Wemayadd，thattheverseswithwhichtheMandragolaisinterspersed，appeartoustobethemostspiritedandcorrectofallthatMachiavellihaswritteninmetre。Heseemstohaveentertainedthesameopinion;forhehasintroducedsomeoftheminotherplaces。Thecontemporariesoftheauthorwerenotblindtothemeritsofthisstrikingpiece。ItwasactedatFlorencewiththegreatestsuccess。LeotheTenthwasamongitsadmirers，andbyhisorderitwasrepresentedatRome。
[NothingcanbemoreevidentthanthatPaulusJoviusdesignatestheMandragolaunderthenameoftheNicias。Weshouldnothavenoticedwhatissoperfectlyobvious。wereitnotthatthisnaturalandpalpablemisnomerhasledthesagaciousandindustriousBayleintoagrosserror。]
TheCliziaisanimitationoftheCasinaofPlautus，whichisitselfanimitationofthelostkleroumenoiofDiphilus。Plautuswas，unquestionably，oneofthebestLatinwriters;buttheCasinaisbynomeansoneofhisbestplays;norisitonewhichoffersgreatfacilitiestoanimitator。Thestoryisasalienfrommodernhabitsoflife，asthemannerinwhichitisdevelopedfromthemodernfashionofcomposition。Theloverremainsinthecountryandtheheroineinherchamberduringthewholeaction，leavingtheirfatetobedecidedbyafoolishfather，acunningmother，andtwoknavishservants。Machiavellihasexecutedhistaskwithjudgmentandtaste。Hehasaccommodatedtheplottoadifferentstateofsociety，andhasverydexterouslyconnecteditwiththehistoryofhisowntimes。
Therelationofthetrickputonthedotingoldloverisexquisitelyhumorous。ItisfarsuperiortothecorrespondingpassageintheLatincomedy，andscarcelyyieldstotheaccountwhichFalstaffgivesofhisducking。
Twoothercomedieswithouttitles，theoneinprose，theotherinverse，appearamongtheworksofMachiavelli。Theformerisveryshort，livelyenough，butofnogreatvalue。Thelatterwecanscarcelybelievetobegenuine。Neitheritsmeritsnoritsdefectsremindusofthereputedauthor。Itwasfirstprintedin1796，fromamanuscriptdiscoveredinthecelebratedlibraryoftheStrozzi。Itsgenuineness，ifwehavebeenrightlyinformed，isestablishedsolelybythecomparisonofhands。Oursuspicionsarestrengthenedbythecircumstance，thatthesamemanuscriptcontainedadescriptionoftheplagueof1527，whichhasalso，inconsequence，beenaddedtotheworksofMachiavelli。Ofthislastcompositionthestrongestexternalevidencewouldscarcelyinduceustobelievehimguilty。Nothingwaseverwrittenmoredetestableinmatterandmanner。Thenarrations，thereflections，thejokes，thelamentations，arealltheveryworstoftheirrespectivekinds，atoncetriteandaffected，threadbaretinselfromtheRagFairsandMonmouthStreetsofliterature。Afoolishschoolboymightwritesuchapiece，and，afterhehadwrittenit，thinkitmuchfinerthantheincomparableintroductionoftheDecameron。Butthatashrewdstatesman，whoseearliestworksarecharacterisedbymanlinessofthoughtandlanguage，should，atnearsixtyyearsofage，descendtosuchpuerility，isutterlyinconceivable。
ThelittlenovelofBelphegorispleasantlyconceivedandpleasantlytold。Buttheextravaganceofthesatireinsomemeasureinjuresitseffect。Machiavelliwasunhappilymarried;
andhiswishtoavengehisowncauseandthatofhisbrethreninmisfortune，carriedhimbeyondeventhelicenceoffiction。
Jonsonseemstohavecombinedsomehintstakenfromthistale，withothersfromBoccaccio，intheplotofTheDevilisanAss，aplaywhich，thoughnotthemosthighlyfinishedofhiscompositions，isperhapsthatwhichexhibitsthestrongestproofsofgenius。
ThePoliticalCorrespondenceofMachiavelli，firstpublishedin1767，isunquestionablygenuine，andhighlyvaluable。Theunhappycircumstancesinwhichhiscountrywasplacedduringthegreaterpartofhispubliclifegaveextraordinaryencouragementtodiplomatictalents。FromthemomentthatCharlestheEighthdescendedfromtheAlps，thewholecharacterofItalianpoliticswaschanged。ThegovernmentsofthePeninsulaceasedtoformanindependentsystem。Drawnfromtheiroldorbitbytheattractionofthelargerbodieswhichnowapproachedthem，theybecamemeresatellitesofFranceandSpain。Alltheirdisputes，internalandexternal，weredecidedbyforeigninfluence。Thecontestsofoppositefactionswerecarriedon，notasformerlyinthesenate—
houseorinthemarketplace，butintheantechambersofLouisandFerdinand。Underthesecircumstances，theprosperityoftheItalianStatesdependedfarmoreontheabilityoftheirforeignagents，thanontheconductofthosewhowereintrustedwiththedomesticadministration。Theambassadorhadtodischargefunctionsfarmoredelicatethantransmittingordersofknighthood，introducingtourists，orpresentinghisbrethrenwiththehomageofhishighconsideration。Hewasanadvocatetowhosemanagementthedearestinterestsofhisclientswereintrusted，aspyclothedwithaninviolablecharacter。Insteadofconsulting，byareservedmannerandambiguousstyle，thedignityofthosewhomherepresented，hewastoplungeintoalltheintriguesoftheCourtatwhichheresided，todiscoverandflattereveryweaknessoftheprince，andofthefavouritewhogovernedtheprince，andofthelacqueywhogovernedthefavourite。Hewastocomplimentthemistressandbribetheconfessor，topanegyriseorsupplicate，tolaughorweep，toaccommodatehimselftoeverycaprice，tolulleverysuspicion，totreasureeveryhint，tobeeverything，toobserveeverything，toendureeverything。HighastheartofpoliticalintriguehadbeencarriedinItaly，theseweretimeswhichrequireditall。
OnthesearduouserrandsMachiavelliwasfrequentlyemployed。HewassenttotreatwiththeKingoftheRomansandwiththeDukeofValentinois。HewastwiceambassadoroftheCourtofRome，andthriceatthatofFrance。Inthesemissions，andinseveralothersofinferiorimportance，heacquittedhimselfwithgreatdexterity。Hisdespatchesformoneofthemostamusingandinstructivecollectionsextant。Thenarrativesareclearandagreeablywritten;theremarksonmenandthingscleverandjudicious。Theconversationsarereportedinaspiritedandcharacteristicmanner。Wefindourselvesintroducedintothepresenceofthemenwho，duringtwentyeventfulyears，swayedthedestiniesofEurope。Theirwitandtheirfolly，theirfretfulnessandtheirmerriment，areexposedtous。Weareadmittedtooverheartheirchat，andtowatchtheirfamiliargestures。Itisinterestingandcurioustorecognise，incircumstanceswhicheludethenoticeofhistorians，thefeebleviolenceandshallowcunningofLouistheTwelfth;thebustlinginsignificanceofMaximilian，cursedwithanimpotentpruriencyforrenown，rashyettimid，obstinateyetfickle，alwaysinahurry，yetalwaystoolate;thefierceandhaughtyenergywhichgavedignitytotheeccentricitiesofJulius;thesoftandgracefulmannerswhichmaskedtheinsatiableambitionandtheimplacablehatredofCaesarBorgia。
WehavementionedCaesarBorgia。ItisimpossiblenottopauseforamomentonthenameofamaninwhomthepoliticalmoralityofItalywassostronglypersonified，partiallyblendedwiththesternerlineamentsoftheSpanishcharacter。OntwoimportantoccasionsMachiavelliwasadmittedtohissociety;once，atthemomentwhenCaesar’ssplendidvillainyachieveditsmostsignaltriumph，whenhecaughtinonesnareandcrushedatoneblowallhismostformidablerivals;andagainwhen，exhaustedbydiseaseandoverwhelmedbymisfortunes，whichnohumanprudencecouldhaveaverted，hewastheprisonerofthedeadliestenemyofhishouse。TheseinterviewsbetweenthegreatestspeculativeandthegreatestpracticalstatesmanoftheagearefullydescribedintheCorrespondence，andformperhapsthemostinterestingpartofit。
FromsomepassagesinThePrince，andperhapsalsofromsomeindistincttraditions，severalwritershavesupposedaconnectionbetweenthoseremarkablemenmuchcloserthaneverexisted。TheEnvoyhasevenbeenaccusedofpromptingthecrimesoftheartfulandmercilesstyrant。Butfromtheofficialdocumentsitisclearthattheirintercourse，thoughostensiblyamicable，wasinrealityhostile。Itcannotbedoubted，however，thattheimaginationofMachiavelliwasstronglyimpressed，andhisspeculationsongovernmentcoloured，bytheobservationswhichhemadeonthesingularcharacterandequallysingularfortunesofamanwhoundersuchdisadvantageshadachievedsuchexploits;who，whensensuality，variedthroughinnumerableforms，couldnolongerstimulatehissatedmind，foundamorepowerfulanddurableexcitementintheintensethirstofempireandrevenge;
whoemergedfromtheslothandluxuryoftheRomanpurplethefirstprinceandgeneraloftheage;who，trainedinanunwarlikeprofession，formedagallantarmyoutofthedregsofanunwarlikepeople;who，afteracquiringsovereigntybydestroyinghisenemies，acquiredpopularitybydestroyinghistools;whohadbeguntoemployforthemostsalutaryendsthepowerwhichhehadattainedbythemostatrociousmeans;whotoleratedwithinthesphereofhisirondespotismnoplundereroroppressorbuthimself;andwhofellatlastamidstthemingledcursesandregretsofapeopleofwhomhisgeniushadbeenthewonder，andmighthavebeenthesalvation。SomeofthosecrimesofBorgiawhichtousappearthemostodiouswouldnot，fromcauseswhichwehavealreadyconsidered，havestruckanItalianofthefifteenthcenturywithequalhorror。PatrioticfeelingalsomightinduceMachiavellitolookwithsomeindulgenceandregretonthememoryoftheonlyleaderwhocouldhavedefendedtheindependenceofItalyagainsttheconfederatespoilersofCambray。
OnthissubjectMachiavellifeltmoststrongly。Indeedtheexpulsionoftheforeigntyrants，andtherestorationofthatgoldenagewhichhadprecededtheirruptionofCharlestheEighth，wereprojectswhich，atthattime，fascinatedallthemaster—spiritsofItaly。Themagnificentvisiondelightedthegreatbutill—regulatedmindofJulius。Itdividedwithmanuscriptsandsauces，painters，andfalcons，theattentionofthefrivolousLeo。ItpromptedthegeneroustreasonofMorone。ItimpartedatransientenergytothefeeblemindandbodyofthelastSforza。ItexcitedforonemomentanhonestambitioninthefalseheartofPescara。Ferocityandinsolencewerenotamongthevicesofthenationalcharacter。Tothediscriminatingcrueltiesofpoliticians，committedforgreatendsonselectvictims，themoralcodeoftheItalianswastooindulgent。Butthoughtheymighthaverecoursetobarbarityasanexpedient，theydidnotrequireitasastimulant。Theyturnedwithloathingfromtheatrocityofthestrangerswhoseemedtolovebloodforitsownsake，who，notcontentwithsubjugating，wereimpatienttodestroy，whofoundafiendishpleasureinrazingmagnificentcities，cuttingthethroatsofenemieswhocriedforquarter，orsuffocatinganunarmedpopulationbythousandsinthecavernstowhichithadfledforsafety。Suchwerethecrueltieswhichdailyexcitedtheterroranddisgustofapeopleamongwhom，tilllately，theworstthatasoldierhadtofearinapitchedbattlewasthelossofhishorseandtheexpenseofhisransom。TheswinishintemperanceofSwitzerland，thewolfishavariceofSpain，thegrosslicentiousnessoftheFrench，indulgedinviolationofhospitality，ofdecency，ofloveitself，thewantoninhumanitywhichwascommontoalltheinvaders，hadmadethemobjectsofdeadlyhatredtotheinhabitantsofthePeninsula。Thewealthwhichhadbeenaccumulatedduringcenturiesofprosperityandreposewasrapidlymeltingaway。Theintellectualsuperiorityoftheoppressedpeopleonlyrenderedthemmorekeenlysensibleoftheirpoliticaldegradation。Literatureandtaste，indeed，stilldisguisedwithaflushofhecticlovelinessandbrilliancytheravagesofanincurabledecay。Theironhadnotyetenteredintothesoul。Thetimewasnotyetcomewheneloquencewastobegagged，andreasontobehoodwinked，whentheharpofthepoetwastobehungonthewillowsofArno，andtherighthandofthepaintertoforgetitscunning。Yetadiscerningeyemighteventhenhaveseenthatgeniusandlearningwouldnotlongsurvivethestateofthingsfromwhichtheyhadsprung，andthatthegreatmenwhosetalentsgavelustretothatmelancholyperiodhadbeenformedundertheinfluenceofhappierdays，andwouldleavenosuccessorsbehindthem。Thetimeswhichshinewiththegreatestsplendourinliteraryhistoryarenotalwaysthosetowhichthehumanmindismostindebted。Ofthiswemaybeconvinced，bycomparingthegenerationwhichfollowsthemwiththatwhichhadprecededthem。Thefirstfruitswhicharereapedunderabadsystemoftenspringfromseedsownunderagoodone。
Thusitwas，insomemeasure，withtheAugustanage。ThusitwaswiththeageofRaphaelandAriosto，ofAldusandVida。
Machiavellideeplyregrettedthemisfortunesofhiscountry，andclearlydiscernedthecauseandtheremedy。ItwasthemilitarysystemoftheItalianpeoplewhichhadextinguishedtheirvalueanddiscipline，andlefttheirwealthaneasypreytoeveryforeignplunderer。TheSecretaryprojectedaschemealikehonourabletohisheartandtohisintellect，forabolishingtheuseofmercenarytroops，andfororganisinganationalmilitia。
Theexertionswhichhemadetoeffectthisgreatobjectoughtalonetorescuehisnamefromobloquy。Thoughhissituationandhishabitswerepacific，hestudiedwithintenseassiduitythetheoryofwar。Hemadehimselfmasterofallitsdetails。TheFlorentineGovernmententeredintohisviews。Acouncilofwarwasappointed。Leviesweredecreed。Theindefatigableministerflewfromplacetoplaceinordertosuperintendtheexecutionofhisdesign。Thetimeswere，insomerespects，favourabletotheexperiment。Thesystemofmilitarytacticshadundergoneagreatrevolution。Thecavalrywasnolongerconsideredasformingthestrengthofanarmy。Thehourswhichacitizencouldsparefromhisordinaryemployments，thoughbynomeanssufficienttofamiliarisehimwiththeexerciseofaman—at—arms，mightrenderhimanusefulfoot—soldier。Thedreadofaforeignyoke，ofplunder，massacre，andconflagration，mighthaveconqueredthatrepugnancetomilitarypursuitswhichboththeindustryandtheidlenessofgreattownscommonlygenerate。Foratimetheschemepromisedwell。Thenewtroopsacquittedthemselvesrespectablyinthefield。Machiavellilookedwithparentalraptureonthesuccessofhisplan，andbegantohopethatthearmsofItalymightoncemorebeformidabletothebarbariansoftheTagusandtheRhine。Butthetideofmisfortunecameonbeforethebarrierswhichshouldhavewithstooditwereprepared。Foratime，indeed，Florencemightbeconsideredaspeculiarlyfortunate。FamineandswordandpestilencehaddevastatedthefertileplainsandstatelycitiesofthePo。AllthecursesdenouncedofoldagainstTyreseemedtohavefallenonVenice。Hermerchantsalreadystoodafaroff，lamentingfortheirgreatcity。Thetimeseemednearwhenthesea—weedshouldovergrowhersilentRialto，andthefishermanwashhisnetsinherdesertedarsenal。Napleshadbeenfourtimesconqueredandreconqueredbytyrantsequallyindifferenttoitswelfareandequallygreedyforitsspoils。
Florence，asyet，hadonlytoenduredegradationandextortion，tosubmittothemandatesofforeignpowers，tobuyoverandoveragain，atanenormousprice，whatwasalreadyjustlyherown，toreturnthanksforbeingwronged，andtoaskpardonforbeingintheright。Shewasatlengthdeprivedoftheblessingsevenofthisinfamousandservilerepose。Hermilitaryandpoliticalinstitutionsweresweptawaytogether。TheMedicireturned，inthetrainofforeigninvaders，fromtheirlongexile。ThepolicyofMachiavelliwasabandoned;andhispublicserviceswererequitedwithpoverty，imprisonment，andtorture。
Thefallenstatesmanstillclungtohisprojectwithunabatedardour。Withtheviewofvindicatingitfromsomepopularobjectionsandofrefutingsomeprevailingerrorsonthesubjectofmilitaryscience，hewrotehissevenbooksonTheArtofWar。
Thisexcellentworkisintheformofadialogue。TheopinionsofthewriterareputintothemouthofFabrizioColonna，apowerfulnoblemanoftheEcclesiasticalState，andanofficerofdistinguishedmeritintheserviceoftheKingofSpain。ColonnavisitsFlorenceonhiswayfromLombardytohisowndomains。HeisinvitedtomeetsomefriendsatthehouseofCosimoRucellai，anamiableandaccomplishedyoungman，whoseearlydeathMachiavellifeelinglydeplores。Afterpartakingofanelegantentertainment，theyretirefromtheheatintothemostshadyrecessesofthegarden。Fabrizioisstruckbythesightofsomeuncommonplants。Cosimosaysthat，thoughrare，inmoderndays，theyarefrequentlymentionedbytheclassicalauthors，andthathisgrandfather，likemanyotherItalians，amusedhimselfwithpractisingtheancientmethodsofgardening。Fabrizioexpresseshisregretthatthosewho，inlatertimes，affectedthemannersoftheoldRomansshouldselectforimitationthemosttriflingpursuits。Thisleadstoaconversationonthedeclineofmilitarydisciplineandonthebestmeansofrestoringit。TheinstitutionoftheFlorentinemilitiaisablydefended;andseveralimprovementsaresuggestedinthedetails。
TheSwissandtheSpaniardswere，atthattime，regardedasthebestsoldiersinEurope。TheSwissbattalionconsistedofpikemen，andboreacloseresemblancetotheGreekphalanx。TheSpaniards，likethesoldiersofRome，werearmedwiththeswordandtheshield。ThevictoriesofFlamininusandAemiliusovertheMacedoniankingsseemtoprovethesuperiorityoftheweaponsusedbythelegions。ThesameexperimenthadbeenrecentlytriedwiththesameresultatthebattleofRavenna，oneofthosetremendousdaysintowhichhumanfollyandwickednesscompressthewholedevastationofafamineoraplague。Inthatmemorableconflict，theinfantryofArragon，theoldcompanionsofGonsalvo，desertedbyalltheirallies，hewedapassagethroughthethickestoftheimperialpikes，andeffectedanunbrokenretreat，inthefaceofthegendarmerieofDeFoix，andtherenownedartilleryofEste。Fabrizio，orratherMachiavelli，proposestocombinethetwosystems，toarmtheforemostlineswiththepikeforthepurposeofrepulsingcavalry，andthoseintherearwiththesword，asbeingaweaponbetteradaptedforeveryotherpurpose。Throughoutthework，theauthorexpressesthehighestadmirationofthemilitaryscienceoftheancientRomans，andthegreatestcontemptforthemaximswhichhadbeeninvogueamongsttheItaliancommandersoftheprecedinggeneration。Heprefersinfantrytocavalry，andfortifiedcampstofortifiedtowns。Heisinclinedtosubstituterapidmovementsanddecisiveengagementsforthelanguidanddilatoryoperationsofhiscountrymen。Heattachesverylittleimportancetotheinventionofgunpowder。Indeedheseemstothinkthatitoughtscarcelytoproduceanychangeinthemodeofarmingorofdisposingtroops。Thegeneraltestimonyofhistorians，itmustbeallowed，seemstoprovethattheill—constructedandill—servedartilleryofthosetimes，thoughusefulinasiege，wasoflittlevalueonthefieldofbattle。
OfthetacticsofMachiavelliwewillnotventuretogiveanopinion:butwearecertainthathisbookismostableandinteresting。Asacommentaryonthehistoryofhistimes，itisinvaluable。Theingenuity，thegrace，andtheperspicuityofthestyle，andtheeloquenceandanimationofparticularpassages，mustgivepleasureeventoreaderswhotakenointerestinthesubject。
ThePrinceandtheDiscoursesonLivywerewrittenafterthefalloftheRepublicanGovernment。TheformerwasdedicatedtotheyoungLorenzodiMedici。Thiscircumstanceseemstohavedisgustedthecontemporariesofthewriterfarmorethanthedoctrineswhichhaverenderedthenameoftheworkodiousinlatertimes。Itwasconsideredasanindicationofpoliticalapostasy。ThefacthoweverseemstohavebeenthatMachiavelli，despairingofthelibertyofFlorence，wasinclinedtosupportanygovernmentwhichmightpreserveherindependence。Theintervalwhichseparatedademocracyandadespotism，SoderiniandLorenzo，seemedtovanishwhencomparedwiththedifferencebetweentheformerandthepresentstateofItaly，betweenthesecurity，theopulence，andthereposewhichshehadenjoyedunderhernativerulers，andthemiseryinwhichshehadbeenplungedsincethefatalyearinwhichthefirstforeigntyranthaddescendedfromtheAlps。ThenobleandpatheticexhortationwithwhichThePrinceconcludesshowshowstronglythewriterfeltuponthissubject。
ThePrincetracestheprogressofanambitiousman，theDiscoursestheprogressofanambitiouspeople。Thesameprinciplesonwhich，intheformerwork，theelevationofanindividualisexplained，areappliedinthelatter，tothelongerdurationandmorecomplexinterestofasociety。ToamodernstatesmantheformoftheDiscoursesmayappeartobepuerile。IntruthLivyisnotanhistorianonwhomimplicitreliancecanbeplaced，evenincaseswherehemusthavepossessedconsiderablemeansofinformation。AndthefirstDecade，towhichMachiavellihasconfinedhimself，isscarcelyentitledtomorecreditthanourChronicleofBritishKingswhoreignedbeforetheRomaninvasion。ButthecommentatorisindebtedtoLivyforlittlemorethanafewtextswhichhemightaseasilyhaveextractedfromtheVulgateortheDecameron。Thewholetrainofthoughtisoriginal。
OnthepeculiarimmoralitywhichhasrenderedThePrinceunpopular，andwhichisalmostequallydiscernibleintheDiscourses，wehavealreadygivenouropinionatlength。Wehaveattemptedtoshowthatitbelongedrathertotheagethantotheman，thatitwasapartialtaint，andbynomeansimpliedgeneraldepravity。Wecannot，however，denythatitisagreatblemish，andthatitconsiderablydiminishesthepleasurewhich，inotherrespects，thoseworksmustaffordtoeveryintelligentmind。
Itis，indeed，impossibletoconceiveamorehealthfulandvigorousconstitutionoftheunderstandingthanthatwhichtheseworksindicate。Thequalitiesoftheactiveandthecontemplativestatesmanappeartohavebeenblendedinthemindofthewriterintoarareandexquisiteharmony。Hisskillinthedetailsofbusinesshadnotbeenacquiredattheexpenseofhisgeneralpowers。Ithadnotrenderedhismindlesscomprehensive;butithadservedtocorrecthisspeculationsandtoimparttothemthatvividandpracticalcharacterwhichsowidelydistinguishesthemfromthevaguetheoriesofmostpoliticalphilosophers。
Everymanwhohasseentheworldknowsthatnothingissouselessasageneralmaxim。Ifitbeverymoralandverytrue，itmayserveforacopytoacharity—boy。If，likethoseofRochefoucault，itbesparklingandwhimsical，itmaymakeanexcellentmottoforanessay。Butfewindeedofthemanywiseapophthegmswhichhavebeenuttered，fromthetimeoftheSevenSagesofGreecetothatofPoorRichard，havepreventedasinglefoolishaction。WegivethehighestandthemostpeculiarpraisetothepreceptsofMachiavelliwhenwesaythattheymayfrequentlybeofrealuseinregulatingconduct，notsomuchbecausetheyaremorejustormoreprofoundthanthosewhichmightbeculledfromotherauthors，asbecausetheycanbemorereadilyappliedtotheproblemsofreallife。
Thereareerrorsintheseworks。Buttheyareerrorswhichawriter，situatedlikeMachiavelli，couldscarcelyavoid。Theyarise，forthemostpart，fromasingledefectwhichappearstoustopervadehiswholesystem。Inhispoliticalscheme，themeanshadbeenmoredeeplyconsideredthantheends。Thegreatprinciple，thatsocietiesandlawsexistonlyforthepurposeofincreasingthesumofprivatehappiness，isnotrecognisedwithsufficientclearness。Thegoodofthebody，distinctfromthegoodofthemembers，andsometimeshardlycompatiblewiththegoodofthemembers，seemstobetheobjectwhichheproposestohimself。Ofallpoliticalfallacies，thishasperhapshadthewidestandthemostmischievousoperation。ThestateofsocietyinthelittlecommonwealthsofGreece，thecloseconnectionandmutualdependenceofthecitizens，andtheseverityofthelawsofwar，tendedtoencourageanopinionwhich，undersuchcircumstances，couldhardlybecallederroneous。TheinterestsofeveryindividualwereinseparablyboundupwiththoseoftheState。Aninvasiondestroyedhiscorn—fieldsandvineyards，drovehimfromhishome，andcompelledhimtoencounterallthehardshipsofamilitarylife。Atreatyofpeacerestoredhimtosecurityandcomfort。Avictorydoubledthenumberofhisslaves。
Adefeatperhapsmadehimaslavehimself。WhenPericles，inthePeloponnesianwar，toldtheAthenians，that，iftheircountrytriumphed，theirprivatelosseswouldspeedilyberepaired，but，that，iftheirarmsfailedofsuccess，everyindividualamongstthemwouldprobablyberuined，hespokenomorethanthetruth，Hespoketomenwhomthetributeofvanquishedcitiessuppliedwithfoodandclothing，withtheluxuryofthebathandtheamusementsofthetheatre，onwhomthegreatnessoftheirCountryconferredrank，andbeforewhomthemembersoflessprosperouscommunitiestrembled;tomenwho，incaseofachangeinthepublicfortunes，would，atleast，bedeprivedofeverycomfortandeverydistinctionwhichtheyenjoyed。Tobebutcheredonthesmokingruinsoftheircity，tobedraggedinchainstoaslave—
market。toseeonechildtornfromthemtodiginthequarriesofSicily，andanothertoguardtheharamsofPersepolis，thesewerethefrequentandprobableconsequencesofnationalcalamities。
Hence，amongtheGreeks，patriotismbecameagoverningprinciple，orratheranungovernablepassion。Theirlegislatorsandtheirphilosopherstookitforgrantedthat，inprovidingforthestrengthandgreatnessofthestate，theysufficientlyprovidedforthehappinessofthepeople。ThewritersoftheRomanempirelivedunderdespots，intowhosedominionahundrednationsweremelteddown，andwhosegardenswouldhavecoveredthelittlecommonwealthsofPhliusandPlataea。Yettheycontinuedtoemploythesamelanguage，andtocantaboutthedutyofsacrificingeverythingtoacountrytowhichtheyowednothing。
CausessimilartothosewhichhadinfluencedthedispositionoftheGreeksoperatedpowerfullyonthelessvigorousanddaringcharacteroftheItalians。TheItalians，liketheGreeks，weremembersofsmallcommunities。Everymanwasdeeplyinterestedinthewelfareofthesocietytowhichhebelonged，apartakerinitswealthanditspoverty，initsgloryanditsshame。IntheageofMachiavellithiswaspeculiarlythecase。Publiceventshadproducedanimmensesumofmiserytoprivatecitizens。TheNortherninvadershadbroughtwanttotheirboards，infamytotheirbeds，firetotheirroofs，andtheknifetotheirthroats。
Itwasnaturalthatamanwholivedintimesliketheseshouldoverratetheimportanceofthosemeasuresbywhichanationisrenderedformidabletoitsneighbours，andundervaluethosewhichmakeitprosperouswithinitself。
NothingismoreremarkableinthepoliticaltreatisesofMachiavellithanthefairnessofmindwhichtheyindicate。Itappearswheretheauthorisinthewrong，almostasstronglyaswhereheisintheright。Heneveradvancesafalseopinionbecauseitisneworsplendid，becausehecanclotheitinahappyphrase，ordefenditbyaningenioussophism。Hiserrorsareatonceexplainedbyareferencetothecircumstancesinwhichhewasplaced。Theyevidentlywerenotsoughtout;theylayinhisway，andcouldscarcelybeavoided。Suchmistakesmustnecessarilybecommittedbyearlyspeculatorsineveryscience。
InthisrespectitisamusingtocompareThePrinceandtheDiscourseswiththeSpiritofLaws。Montesquieuenjoys，perhaps，awidercelebritythananypoliticalwriterofmodernEurope。
Somethinghedoubtlessowestohismerit，butmuchmoretohisfortune。HehadthegoodluckofaValentine。
HecaughttheeyeoftheFrenchnation，atthemomentwhenitwaswakingfromthelongsleepofpoliticalandreligiousbigotry;
and，inconsequence，hebecameafavourite。TheEnglish，atthattime，consideredaFrenchmanwhotalkedaboutconstitutionalchecksandfundamentallawsasaprodigynotlessastonishingthanthelearnedpigorthemusicalinfant。Speciousbutshallow，studiousofeffect，indifferenttotruth，eagertobuildasystem，butcarelessofcollectingthosematerialsoutofwhichaloneasoundanddurablesystemcanbebuilt，thelivelyPresidentconstructedtheoriesasrapidlyandasslightlyascard—houses，nosoonerprojectedthancompleted，nosoonercompletedthanblownaway，nosoonerblownawaythanforgotten。
Machiavellierrsonlybecausehisexperience，acquiredinaverypeculiarstateofsociety，couldnotalwaysenablehimtocalculatetheeffectofinstitutionsdifferingfromthoseofwhichhehadobservedtheoperation。Montesquieuerrs，becausehehasafinethingtosay，andisresolvedtosayit。Ifthephaenomenawhichliebeforehimwillnotsuithispurpose，allhistorymustberansacked。IfnothingestablishedbyauthentictestimonycanberackedorchippedtosuithisProcrusteanhypothesis，heputsupwithsomemonstrousfableaboutSiam，orBantam，orJapan，toldbywriterscomparedwithwhomLucianandGulliverwereveracious，liarsbyadoubleright，astravellersandasJesuits。
Proprietyofthought，andproprietyofdiction，arecommonlyfoundtogether。Obscurityandaffectationarethetwogreatestfaultsofstyle。Obscurityofexpressiongenerallyspringsfromconfusionofideas;andthesamewishtodazzleatanycostwhichproducesaffectationinthemannerofawriter，islikelytoproducesophistryinhisreasonings。ThejudiciousandcandidmindofMachiavellishowsitselfinhisluminous，manly，andpolishedlanguage。ThestyleofMontesquieu，ontheotherhand，indicatesineverypagealivelyandingenious，butanunsoundmind。Everytrickofexpression，fromthemysteriousconcisenessofanoracletotheflippancyofaParisiancoxcomb，isemployedtodisguisethefallacyofsomepositions，andthetritenessofothers。Absurditiesarebrightenedintoepigrams;truismsaredarkenedintoenigmas。Itiswithdifficultythatthestrongesteyecansustaintheglarewithwhichsomepartsareilluminated，orpenetratetheshadeinwhichothersareconcealed。
ThepoliticalworksofMachiavellideriveapeculiarinterestfromthemournfulearnestnesswhichhemanifestswheneverhetouchesontopicsconnectedwiththecalamitiesofhisnativeland。Itisdifficulttoconceiveanysituationmorepainfulthanthatofagreatman，condemnedtowatchthelingeringagonyofanexhaustedcountry，totenditduringthealternatefitsofstupefactionandravingwhichprecedeitsdissolution，andtoseethesymptomsofvitalitydisappearonebyone，tillnothingisleftbutcoldness，darkness，andcorruption。TothisjoylessandthanklessdutywasMachiavellicalled。Intheenergeticlanguageoftheprophet，hewas\"madforthesightofhiseyewhichhesaw，\"disunioninthecouncil，effeminacyinthecamp，libertyextinguished，commercedecaying，nationalhonoursullied，anenlightenedandflourishingpeoplegivenovertotheferocityofignorantsavages。Thoughhisopinionshadnoescapedthecontagionofthatpoliticalimmoralitywhichwascommonamonghiscountrymen，hisnaturaldispositionseemtohavebeenrathersternandimpetuousthanpliantandartfulWhenthemiseryanddegradationofFlorenceandthefouloutragewhichhehadhimselfsustainedrecurtohismind，thesmoothcraftofhisprofessionandhisnationisexchangedforthehonestbitternessofscornandanger。Hespeakslikeonesickofthecalamitoustimesandabjectpeopleamongwhomhislotiscast。HepinesforthestrengthandgloryofancientRome，forthefascesofBrutus，andtheswordofScipio，thegravityofthecurulechair，andthebloodypompofthetriumphalsacrifice。HeseemstobetransportedbacktothedayswheneighthundredthousandItalianwarriorssprungtoarmsattherumourofaGallicinvasion。Hebreathesallthespiritofthoseintrepidandhaughtysenatorswhoforgotthedearesttiesofnatureintheclaimsofpublicduty，wholookedwithdisdainontheelephantsandonthegoldofPyrrhus，andlistenedwithunalteredcomposuretothetremendoustidingsofCannae。Likeanancienttempledeformedbythebarbarousarchitectureofalaterage，hischaracteracquiresaninterestfromtheverycircumstanceswhichdebaseit。Theoriginalproportionsarerenderedmorestrikingbythecontrastwhichtheypresenttothemeanandincongruousadditions。
Theinfluenceofthesentimentswhichwehavedescribedwasnotapparentinhiswritingsalone。Hisenthusiasm，barredfromthecareerwhichitwouldhaveselectedforitself，seemstohavefoundaventindesperatelevity。Heenjoyedavindictivepleasureinoutragingtheopinionsofasocietywhichhedespised。Hebecamecarelessofthedecencieswhichwereexpectedfromamansohighlydistinguishedintheliteraryandpoliticalworld。Thesarcasticbitternessofhisconversationdisgustedthosewhoweremoreinclinedtoaccusehislicentiousnessthantheirowndegeneracy，andwhowereunabletoconceivethestrengthofthoseemotionswhichareconcealedbythejestsofthewretched，andbythefolliesofthewise。
ThehistoricalworksofMachiavellistillremaintobeconsidered。TheLifeofCastruccioCastracaniwilloccupyusforaveryshorttime，andwouldscarcelyhavedemandedournotice，haditnotattractedamuchgreatershareofpublicattentionthanitdeserves。Fewbooks，indeed，couldbemoreinterestingthanacarefulandjudiciousaccount，fromsuchapen，oftheillustriousPrinceofLucca，themosteminentofthoseItalianchiefswho，likePisistratusandGelon，acquiredapowerfeltratherthanseen，andresting，notonlaworonprescription，butonthepublicfavourandontheirgreatpersonalqualities。Suchaworkwouldexhibittoustherealnatureofthatspeciesofsovereignty，sosingularandsooftenmisunderstood，whichtheGreeksdenominatedtyranny，andwhich，modifiedinsomedegreebythefeudalsystem，reappearedinthecommonwealthsofLombardyandTuscany。ButthislittlecompositionofMachiavelliisinnosenseahistory。Ithasnopretensionstofidelity。Itisatrifle，andnotaverysuccessfultrifle。ItisscarcelymoreauthenticthanthenovelofBelphegor，andisverymuchduller。
Thelastgreatworkofthisillustriousmanwasthehistoryofhisnativecity。ItwaswrittenbycommandofthePope，who，aschiefofthehouseofMedici，wasatthattimesovereignofFlorence。ThecharactersofCosmo，ofPiero，andofLorenzo，are，however，treatedwithafreedomandimpartialityequallyhonourabletothewriterandtothepatron。Themiseriesandhumiliationsofdependence，thebreadwhichismorebitterthaneveryotherfood，thestairswhicharemorepainfulthaneveryotherascent，hadnotbrokenthespiritofMachiavelli。ThemostcorruptingpostinacorruptingprofessionhadnotdepravedthegenerousheartofClement。
TheHistorydoesnotappeartobethefruitofmuchindustryorresearch。Itisunquestionablyinaccurate。Butitiselegant，lively，andpicturesque，beyondanyotherintheItalianlanguage。Thereader，webelieve，carriesawayfromitamorevividandamorefaithfulimpressionofthenationalcharacterandmannersthanfrommorecorrectaccounts。Thetruthis，thatthebookbelongsrathertoancientthantomodernliterature。Itisinthestyle，notofDavilaandClarendon，butofHerodotusandTacitus。Theclassicalhistoriesmayalmostbecalledromancesfoundedinfact。Therelationis，nodoubt，inallitsprincipalpoints，strictlytrue。Butthenumerouslittleincidentswhichheightentheinterest，thewords，thegestures，thelooks，areevidentlyfurnishedbytheimaginationoftheauthor。Thefashionoflatertimesisdifferent。Amoreexactnarrativeisgivenbythewriter。Itmaybedoubtedwhethermoreexactnotionsareconveyedtothereader。Thebestportraitsareperhapsthoseinwhichthereisaslightmixtureofcaricature，andwearenotcertainthatthebesthistoriesarenotthoseinwhichalittleoftheexaggerationoffictitiousnarrativeisjudiciouslyemployed。Somethingislostinaccuracy;butmuchisgainedineffect。Thefainterlinesareneglectedbutthegreatcharacteristicfeaturesareimprintedonthemindforever。
TheHistoryterminateswiththedeathofLorenzode’Medici。
Machiavellihad，itseems，intendedtocontinuehisnarrativetoalaterperiod。Buthisdeathpreventedtheexecutionofhisdesign;andthemelancholytaskofrecordingthedesolationandshameofItalydevolvedonGuicciardini。
MachiavellilivedlongenoughtoseethecommencementofthelaststruggleforFlorentineliberty。Soonafterhisdeathmonarchywasfinallyestablished，notsuchamonarchyasthatofwhichCosmohadlaidthefoundationsdeepintheinstitutionandfeelingsofhiscountryman，andwhichLorenzohadembellishedwiththetrophiesofeveryscienceandeveryart;butaloathsometyranny，proudandmean，cruelandfeeble，bigotedandlascivious。ThecharacterofMachiavelliwashatefultothenewmastersofItaly;andthosepartsofhistheorywhichwereinstrictaccordancewiththeirowndailypracticeaffordedapretextforblackeninghismemory。Hisworksweremisrepresentedbythelearned，misconstruedbytheignorant，censuredbytheChurch，abusedwithalltherancourofsimulatedvirtuebythetoolsofabasegovernment，andthepriestsofabasersuperstition。Thenameofthemanwhosegeniushadilluminatedallthedarkplacesofpolicy，andtowhosepatrioticwisdomanoppressedpeoplehadowedtheirlastchanceofemancipationandrevenge，passedintoaproverbofinfamy。Formorethantwohundredyearshisboneslayundistinguished。Atlength，anEnglishnoblemanpaidtheashonourstothegreateststatesmanofFlorence。InthechurchofSantaCroceamonumentwaserectedtohismemory，whichiscontemplatedwithreverencebyallwhocandistinguishthevirtuesofagreatmindthroughthecorruptionsofadegenerateage，andwhichwillbeapproachedwithstilldeeperhomagewhentheobjecttowhichhispubliclifewasdevotedshallbeattained，whentheforeignyokeshallbebroken，whenasecondProcidashallavengethewrongsofNaples，whenahappierRienzishallrestorethegoodestateofRome，whenthestreetsofFlorenceandBolognashallagainresoundwiththeirancientwar—cry，Popolo;popolo;muoianoitiranni！
VONRANKE
（October1840）
TheEcclesiasticalandpoliticalHistoryofthePopesofRome，duringtheSixteenthandSeventeenthCenturies。ByLEOPOLDRANKE，ProfessorintheUniversityofBerlin:TranslatedfromtheGerman，bySARAHAUSTIN。3vols。8vo。London:1840。
Itishardlynecessaryforustosaythatthisisanexcellentbookexcellentlytranslated。TheoriginalworkofProfessorRankeisknownandesteemedwhereverGermanliteratureisstudied，andhasbeenfoundinterestingeveninamostinaccurateanddishonestFrenchversion。Itis，indeed，theworkofamindfittedbothforminuteresearchesandforlargespeculations。Itiswrittenalsoinanadmirablespirit，equallyremotefromlevityandbigotry，seriousandearnest，yettolerantandimpartial。Itis，therefore，withthegreatestpleasurethatwenowseethisbooktakeitsplaceamongtheEnglishclassics。Ofthetranslationweneedonlysaythatitissuchasmightbeexpectedfromtheskill，thetaste，andthescrupulousintegrityoftheaccomplishedladywho，asaninterpreterbetweenthemindofGermanyandthemindofBritain，hasalreadydeservedsowellofbothcountries。
Thesubjectofthisbookhasalwaysappearedtoussingularlyinteresting。HowitwasthatProtestantismdidsomuch，yetdidnomore，howitwasthattheChurchofRome，havinglostalargepartofEurope，notonlyceasedtolose，butactuallyregainednearlyhalfofwhatshehadlost，iscertainlyamostcuriousandimportantquestion;andonthisquestionProfessorRankehasthrownfarmorelightthananyotherpersonwhohaswrittenonit。
Thereisnot，andthereneverwasonthisearth，aworkofhumanpolicysowelldeservingofexaminationastheRomanCatholicChurch。ThehistoryofthatChurchjoinstogetherthetwogreatagesofhumancivilisation。NootherinstitutionisleftstandingwhichcarriesthemindbacktothetimeswhenthesmokeofsacrificerosefromthePantheon，andwhencamelopardsandtigersboundedintheFlavianamphitheatre。Theproudestroyalhousesarebutofyesterday，whencomparedwiththelineoftheSupremePontiffs。Thatlinewetracebackinanunbrokenseries，fromthePopewhocrownedNapoleoninthenineteenthcenturytothePopewhocrownedPepinintheeighth;andfarbeyondthetimeofPepintheaugustdynastyextends，tillitislostinthetwilightoffable。TherepublicofVenicecamenextinantiquity。ButtherepublicofVenicewasmodernwhencomparedwiththePapacy;andtherepublicofVeniceisgone，andthePapacyremains。ThePapacyremains，notindecay，notamereantique，butfulloflifeandyouthfulvigour。TheCatholicChurchisstillsendingforthtothefarthestendsoftheworldmissionariesaszealousasthosewholandedinKentwithAugustin，andstillconfrontinghostilekingswiththesamespiritwithwhichsheconfrontedAttila。Thenumberofherchildrenisgreaterthaninanyformerage。HeracquisitionsintheNewWorldhavemorethancompensatedforwhatshehaslostintheOld。HerspiritualascendencyextendsoverthevastcountrieswhichliebetweentheplainsoftheMissouriandCapeHorn，countrieswhichacenturyhence，maynotimprobablycontainapopulationaslargeasthatwhichnowinhabitsEurope。Themembersofhercommunionarecertainlynotfewerthanahundredandfiftymillions;anditwillbedifficulttoshowthatallotherChristiansectsunitedamounttoahundredandtwentymillions。Nordoweseeanysignwhichindicatesthatthetermofherlongdominionisapproaching。Shesawthecommencementofallthegovernmentsandofalltheecclesiasticalestablishmentsthatnowexistintheworld;andwefeelnoassurancethatsheisnotdestinedtoseetheendofthemall。
ShewasgreatandrespectedbeforetheSaxonhadsetfootonBritain，beforetheFrankhadpassedtheRhine，whenGrecianeloquencestillflourishedatAntioch，whenidolswerestillworshippedinthetempleofMecca。AndshemaystillexistinundiminishedvigourwhensometravellerfromNewZealandshall，inthemidstofavastsolitude，takehisstandonabrokenarchofLondonBridgetosketchtheruinsofSt。Paul’s。
Weoftenhearitsaidthattheworldisconstantlybecomingmoreandmoreenlightened，andthatthisenlighteningmustbefavourabletoProtestantism，andunfavourabletoCatholicism。Wewishthatwecouldthinkso。Butweseegreatreasontodoubtwhetherthisbeawell—foundedexpectation。Weseethatduringthelasttwohundredandfiftyyearsthehumanmindhasbeeninthehighestdegreeactive，thatithasmadegreatadvancesineverybranchofnaturalphilosophy，thatithasproducedinnumerableinventionstendingtopromotetheconvenienceoflife，thatmedicine，surgery，chemistry，engineering，havebeenverygreatlyimproved，thatgovernment，police，andlawhavebeenimproved，thoughnottosogreatanextentasthephysicalsciences。Yetweseethat，duringthesetwohundredandfiftyyears，Protestantismhasmadenoconquestsworthspeakingof。
Nay，webelievethat，asfarastherehasbeenachange，thatchangehas，onthewhole，beeninfavouroftheChurchofRome。
Wecannot，therefore，feelconfidentthattheprogressofknowledgewillnecessarilybefataltoasystemwhichhas，tosaytheleast，stooditsgroundinspiteoftheimmenseprogressmadebythehumanraceinknowledgesincethedaysofQueenElizabeth。
Indeedtheargumentwhichweareconsidering，seemstoustobefoundedonanentiremistake。Therearebranchesofknowledgewithrespecttowhichthelawofthehumanmindisprogress。Inmathematics，whenonceapropositionhasbeendemonstrated，itisneverafterwardscontested。Everyfreshstoryisassolidabasisforanewsuperstructureastheoriginalfoundationwas。Here，therefore，thereisaconstantadditiontothestockoftruth。Intheinductivesciencesagain，thelawisprogress。Everydayfurnishesnewfacts，andthusbringstheorynearerandnearertoperfection。Thereisnochancethat，eitherinthepurelydemonstrative，orinthepurelyexperimentalsciences，theworldwillevergobackorevenremainstationary。NobodyeverheardofareactionagainstTaylor’stheorem，orofareactionagainstHarvey’sdoctrineofthecirculationoftheblood。
Butwiththeologythecaseisverydifferent。Asrespectsnaturalreligion，——revelationbeingforthepresentaltogetherleftoutofthequestion，——itisnoteasytoseethataphilosopherofthepresentdayismorefavourablysituatedthanThalesorSimonides。
HehasbeforehimjustthesameevidencesofdesigninthestructureoftheuniversewhichtheearlyGreekshad。Wesayjustthesame;forthediscoveriesofmodernastronomersandanatomistshavereallyaddednothingtotheforceofthatargumentwhichareflectingmindfindsineverybeast，bird，insect，fish，leaf，flowerandshell。ThereasoningbywhichSocrates，inXenophon’shearing，confutedthelittleatheistAristodemus，isexactlythereasoningofPaley’sNaturalTheology。SocratesmakespreciselythesameuseofthestatuesofPolycletusandthepicturesofZeuxiswhichPaleymakesofthewatch。Astotheothergreatquestion，thequestion，whatbecomesofmanafterdeath，wedonotseethatahighlyeducatedEuropean，lefttohisunassistedreason，ismorelikelytobeintherightthanaBlackfootIndian。NotasingleoneofthemanysciencesinwhichwesurpasstheBlackfootIndiansthrowsthesmallestlightonthestateofthesoulaftertheanimallifeisextinct。Intruthallthephilosophers，ancientandmodern，whohaveattempted，withoutthehelpofrevelationtoprovetheimmortalityofman，fromPlatodowntoFranklin，appeartoustohavefaileddeplorably。
Then，again，allthegreatenigmaswhichperplexthenaturaltheologianarethesameinallages。Theingenuityofapeoplejustemergingfrombarbarismisquitesufficienttopropoundthoseenigmas。ThegeniusofLockeorClarkeisquiteunabletosolvethem。ItisamistaketoimaginethatsubtlespeculationstouchingtheDivineattributes，theoriginofevil，thenecessityofhumanactions，thefoundationofmoralobligation，implyanyhighdegreeofintellectualculture。Suchspeculations，onthecontrary，areinapeculiarmannerthedelightofintelligentchildrenandofhalfcivilisedmen。Thenumberofboysisnotsmallwho，atfourteen，havethoughtenoughonthesequestionstobefullyentitledtothepraisewhichVoltairegivestoZadig。
\"Ilensavaitcequ’onenasudanstouslesages;c’est—a—dire，fortpeudechose。\"ThebookofJobshowsthat，longbeforelettersandartswereknowntoIonia，thesevexingquestionsweredebatedwithnocommonskillandeloquence，underthetentsoftheIdumeanEmirs;norhashumanreason，inthecourseofthreethousandyears，discoveredanysatisfactorysolutionoftheriddleswhichperplexedEliphazandZophar。
Naturaltheology，then，isnotaprogressivescience。Thatknowledgeofouroriginandofourdestinywhichwederivefromrevelationisindeedofverydifferentclearness，andofverydifferentimportance。Butneitherisrevealedreligionofthenatureofaprogressivescience。AllDivinetruthis，accordingtothedoctrineoftheProtestantChurches，recordedincertainbooks。Itisequallyopentoallwho，inanyage，canreadthosebooks;norcanallthediscoveriesofallthephilosophersintheworldaddasingleversetoanyofthosebooks。Itisplain，therefore，thatindivinitytherecannotbeaprogressanalogoustothatwhichisconstantlytakingplaceinpharmacy，geology，andnavigation。AChristianofthefifthCenturywithaBibleisneitherbetternorworsesituatedthanaChristianofthenineteenthcenturywithaBible，candourandnaturalacutenessbeing，ofcourse，supposedequal。Itmattersnotatallthatthecompass，printing，gunpowder，steam，gas，vaccination，andathousandotherdiscoveriesandinventions，whichwereunknowninthefifthcentury，arefamiliartothenineteenth。Noneofthesediscoveriesandinventionshasthesmallestbearingonthequestionwhethermanisjustifiedbyfaithalone，orwhethertheinvocationofsaintsisanorthodoxpractice。Itseemstous，therefore，thatwehavenosecurityforthefutureagainsttheprevalenceofanytheologicalerrorthateverhasprevailedintimepastamongChristianmen。WeareconfidentthattheworldwillnevergobacktothesolarsystemofPtolemy;norisourconfidenceintheleastshakenbythecircumstance，thatevensogreatamanasBaconrejectedthetheoryofGalileowithscorn;
forBaconhadnotallthemeansofarrivingatasoundconclusionwhicharewithinourreach，andwhichsecurepeoplewhowouldnothavebeenworthytomendhispensfromfallingintohismistakes。
ButwhenwereflectthatSirThomasMorewasreadytodieforthedoctrineoftransubstantiation，wecannotbutfeelsomedoubtwhetherthedoctrineoftransubstantiationmaynottriumphoverallopposition。Morewasamanofeminenttalents。Hehadalltheinformationonthesubjectthatwehave，orthat，whiletheworldlasts，anyhumanbeingwillhave。Thetext，\"Thisismybody，\"
wasinhisNewTestamentasitisinours。Theabsurdityoftheliteralinterpretationwasasgreatandasobviousinthesixteenthcenturyasitisnow。Noprogressthatsciencehasmade，orwillmake，canaddtowhatseemstoustheoverwhelmingforceoftheargumentagainsttherealpresence。Weare，therefore，unabletounderstandwhywhatSirThomasMorebelievedrespectingtransubstantiationmaynotbebelievedtotheendoftimebymenequalinabilitiesandhonestytoSirThomasMore。
ButSirThomasMoreisoneofthechoicespecimensofhumanwisdomandvirtue;andthedoctrineoftransubstantiationisakindofproofcharge。Afaithwhichstandsthattestwillstandanytest。ThepropheciesofBrothersandthemiraclesofPrinceHohenlohesinktotriflesinthecomparison。