselfis
diminishedbywhateverlessensthecostofbringingmanurefroma
distance，orfacilitatesthemanyoperationsoftransportfrom
placetoplacewhichoccurwithintheboundsofthefarm。
Railwaysandcanalsarevirtuallyadiminutionofthecostof
productionofallthingssenttomarketbythem;andliterallyso
ofallthose，theappliancesandaidsforproducingwhich，they
servetotransmit。Bytheirmeanslandcanbecultivated，which
couldnototherwisehaveremuneratedthecultivatorswithouta
riseofprice。improvementsinnavigationhave，withrespectto
foodormaterialsbroughtfrombeyondsea，acorresponding
effect。
Fromsimilarconsiderations，itappearsthatmanypurely
mechanicalimprovements，whichhave，apparentlyatleast，no
peculiarconnexionwithagriculture，neverthelessenableagiven
amountoffoodtobeobtainedwithasmallerexpenditureof
labour。Agreatimprovementintheprocessofsmeltingiron，
wouldtendtocheapenagriculturalimplements，diminishthecost
ofrailroads，ofwaggonsandcarts，ships，andperhapsbuildings，
andmanyotherthingstowhichironisnotatpresentapplied，
becauseitis，toocostly。andwouldthencediminishthecostof
productionoffood。Thesameeffectwouldfollowfroman
improvementinthoseprocessesofwhatmaybetermedmanufacture，
towhichthematerialoffoodissubjectedafteritisseparated
fromtheground。Thefirstapplicationofwindorwaterpowerto
grindcorn，tendedtocheapenbreadasmuchasaveryimportant
discoveryinagriculturewouldhavedone;andanygreat
improvementintheconstructionofcorn—mills，wouldhave，in
proportion，asimilarinfluence。Theeffectsofcheapening
locomotionhavebeenalreadyconsidered。Therearealso
engineeringinventionswhichfacilitateallgreatoperationson
theearth’ssurface。Animprovementintheartoftakinglevels
isofimportancetodraining，nottomentioncanalandrailway
making。ThefensofHolland，andofsomepartsofEngland，are
drainedbypumpsworkedbythewindorbysteam。Wherecanalsof
irrigation，orwheretanksorembankmentsarenecessary，
mechanicalskillisagreatresourceforcheapeningproduction。
Thosemanufacturingimprovementswhichcannotbemade
instrumentaltofacilitate，inanyofitsstages，theactual
productionoffood，andthereforedonothelptocounteractor
retardthediminutionoftheproportionalreturntolabourfrom
thesoil，have，however，anothereffect，whichispractically
equivalent。Whattheydonotprevent，theyyet，insomedegree，
compensatefor。
Thematerialsofmanufacturebeingalldrawnfromtheland，
andmanyofthemfromagriculture，whichsuppliesinparticular
theentirematerialofclothing;thegenerallawofproduction
fromtheland，thelawofdiminishingreturn，mustinthelast
resortbeapplicabletomanufacturingaswellastoagricultural
history。Aspopulationincreases，andthepowerofthelandto
yieldincreasedproduceisstrainedharderandharder，any
additionalsupplyofmaterial，aswellasoffood，mustbe
obtainedbyamorethanproportionallyincreasingexpenditureof
labour。Butthecostofthematerialforminggenerallyavery
smallportionoftheentirecostofthemanufacture，the
agriculturallabourconcernedintheproductionofmanufactured
goodsisbutasmallfractionofthewholelabourworkedupin
thecommodity。Alltherestofthelabourtendsconstantlyand
stronglytowardsdiminution，astheamountofproduction
increases。Manufacturesarevastlymoresusceptiblethan
agriculture，ofmechanicalimprovements，andcontrivancesfor
savinglabour;andithasalreadybeenseenhowgreatlythe
skilfulandeconomicaldistribution，dependontheextentofthe
market，andonthepossibilityofproductioninlargemasses。In
manufactures，accordingly，thecausestendingtoincreasethe
productivenessofindustry，preponderategreatlyovertheone
causewhichtendstodiminishit:andtheincreaseofproduction，
calledforthbytheprogressofsociety，takesplace，notatan
increasing，butatacontinuallydiminishingproportionalcost。
Thisfacthasmanifesteditselfintheprogressivefallofthe
pricesandvaluesofalmosteverykindofmanufacturedgoods
duringtwocenturiespast;afallacceleratedbythemechanical
inventionsofthelastseventyoreightyyears，andsusceptible
ofbeingprolongedandextendedbeyondanylimitwhichitwould
besafetospecify。
Nowitisquiteconceivablethattheefficiencyof
agriculturallabourmightbeundergoing，withtheincreaseof
produce，agradualdiminution;thatthepriceoffood，in
consequence，mightbeprogressivelyrising，andanevergrowing
proportionofthepopulationmightbeneededtoraisefoodfor
thewhole;whileyettheproductivepoweroflabourinallother
branchesofindustrymightbesorapidlyaugmenting，thatthe
requiredamountoflabourcouldbesparedfrommanufactures，and
neverthelessagreaterproducebeobtained，andtheaggregate
wantsofthecommunitybeonthewholebettersupplied，than
before。Thebenefitmightevenextendtothepoorestclass。The
increasedcheapnessofclothingandlodgingmightmakeuptothem
fortheaugmentedcostoftheirfood。
Thereis，thus，nopossibleimprovementintheartsof
productionwhichdoesnotinoneoranothermodeexercisean
antagonistinfluencetothelawofdiminishingreturnto
agriculturallabour。Norisitonlyindustrialimprovementswhich
havethiseffect。Improvementsingovernment，andalmostevery
kindofmoralandsocialadvancement，operateinthesamemanner。
SupposeacountryintheconditionofFrancebeforethe
Revolution:taxationimposedalmostexclusivelyontheindustrial
classes，andonsuchaprincipleastobeanactualpenaltyon
production;andnoredressobtainableforanyinjurytoproperty
orperson，wheninflictedbypeopleofrank，orcourtinfluence。
Wasnotthehurricanewhichsweptawaythissystemofthings，
evenifwelooknofurtherthantoitseffectinaugmentingthe
productivenessoflabour，equivalenttomanyindustrial
inventions？Theremovalofafiscalburthenonagriculture，such
as，。tithe，hasthesameeffectasifthelabournecessaryfor
obtainingtheexistingproduceweresuddenlyreducedone—tenth。
Theabolitionofcornlaws，orofanyotherrestrictionswhich
preventcommoditiesfrombeingproducedwherethecostoftheir
productionislowest，amountstoavastimprovementin
production。Whenfertileland，previouslyreservedashunting
ground，orforanyotherpurposeofamusement，issetfreefor
culture，theaggregateproductivenessofagriculturalindustryis
increased。ItiswellknownwhathasbeentheeffectinEngland
ofbadlyadministeredpoorlaws，andthestillworseeffectin
Irelandofabadsystemoftenancy，inrenderingagricultural
labourslackandineffective。Noimprovementsoperatemore
directlyupontheproductivenessoflabour，thanthoseinthe
tenureoffarms，andinthelawsrelatingtolandedproperty。The
breakingupofentails，thecheapeningofthetransferof
property，andwhateverelsepromotesthenaturaltendencyofland
inasystemoffreedom，topassoutofhandswhichcanmake
littleofitintothosewhichcanmakemore;thesubstitutionof
longleasesfortenancyatwill，andofanytolerablesystemof
tenancywhateverforthewretchedcottiersystem;aboveall，the
acquisitionofapermanentinterestinthesoilbythe
cultivatorsofit;allthesethingsareasreal，andsomeofthem
asgreat，improvementsinproduction，astheinventionofthe
spinningjennyorthesteam—engine。
Wemaysaythesameofimprovementsineducation。The
intelligenceoftheworkmanisamostimportantelementinthe
productivenessoflabour。Solow，insomeofthemostcivilized
countries，isthepresentstandardofintelligence，thatthereis
hardlyanysourcefromwhichamoreindefiniteamountof
improvementmaybelookedforinproductivepower，thanby
endowingwithbrainsthosewhonowhaveonlyhands。The
carefulness，economy，andgeneraltrustworthinessoflabourers
areasimportantastheirintelligence。Friendlyrelations，anda
communityofinterestandfeelingbetweenlabourersand
employers，areeminentlyso:Ishouldrathersay，wouldbe:forI
knownotwhereanysuchsentimentoffriendlyalliancenow
exists。Norisitonlyinthelabouringclassthatimprovementof
mindandcharacteroperateswithbeneficialeffectevenon
industry。Intherichandidleclasses，increasedmentalenergy，
moresolidinstruction，andstrongerfeelingsofconscience，
publicspirit，orphilanthropy，wouldqualifythemtooriginate
andpromotethemostvaluableimprovements，bothinthe
economicalresourcesoftheircountry，andinitsinstitutions
andcustoms。Tolooknofurtherthanthemostobviousphenomena;
thebackwardnessofFrenchagricultureintheprecisepointsin
whichbenefitmightbeexpectedfromtheinfluenceofaneducated
class，ispartlyaccountedforbytheexclusivedevotionofthe
richerlandedproprietorstotowninterestsandtownpleasures。
Thereisscarcelyanypossibleameliorationofhumanaffairs
whichwouldnot，amongitsotherbenefits，haveafavourable
operation，directorindirect，upontheproductivenessof
industry。Theintensityofdevotiontoindustrialoccupations
wouldindeedinmanycasesbemoderatedbyamoreliberaland
genialmentalculture，butthelabouractuallybestowedonthose
occupationswouldalmostalwaysberenderedmoreeffective。
Beforepointingouttheprincipalinferencestobedrawnfrom
thenatureofthetwoantagonistforcesbywhichthe
productivenessofagriculturalindustryisdetermined，wemust
observethatwhatwehavesaidofagriculture，istruewith
littlevariation，oftheotheroccupationswhichitrepresents;
ofalltheartswhichextractmaterialsfromtheglobe。Mining
industry，forexample，usuallyyieldsanincreaseofproduceata
morethanproportionalincreaseofexpense。Itdoesworse，for
evenitscustomaryannualproducerequirestobeextractedbya
greaterandgreaterexpenditureoflabourandcapital。Asamine
doesnotreproducethecoalororetakenfromit，notonlyare
allminesatlastexhausted，butevenwhentheyasyetshowno
signsofexhaustion，theymustbeworkedatacontinually
increasingcost;shaftsmustbesunkdeeper，galleriesdriven
farther，greaterpowerappliedtokeepthemclearofwater;the
producemustbeliftedfromagreaterdepth，orconveyeda
greaterdistance。Thelawofdiminishingreturnappliestherefore
tomining，inastillmoreunqualifiedsensethantoagriculture:
buttheantagonizingagency，thatofimprovementsinproduction，
alsoappliesinastillgreaterdegree。Miningoperationsare
moresusceptibleofmechanicalimprovementsthanagricultural:
thefirstgreatapplicationofthesteam—enginewastomining;
andthereareunlimitedpossibilitiesofimprovementinthe
chemicalprocessesbywhichthemetalsareextracted。Thereis
anothercontingency，ofnounfrequentoccurrence，whichavailsto
counterbalancetheprogressofallexistingminestowards
exhaustion:thisis，thediscoveryofnewones，equalorsuperior
inrichness。
Toresume;allnaturalagentswhicharelimitedinquantity，
arenotonlylimitedintheirultimateproductivepower，but，
longbeforethatpowerisstretchedtotheutmost，theyyieldto
anyadditionaldemandsonprogressivelyharderterms。Thislaw
mayhoweverbesuspended，ortemporarilycontrolled，bywhatever
addstothegeneralpowerofmankindovernature;andespecially
byanyextensionoftheirknowledge，andtheirconsequent
command，ofthepropertiesandpowersofnaturalagents。
NOTES:
1。LettersfromAmerica，byJohnRobertGodley，voli。p。42。See
alsoLyell’sTravelsinAmerica，vol。ii。p。83。
2。Irelandmaybeallegedasanexception;alargefractionof
theentiresoilofthatcountrybeingstillincapableof
cultivationforwantofdrainage。ButthoughIrelandisanold
country，unfortunatesocialandpoliticalcircumstanceshavekept
itapoorandbackwardone。Neitherisitatallcertainthatthe
bogsofIreland，ifdrainedandbroughtundertillage，wouldtake
theirplacealongwithMrCarey’sfertileriverbottoms，oramong
anybutthepoorersoils。
ThePrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy
byJohnStuartMill
Book1，Chapter13
ConsequencesoftheForegoingLaws
1。Fromtheprecedingexpositionitappearsthatthelimitto
theincreaseofproductionistwo—fold;fromdeficiencyof
capital，orofland。Productioncomestoapause，eitherbecause
theeffectivedesireofaccumulationisnotsufficienttogive
risetoanyfurtherincreaseofcapital，orbecause，however
disposedthepossessorsofsurplusincomemaybetosavea
portionofit，thelimitedlandatthedisposalofthecommunity
doesnotpermitadditionalcapitaltobeemployedwithsucha
return，aswouldbeanequivalenttothemfortheirabstinence。
Incountrieswheretheprincipleofaccumulationisasweak
asitisinthevariousnationsofAsia;wherepeoplewill
neithersave，norworktoobtainthemeansofsaving，unless
undertheinducementofenormouslyhighprofits，noreventhenif
itisnecessarytowaitaconsiderabletimeforthem;where
eitherproductionsremainscanty，ordrudgerygreat，because
thereisneithercapitalforthcomingnorforethoughtsufficient
fortheadoptionofthecontrivancesbywhichnaturalagentsare
madetodotheworkofhumanlabour;thedesideratumforsucha
country，economicallyconsidered，isanincreaseofindustry，and
oftheeffectivedesireofaccumulation。Themeansare，first，a
bettergovernment:morecompletesecurityofproperty;moderate
taxes，andfreedomfromarbitraryexactionunderthenameof
taxes;amorepermanentandmoreadvantageoustenureofland，
securingtothecultivatorasfaraspossibletheundivided
benefitsoftheindustry，skill，andeconomyhemayexert。
Secondly，improvementofthepublicintelligence:thedecayof
usagesorsuperstitionswhichinterferewiththeeffective
employmentofindustry;andthegrowthofmentalactivity，making
thepeoplealivetonewobjectsofdesire。Thirdly，the
introductionofforeignarts，whichraisethereturnsderivable
fromadditionalcapital，toaratecorrespondingtothelow
strengthofthedesireofaccumulation:andtheimportationof
foreigncapital，whichrenderstheincreaseofproductionno
longerexclusivelydependentonthethriftorprovidenceofthe
inhabitantsthemselves，whileitplacesbeforethemastimulating
example，andbyinstillingnewideasandbreakingthechainsof
habit，ifnotbyimprovingtheactualconditionofthe
population，tendstocreateinthemnewwants，increased
ambition，andgreaterthoughtforthefuture。These
considerationsapplymoreorlesstoalltheAsiaticpopulations，
andtothelesscivilizedandindustriouspartsofEurope，as
Russia，Turkey，Spain，andIreland。
2。Butthereareothercountries，andEnglandisatthehead
ofthem，inwhichneitherthespiritofindustrynorthe
effectivedesireofaccumulationneedanyencouragement;where
thepeoplewilltoilhardforasmallremuneration，andsavemuch
forasmallprofit;where，thoughthegeneralthriftinessofthe
labouringclassismuchbelowwhatisdesirable，thespiritof
accumulationinthemoreprosperouspartofthecommunity
requiresabatementratherthanincrease。Inthesecountriesthere
wouldneverbeanydeficiencyofcapital，ifitsincreasewere
nevercheckedorbroughttoastandbytoogreatadiminutionof
itsreturns。Itisthetendencyofthereturnstoaprogressive
diminution，whichcausestheincreaseofproductiontobeoften
attendedwithadeteriorationintheconditionoftheproducers;
andthistendency，whichwouldintimeputanendtoincreaseof
productionaltogether，isaresultofthenecessaryandinherent
conditionsofproductionfromtheland。
Inallcountrieswhichhavepassedbeyondaratherearly
stageintheprogressofagriculture，everyincreaseinthe
demandforfood，occasionedbyincreasedpopulation，willalways，
unlessthereisasimultaneousimprovementinproduction，
diminishthesharewhichonafairdivisionwouldfalltoeach
individual。Anincreasedproduction，indefaultofunoccupied
tractsoffertileland，oroffreshimprovementstendingto
cheapencommodities，canneverbeobtainedbutbyincreasingthe
labourinmorethanthesameproportion。Thepopulationmust
eitherworkharder，oreatless，orobtaintheirusualfoodby
sacrificingapartoftheirothercustomarycomforts。Whenever
thisnecessityispostponed，notwithstandinganincreaseof
population，itisbecausetheimprovementswhichfacilitate
productioncontinueprogressive;becausethecontrivancesof
mankindformakingtheirlabourmoreeffective，keepupanequal
strugglewithnature，andextortfreshresourcesfromher
reluctantpowersasfastashumannecessitiesoccupyandengross
theold。
Fromthis，resultstheimportantcorollary，thatthe
necessityofrestrainingpopulationisnot，asmanypersons
believe，peculiartoaconditionofgreatinequalityofproperty。
Agreaternumberofpeoplecannot，inanygivenstateof
civilization，becollectivelysowellprovidedforasasmaller。
Theniggardlinessofnature，nottheinjusticeofsociety，isthe
causeofthepenaltyattachedtoover—population。Anunjust
distributionofwealthdoesnotevenaggravatetheevil，but，at
most，causesittobesomewhatearlierfelt。Itisinvainto
say，thatallmouthswhichtheincreaseofmankindcallsinto
existence，bringwiththemhands。Thenewmouthsrequireasmuch
foodastheoldones，andthehandsdonotproduceasmuch。If
allinstrumentsofproductionwereheldinjointpropertybythe
wholepeople，andtheproducedividedwithperfectequalityamong
them，andif，inasocietythusconstituted，industrywereas
energeticandtheproduceasampleasatpresent，therewouldbe
enoughtomakealltheexistingpopulationextremelycomfortable;
butwhenthatpopulationhaddoubleditself，as，withthe
existinghabitsofthepeople，undersuchanencouragement，it
undoubtedlywouldinlittlemorethantwentyyears，whatwould
thenbetheircondition？Unlesstheartsofproductionwerein
thesametimeimprovedinanalmostunexampleddegree，the
inferiorsoilswhichmustberesortedto，andthemorelaborious
andscantilyremunerativecultivationwhichmustbeemployedon
thesuperiorsoils，toprocurefoodforsomuchlargera
population，would，byaninsuperablenecessity，renderevery
individualinthecommunitypoorerthanbefore。Ifthepopulation
continuedtoincreaseatthesamerate，atimewouldsoonarrive
whennoonewouldhavemorethanmerenecessaries，and，soon
after，atimewhennoonewouldhaveasufficiencyofthose，and
thefurtherincreaseofpopulationwouldbearrestedbydeath。
Whether，atthepresentoranyothertime，theproduceof
industryproportionallytothelabouremployed，isincreasingor
diminishing，andtheaverageconditionofthepeopleimprovingor
deteriorating，dependsuponwhetherpopulationisadvancing
fasterthanimprovement，orimprovementthanpopulation。Aftera
degreeofdensityhasbeenattained，sufficienttoallowthe
principalbenefitsofcombinationoflabour，allfurtherincrease
tendsinitselftomischief，sofarasregardstheaverage
conditionofthepeople;buttheprogressofimprovementhasa
counteractingoperation，andallowsofincreasednumberswithout
anydeterioration，andevenconsistentlywithahigheraverageof
comfort。Improvementmustherebeunderstoodinawidesense，
includingnotonlynewindustrialinventions，oranextendeduse
ofthosealreadyknown，butimprovementsininstitutions，
education，opinions，andhumanaffairsgenerally，providedthey
tend，asalmostallimprovementsdo，togivenewmotivesornew
facilitiestoproduction。Iftheproductivepowersofthecountry
increaseasrapidlyasadvancingnumberscallforanaugmentation
ofproduce，itisnotnecessarytoobtainthataugmentationby
thecultivationofsoilsmoresterilethantheworstalready
underculture，orbyapplyingadditionallabourtotheoldsoils
atadiminishedadvantage;oratalleventsthislossofpoweris
compensatedbytheincreasedefficiencywithwhich，inthe
progressofimprovement，labourisemployedinmanufactures。In
onewayortheother，theincreasedpopulationisprovidedfor，
andallareaswelloffasbefore。Butifthegrowthofhuman
powerovernatureissuspendedorslackened，andpopulationdoes
notslackenitsincrease;if，withonlytheexistingcommandover
naturalagencies，thoseagenciesarecalleduponforanincreased
produce;thisgreaterproducewillnotbeaffordedtothe
increasedpopulation，withouteitherdemandingontheaveragea
greatereffortfromeach，orontheaveragereducingeachtoa
smallerrationoutoftheaggregateproduce。