ChapterXVII:ThatInTimesMarkedByEqualityOfConditionsAndScepticalOpinions，ItIsImportantToRemoveToADistanceTheObjectsOfHumanActionsIntheagesoffaiththefinalendoflifeisplacedbeyondlife。Themenofthoseagesthereforenaturally，andinamannerinvoluntarily，accustomthemselvestofixtheirgazeforalongcourseofyearsonsomeimmovableobject，towardswhichtheyareconstantlytending;andtheylearnbyinsensibledegreestorepressamultitudeofpettypassingdesires，inordertobethebetterabletocontentthatgreatandlastingdesirewhichpossessesthem。Whenthesesamemenengageintheaffairsofthisworld，thesamehabitsmaybetracedintheirconduct。Theyareapttosetupsomegeneralandcertainaimandendtotheiractionsherebelow，towardswhichalltheireffortsaredirected:
theydonotturnfromdaytodaytochasesomenovelobjectofdesire，buttheyhavesettleddesignswhichtheyareneverwearyofpursuing。Thisexplainswhyreligiousnationshavesooftenachievedsuchlastingresults:forwhilsttheywerethinkingonlyoftheotherworld，theyhadfoundoutthegreatsecretofsuccessinthis。Religionsgivemenageneralhabitofconductingthemselveswithaviewtofuturity:inthisrespecttheyarenotlessusefultohappinessinthislifethantofelicityhereafter;
andthisisoneoftheirchiefpoliticalcharacteristics。
Butinproportionasthelightoffaithgrowsdim，therangeofman’ssightiscircumscribed，asiftheendandaimofhumanactionsappearedeverydaytobemorewithinhisreach。Whenmenhaveonceallowedthemselvestothinknomoreofwhatistobefallthemafterlife，theyreadilylapseintothatcompleteandbrutalindifferencetofuturity，whichisbuttooconformabletosomepropensitiesofmankind。Assoonastheyhavelostthehabitofplacingtheirchiefhopesuponremoteevents，theynaturallyseektogratifywithoutdelaytheirsmallestdesires;
andnosoonerdotheydespairoflivingforever，thantheyaredisposedtoactasiftheyweretoexistbutforasingleday。
Inscepticalagesitisalwaysthereforetobefearedthatmenmayperpetuallygivewaytotheirdailycasualdesires;andthat，whollyrenouncingwhatevercannotbeacquiredwithoutprotractedeffort，theymayestablishnothinggreat，permanent，andcalm。
Ifthesocialconditionofapeople，underthesecircumstances，becomesdemocratic，thedangerwhichIherepointoutistherebyincreased。Wheneveryoneisconstantlystrivingtochangehisposition—whenanimmensefieldforcompetitionisthrownopentoall—whenwealthisamassedordissipatedintheshortestpossiblespaceoftimeamidsttheturmoilofdemocracy，visionsofsuddenandeasyfortunes—ofgreatpossessionseasilywonandlost—ofchance，underallitsforms—hauntthemind。
Theinstabilityofsocietyitselffostersthenaturalinstabilityofman’sdesires。Inthemidstoftheseperpetualfluctuationsofhislot，thepresentgrowsuponhismind，untilitconcealsfuturityfromhissight，andhislooksgonofurtherthanthemorrow。
Inthosecountriesinwhichunhappilyirreligionanddemocracycoexist，themostimportantdutyofphilosophersandofthoseinpoweristobealwaysstrivingtoplacetheobjectsofhumanactionsfarbeyondman’simmediaterange。Circumscribedbythecharacterofhiscountryandhisage，themoralistmustlearntovindicatehisprinciplesinthatposition。Hemustconstantlyendeavortoshowhiscontemporaries，that，eveninthemidstoftheperpetualcommotionaroundthem，itiseasierthantheythinktoconceiveandtoexecuteprotractedundertakings。Hemustteachthemthat，althoughtheaspectofmankindmayhavechanged，themethodsbywhichmenmayprovidefortheirprosperityinthisworldarestillthesame;andthatamongstdemocraticnations，aswellaselsewhere，itisonlybyresistingathousandpettyselfishpassionsofthehourthatthegeneralandunquenchablepassionforhappinesscanbesatisfied。
Thetaskofthoseinpowerisnotlessclearlymarkedout。
Atalltimesitisimportantthatthosewhogovernnationsshouldactwithaviewtothefuture:butthisisevenmorenecessaryindemocraticandscepticalagesthaninanyothers。Byactingthus，theleadingmenofdemocraciesnotonlymakepublicaffairsprosperous，buttheyalsoteachprivateindividuals，bytheirexample，theartofmanagingprivateconcerns。Abovealltheymuststriveasmuchaspossibletobanishchancefromthesphereofpolitics。Thesuddenandundeservedpromotionofacourtierproducesonlyatransientimpressioninanaristocraticcountry，becausetheaggregateinstitutionsandopinionsofthenationhabituallycompelmentoadvanceslowlyintrackswhichtheycannotgetoutof。Butnothingismoreperniciousthansimilarinstancesoffavorexhibitedtotheeyesofademocraticpeople:
theygivethelastimpulsetothepublicmindinadirectionwhereeverythinghurriesitonwards。Attimesofscepticismandequalitymoreespecially，thefavorofthepeopleoroftheprince，whichchancemayconferorchancewithhold，oughtnevertostandinlieuofattainmentsorservices。Itisdesirablethateveryadvancementshouldthereappeartobetheresultofsomeeffort;sothatnogreatnessshouldbeoftooeasyacquirement，andthatambitionshouldbeobligedtofixitsgazelonguponanobjectbeforeitisgratified。Governmentsmustapplythemselvestorestoretomenthatloveofthefuturewithwhichreligionandthestateofsocietynolongerinspirethem;
and，withoutsayingso，theymustpracticallyteachthecommunitydaybydaythatwealth，fame，andpoweraretherewardsoflabor—thatgreatsuccessstandsattheutmostrangeoflongdesires，andthatnothinglastingisobtainedbutwhatisobtainedbytoil。Whenmenhaveaccustomedthemselvestoforeseefromafarwhatislikelytobefallintheworldandtofeeduponhopes，theycanhardlyconfinetheirmindswithintheprecisecircumferenceoflife，andtheyarereadytobreaktheboundaryandcasttheirlooksbeyond。Idonotdoubtthat，bytrainingthemembersofacommunitytothinkoftheirfutureconditioninthisworld，theywouldbegraduallyandunconsciouslybroughtnearertoreligiousconvictions。Thusthemeanswhichallowmen，uptoacertainpoint，togowithoutreligion，areperhapsafteralltheonlymeanswestillpossessforbringingmankindbackbyalongandroundaboutpathtoastateoffaith。
ChapterXVIII:ThatAmongstTheAmericansAllHonestCallingsAreHonorableAmongstademocraticpeople，wherethereisnohereditarywealth，everymanworkstoearnaliving，orhasworked，orisbornofparentswhohaveworked。Thenotionoflaboristhereforepresentedtothemindoneverysideasthenecessary，natural，andhonestconditionofhumanexistence。Notonlyislabornotdishonorableamongstsuchapeople，butitisheldinhonor:theprejudiceisnotagainstit，butinitsfavor。IntheUnitedStatesawealthymanthinksthatheowesittopublicopiniontodevotehisleisuretosomekindofindustrialorcommercialpursuit，ortopublicbusiness。Hewouldthinkhimselfinbadreputeifheemployedhislifesolelyinliving。
Itisforthepurposeofescapingthisobligationtowork，thatsomanyrichAmericanscometoEurope，wheretheyfindsomescatteredremainsofaristocraticsociety，amongstwhichidlenessisstillheldinhonor。
Equalityofconditionsnotonlyennoblesthenotionoflaborinmen’sestimation，butitraisesthenotionoflaborasasourceofprofit。Inaristocraciesitisnotexactlylaborthatisdespised，butlaborwithaviewtoprofit。Laborishonorificinitself，whenitisundertakenatthesolebiddingofambitionorofvirtue。Yetinaristocraticsocietyitconstantlyhappensthathewhoworksforhonorisnotinsensibletotheattractionsofprofit。Butthesetwodesiresonlyintermingleintheinnermostdepthsofhissoul:hecarefullyhidesfromeveryeyethepointatwhichtheyjoin;hewouldfainconcealitfromhimself。Inaristocraticcountriestherearefewpublicofficerswhodonotaffecttoservetheircountrywithoutinterestedmotives。Theirsalaryisanincidentofwhichtheythinkbutlittle，andofwhichtheyalwaysaffectnottothinkatall。
Thusthenotionofprofitiskeptdistinctfromthatoflabor;
howevertheymaybeunitedinpointoffact，theyarenotthoughtoftogether。
Indemocraticcommunitiesthesetwonotionsare，onthecontrary，alwayspalpablyunited。Asthedesireofwell—beingisuniversal—asfortunesareslenderorfluctuating—aseveryonewantseithertoincreasehisownresources，ortoprovidefreshonesforhisprogeny，menclearlyseethatitisprofitwhich，ifnotwholly，atleastpartially，leadsthemtowork。Eventhosewhoareprincipallyactuatedbytheloveoffamearenecessarilymadefamiliarwiththethoughtthattheyarenotexclusivelyactuatedbythatmotive;andtheydiscoverthatthedesireofgettingalivingismingledintheirmindswiththedesireofmakinglifeillustrious。
Assoonas，ontheonehand，laborisheldbythewholecommunitytobeanhonorablenecessityofman’scondition，and，ontheother，assoonaslaborisalwaysostensiblyperformed，whollyorinpart，forthepurposeofearningremuneration，theimmenseintervalwhichseparateddifferentcallingsinaristocraticsocietiesdisappears。Ifallarenotalike，allatleasthaveonefeatureincommon。Noprofessionexistsinwhichmendonotworkformoney;andtheremunerationwhichiscommontothemallgivesthemallanairofresemblance。ThisservestoexplaintheopinionswhichtheAmericansentertainwithrespecttodifferentcallings。InAmericanooneisdegradedbecauseheworks，foreveryoneabouthimworksalso;norisanyonehumiliatedbythenotionofreceivingpay，forthePresidentoftheUnitedStatesalsoworksforpay。Heispaidforcommanding，othermenforobeyingorders。IntheUnitedStatesprofessionsaremoreorlesslaborious，moreorlessprofitable;buttheyarenevereitherhighorlow:everyhonestcallingishonorable。
BookTwo—ChaptersXIX—XX
ChapterXIX:ThatAlmostAllTheAmericansFollowIndustrialCallingsAgricultureis，perhaps，ofalltheusefulartsthatwhichimprovesmostslowlyamongstdemocraticnations。Frequently，indeed，itwouldseemtobestationary，becauseotherartsaremakingrapidstridestowardsperfection。Ontheotherhand，almostallthetastesandhabitswhichtheequalityofconditionengendersnaturallyleadmentocommercialandindustrialoccupations。
Supposeanactive，enlightened，andfreeman，enjoyingacompetency，butfullofdesires:heistoopoortoliveinidleness;heisrichenoughtofeelhimselfprotectedfromtheimmediatefearofwant，andhethinkshowhecanbetterhiscondition。Thismanhasconceivedatasteforphysicalgratifications，whichthousandsofhisfellow—menindulgeinaroundhim;hehashimselfbeguntoenjoythesepleasures，andheiseagertoincreasehismeansofsatisfyingthesetastesmorecompletely。Butlifeisslippingaway，timeisurgent—towhatishetoturn？Thecultivationofthegroundpromisesanalmostcertainresulttohisexertions，butaslowone;menarenotenrichedbyitwithoutpatienceandtoil。Agricultureisthereforeonlysuitedtothosewhohavealreadylarge，superfluouswealth，ortothosewhosepenurybidsthemonlyseekabaresubsistence。Thechoiceofsuchamanaswehavesupposedissoonmade;hesellshisplotofground，leaveshisdwelling，andembarksinsomehazardousbutlucrativecalling。Democraticcommunitiesaboundinmenofthiskind;andinproportionastheequalityofconditionsbecomesgreater，theirmultitudeincreases。Thusdemocracynotonlyswellsthenumberofworkingmen，butitleadsmentopreferonekindoflabortoanother;andwhilstitdivertsthemfromagriculture，itencouragestheirtasteforcommerceandmanufactures。*a[Footnotea:Ithasoftenbeenremarkedthatmanufacturersandmercantilemenareinordinatelyaddictedtophysicalgratifications，andthishasbeenattributedtocommerceandmanufactures;butthatis，Iapprehend，totaketheeffectforthecause。Thetasteforphysicalgratificationsisnotimpartedtomenbycommerceormanufactures，butitisratherthistastewhichleadsmentoembarkincommerceandmanufactures，asameansbywhichtheyhopetosatisfythemselvesmorepromptlyandmorecompletely。Ifcommerceandmanufacturesincreasethedesireofwell—being，itisbecauseeverypassiongathersstrengthinproportionasitiscultivated，andisincreasedbyalltheeffortsmadetosatiateit。Allthecauseswhichmaketheloveofworldlywelfarepredominateintheheartofmanarefavorabletothegrowthofcommerceandmanufactures。Equalityofconditionsisoneofthosecauses;itencouragestrade，notdirectlybygivingmenatasteforbusiness，butindirectlybystrengtheningandexpandingintheirmindsatasteforprosperity。]
Thisspiritmaybeobservedevenamongsttherichestmembersofthecommunity。Indemocraticcountries，howeveropulentamanissupposedtobe，heisalmostalwaysdiscontentedwithhisfortune，becausehefindsthatheislessrichthanhisfatherwas，andhefearsthathissonswillbelessrichthanhimself。
Mostrichmenindemocraciesarethereforeconstantlyhauntedbythedesireofobtainingwealth，andtheynaturallyturntheirattentiontotradeandmanufactures，whichappeartoofferthereadiestandmostpowerfulmeansofsuccess。Inthisrespecttheysharetheinstinctsofthepoor，withoutfeelingthesamenecessities;sayrather，theyfeelthemostimperiousofallnecessities，thatofnotsinkingintheworld。
Inaristocraciestherichareatthesametimethosewhogovern。Theattentionwhichtheyunceasinglydevotetoimportantpublicaffairsdivertsthemfromthelessercareswhichtradeandmanufacturesdemand。Ifthewillofanindividualhappens，nevertheless，toturnhisattentiontobusiness，thewillofthebodytowhichhebelongswillimmediatelydebarhimfrompursuingit;forhowevermenmaydeclaimagainsttheruleofnumbers，theycannotwhollyescapetheirsway;andevenamongstthosearistocraticbodieswhichmostobstinatelyrefusetoacknowledgetherightsofthemajorityofthenation，aprivatemajorityisformedwhichgovernstherest。*b[Footnoteb:Somearistocracies，however，havedevotedthemselveseagerlytocommerce，andhavecultivatedmanufactureswithsuccess。Thehistoryoftheworldmightfurnishseveralconspicuousexamples。But，generallyspeaking，itmaybeaffirmedthatthearistocraticprincipleisnotfavorabletothegrowthoftradeandmanufactures。Moneyedaristocraciesaretheonlyexceptiontotherule。Amongstsucharistocraciestherearehardlyanydesireswhichdonotrequirewealthtosatisfythem;
theloveofrichesbecomes，sotospeak，thehighroadofhumanpassions，whichiscrossedbyorconnectedwithalllessertracks。Theloveofmoneyandthethirstforthatdistinctionwhichattachestopower，arethensocloselyintermixedinthesamesouls，thatitbecomesdifficulttodiscoverwhethermengrowcovetousfromambition，orwhethertheyareambitiousfromcovetousness。ThisisthecaseinEngland，wheremenseektogetrichinordertoarriveatdistinction，andseekdistinctionsasamanifestationoftheirwealth。Themindisthenseizedbybothends，andhurriedintotradeandmanufactures，whicharetheshortestroadsthatleadtoopulence。
This，however，strikesmeasanexceptionalandtransitorycircumstance。Whenwealthisbecometheonlysymbolofaristocracy，itisverydifficultforthewealthytomaintainsolepossessionofpoliticalpower，totheexclusionofallothermen。Thearistocracyofbirthandpuredemocracyareatthetwoextremesofthesocialandpoliticalstateofnations:betweenthemmoneyedaristocracyfindsitsplace。Thelatterapproximatestothearistocracyofbirthbyconferringgreatprivilegesonasmallnumberofpersons;itsofarbelongstothedemocraticelement，thattheseprivilegesmaybesuccessivelyacquiredbyall。Itfrequentlyformsanaturaltransitionbetweenthesetwoconditionsofsociety，anditisdifficulttosaywhetheritclosesthereignofaristocraticinstitutions，orwhetheritalreadyopenstheneweraofdemocracy。]
Indemocraticcountries，wheremoneydoesnotleadthosewhopossessittopoliticalpower，butoftenremovesthemfromit，therichdonotknowhowtospendtheirleisure。Theyaredrivenintoactivelifebytheinquietudeandthegreatnessoftheirdesires，bytheextentoftheirresources，andbythetasteforwhatisextraordinary，whichisalmostalwaysfeltbythosewhorise，bywhatsoevermeans，abovethecrowd。Tradeistheonlyroadopentothem。Indemocraciesnothingismoregreatormorebrilliantthancommerce:itattractstheattentionofthepublic，andfillstheimaginationofthemultitude;allenergeticpassionsaredirectedtowardsit。Neithertheirownprejudices，northoseofanybodyelse，canpreventtherichfromdevotingthemselvestoit。Thewealthymembersofdemocraciesneverformabodywhichhasmannersandregulationsofitsown;theopinionspeculiartotheirclassdonotrestrainthem，andthecommonopinionsoftheircountryurgethemon。Moreover，asallthelargefortuneswhicharetobemetwithinademocraticcommunityareofcommercialgrowth，manygenerationsmustsucceedeachotherbeforetheirpossessorscanhaveentirelylaidasidetheirhabitsofbusiness。
Circumscribedwithinthenarrowspacewhichpoliticsleavethem，richmenindemocracieseagerlyembarkincommercialenterprise:theretheycanextendandemploytheirnaturaladvantages;andindeeditisevenbytheboldnessandthemagnitudeoftheirindustrialspeculationsthatwemaymeasuretheslightesteeminwhichproductiveindustrywouldhavebeenheldbythem，iftheyhadbeenbornamidstanaristocracy。
Asimilarobservationislikewiseapplicabletoallmenlivingindemocracies，whethertheybepoororrich。Thosewholiveinthemidstofdemocraticfluctuationshavealwaysbeforetheireyesthephantomofchance;andtheyendbylikingallundertakingsinwhichchanceplaysapart。Theyarethereforeallledtoengageincommerce，notonlyforthesakeoftheprofititholdsouttothem，butfortheloveoftheconstantexcitementoccasionedbythatpursuit。
TheUnitedStatesofAmericahaveonlybeenemancipatedforhalfacentury[in1840]fromthestateofcolonialdependenceinwhichtheystoodtoGreatBritain;thenumberoflargefortunesthereissmall，andcapitalisstillscarce。YetnopeopleintheworldhasmadesuchrapidprogressintradeandmanufacturesastheAmericans:theyconstituteatthepresentdaythesecondmaritimenationintheworld;andalthoughtheirmanufactureshavetostrugglewithalmostinsurmountablenaturalimpediments，theyarenotpreventedfrommakinggreatanddailyadvances。IntheUnitedStatesthegreatestundertakingsandspeculationsareexecutedwithoutdifficulty，becausethewholepopulationisengagedinproductiveindustry，andbecausethepoorestaswellasthemostopulentmembersofthecommonwealtharereadytocombinetheireffortsforthesepurposes。Theconsequenceis，thatastrangerisconstantlyamazedbytheimmensepublicworksexecutedbyanationwhichcontains，sotospeak，norichmen。
TheAmericansarrivedbutasyesterdayontheterritorywhichtheyinhabit，andtheyhavealreadychangedthewholeorderofnaturefortheirownadvantage。TheyhavejoinedtheHudsontotheMississippi，andmadetheAtlanticOceancommunicatewiththeGulfofMexico，acrossacontinentofmorethanfivehundredleaguesinextentwhichseparatesthetwoseas。ThelongestrailroadswhichhavebeenconstructeduptothepresenttimeareinAmerica。ButwhatmostastonishesmeintheUnitedStates，isnotsomuchthemarvellousgrandeurofsomeundertakings，astheinnumerablemultitudeofsmallones。AlmostallthefarmersoftheUnitedStatescombinesometradewithagriculture;mostofthemmakeagricultureitselfatrade。ItseldomhappensthatanAmericanfarmersettlesforgooduponthelandwhichheoccupies:
especiallyinthedistrictsoftheFarWesthebringslandintotillageinordertosellitagain，andnottofarmit:hebuildsafarmhouseonthespeculationthat，asthestateofthecountrywillsoonbechangedbytheincreaseofpopulation，agoodpricewillbegottenforit。EveryyearaswarmoftheinhabitantsoftheNortharriveintheSouthernStates，andsettleinthepartswherethecottonplantandthesugar—canegrow。Thesemencultivatethesoilinordertomakeitproduceinafewyearsenoughtoenrichthem;andtheyalreadylookforwardtothetimewhentheymayreturnhometoenjoythecompetencythusacquired。
ThustheAmericanscarrytheirbusiness—likequalitiesintoagriculture;andtheirtradingpassionsaredisplayedinthatasintheirotherpursuits。
TheAmericansmakeimmenseprogressinproductiveindustry，becausetheyalldevotethemselvestoitatonce;andforthissamereasontheyareexposedtoveryunexpectedandformidableembarrassments。Astheyareallengagedincommerce，theircommercialaffairsareaffectedbysuchvariousandcomplexcausesthatitisimpossibletoforeseewhatdifficultiesmayarise。Astheyareallmoreorlessengagedinproductiveindustry，attheleastshockgiventobusinessallprivatefortunesareputinjeopardyatthesametime，andtheStateisshaken。Ibelievethatthereturnofthesecommercialpanicsisanendemicdiseaseofthedemocraticnationsofourage。Itmayberenderedlessdangerous，butitcannotbecured;becauseitdoesnotoriginateinaccidentalcircumstances，butinthetemperamentofthesenations。
ChapterXX:ThatAristocracyMayBeEngenderedByManufacturesIhaveshownthatdemocracyisfavorabletothegrowthofmanufactures，andthatitincreaseswithoutlimitthenumbersofthemanufacturingclasses:weshallnowseebywhatsideroadmanufacturersmaypossiblyintheirturnbringmenbacktoaristocracy。Itisacknowledgedthatwhenaworkmanisengagedeverydayuponthesamedetail，thewholecommodityisproducedwithgreaterease，promptitude，andeconomy。Itislikewiseacknowledgedthatthecostoftheproductionofmanufacturedgoodsisdiminishedbytheextentoftheestablishmentinwhichtheyaremade，andbytheamountofcapitalemployedorofcredit。Thesetruthshadlongbeenimperfectlydiscerned，butinourtimetheyhavebeendemonstrated。Theyhavebeenalreadyappliedtomanyveryimportantkindsofmanufactures，andthehumblestwillgraduallybegovernedbythem。Iknowofnothinginpoliticswhichdeservestofixtheattentionofthelegislatormorecloselythanthesetwonewaxiomsofthescienceofmanufactures。
Whenaworkmanisunceasinglyandexclusivelyengagedinthefabricationofonething，heultimatelydoeshisworkwithsingulardexterity;butatthesametimehelosesthegeneralfacultyofapplyinghismindtothedirectionofthework。Heeverydaybecomesmoreadroitandlessindustrious;sothatitmaybesaidofhim，thatinproportionastheworkmanimprovesthemanisdegraded。Whatcanbeexpectedofamanwhohasspenttwentyyearsofhislifeinmakingheadsforpins？andtowhatcanthatmightyhumanintelligence，whichhassooftenstirredtheworld，beappliedinhim，exceptitbetoinvestigatethebestmethodofmakingpins’heads？Whenaworkmanhasspentaconsiderableportionofhisexistenceinthismanner，histhoughtsareforeversetupontheobjectofhisdailytoil;hisbodyhascontractedcertainfixedhabits，whichitcannevershakeoff:inaword，henolongerbelongstohimself，buttothecallingwhichhehaschosen。Itisinvainthatlawsandmannershavebeenatthepainstolevelallbarriersroundsuchaman，andtoopentohimoneverysideathousanddifferentpathstofortune;atheoryofmanufacturesmorepowerfulthanmannersandlawsbindshimtoacraft，andfrequentlytoaspot，whichhecannotleave:itassignstohimacertainplaceinsociety，beyondwhichhecannotgo:inthemidstofuniversalmovementithasrenderedhimstationary。
Inproportionastheprincipleofthedivisionoflaborismoreextensivelyapplied，theworkmanbecomesmoreweak，morenarrow—minded，andmoredependent。Theartadvances，theartisanrecedes。Ontheotherhand，inproportionasitbecomesmoremanifestthattheproductionsofmanufacturesarebysomuchthecheaperandbetterasthemanufactureislargerandtheamountofcapitalemployedmoreconsiderable，wealthyandeducatedmencomeforwardtoembarkinmanufactureswhichwereheretoforeabandonedtopoororignoranthandicraftsmen。Themagnitudeoftheeffortsrequired，andtheimportanceoftheresultstobeobtained，attractthem。Thusattheverytimeatwhichthescienceofmanufactureslowerstheclassofworkmen，itraisestheclassofmasters。
Whereastheworkmanconcentrateshisfacultiesmoreandmoreuponthestudyofasingledetail，themastersurveysamoreextensivewhole，andthemindofthelatterisenlargedinproportionasthatoftheformerisnarrowed。Inashorttimetheonewillrequirenothingbutphysicalstrengthwithoutintelligence;theotherstandsinneedofscience，andalmostofgenius，toinsuresuccess。Thismanresemblesmoreandmoretheadministratorofavastempire—thatman，abrute。Themasterandtheworkmanhavethenherenosimilarity，andtheirdifferencesincreaseeveryday。Theyareonlyconnectedasthetworingsattheextremitiesofalongchain。Eachofthemfillsthestationwhichismadeforhim，andoutofwhichhedoesnotget:theoneiscontinually，closely，andnecessarilydependentupontheother，andseemsasmuchborntoobeyasthatotheristocommand。Whatisthisbutaristocracy？
Astheconditionsofmenconstitutingthenationbecomemoreandmoreequal，thedemandformanufacturedcommoditiesbecomesmoregeneralandmoreextensive;andthecheapnesswhichplacestheseobjectswithinthereachofslenderfortunesbecomesagreatelementofsuccess。Hencethereareeverydaymoremenofgreatopulenceandeducationwhodevotetheirwealthandknowledgetomanufactures;andwhoseek，byopeninglargeestablishments，andbyastrictdivisionoflabor，tomeetthefreshdemandswhicharemadeonallsides。Thus，inproportionasthemassofthenationturnstodemocracy，thatparticularclasswhichisengagedinmanufacturesbecomesmorearistocratic。
Mengrowmorealikeintheone—moredifferentintheother;andinequalityincreasesinthelessnumerousclassinthesameratioinwhichitdecreasesinthecommunity。Henceitwouldappear，onsearchingtothebottom，thataristocracyshouldnaturallyspringoutofthebosomofdemocracy。
Butthiskindofaristocracybynomeansresemblesthosekindswhichprecededit。Itwillbeobservedatonce，thatasitappliesexclusivelytomanufacturesandtosomemanufacturingcallings，itisamonstrousexceptioninthegeneralaspectofsociety。Thesmallaristocraticsocietieswhichareformedbysomemanufacturersinthemidstoftheimmensedemocracyofourage，contain，likethegreataristocraticsocietiesofformerages，somemenwhoareveryopulent，andamultitudewhoarewretchedlypoor。Thepoorhavefewmeansofescapingfromtheirconditionandbecomingrich;buttherichareconstantlybecomingpoor，ortheygiveupbusinesswhentheyhaverealizedafortune。
Thustheelementsofwhichtheclassofthepooriscomposedarefixed;buttheelementsofwhichtheclassoftherichiscomposedarenotso。Tosaythetruth，thoughtherearerichmen，theclassofrichmendoesnotexist;fortheserichindividualshavenofeelingsorpurposesincommon，nomutualtraditionsormutualhopes;therearethereforemembers，butnobody。
Notonlyaretherichnotcompactlyunitedamongstthemselves，butthereisnorealbondbetweenthemandthepoor。
Theirrelativepositionisnotapermanentone;theyareconstantlydrawntogetherorseparatedbytheirinterests。Theworkmanisgenerallydependentonthemaster，butnotonanyparticularmaster;thesetwomenmeetinthefactory，butknownoteachotherelsewhere;andwhilsttheycomeintocontactononepoint，theystandverywideapartonallothers。Themanufacturerasksnothingoftheworkmanbuthislabor;theworkmanexpectsnothingfromhimbuthiswages。Theonecontractsnoobligationtoprotect，northeothertodefend;andtheyarenotpermanentlyconnectedeitherbyhabitorbyduty。
Thearistocracycreatedbybusinessrarelysettlesinthemidstofthemanufacturingpopulationwhichitdirects;theobjectisnottogovernthatpopulation，buttouseit。Anaristocracythusconstitutedcanhavenogreatholduponthosewhomitemploys;andevenifitsucceedinretainingthematonemoment，theyescapethenext;itknowsnothowtowill，anditcannotact。Theterritorialaristocracyofformerageswaseitherboundbylaw，orthoughtitselfboundbyusage，tocometothereliefofitsserving—men，andtosuccortheirdistresses。Butthemanufacturingaristocracyofouragefirstimpoverishesanddebasesthemenwhoserveit，andthenabandonsthemtobesupportedbythecharityofthepublic。Thisisanaturalconsequenceofwhathasbeensaidbefore。Betweentheworkmenandthemastertherearefrequentrelations，butnorealpartnership。
Iamofopinion，uponthewhole，thatthemanufacturingaristocracywhichisgrowingupunderoureyesisoneoftheharshestwhicheverexistedintheworld;butatthesametimeitisoneofthemostconfinedandleastdangerous。Neverthelessthefriendsofdemocracyshouldkeeptheireyesanxiouslyfixedinthisdirection;forifeverapermanentinequalityofconditionsandaristocracyagainpenetrateintotheworld，itmaybepredictedthatthisisthechannelbywhichtheywillenter。
BookThree—ChaptersI—IV
InfluenceOfDemocracyOnManners，ProperlySoCalledChapterI:ThatMannersAreSoftenedAsSocialConditionsBecomeMoreEqualWeperceivethatforseveralagessocialconditionshavetendedtoequality，andwediscoverthatinthecourseofthesameperiodthemannersofsocietyhavebeensoftened。Arethesetwothingsmerelycontemporaneous，ordoesanysecretlinkexistbetweenthem，sothattheonecannotgoonwithoutmakingtheotheradvance？Severalcausesmayconcurtorenderthemannersofapeoplelessrude;but，ofallthesecauses，themostpowerfulappearstometobetheequalityofconditions。
Equalityofconditionsandgrowingcivilityinmannersare，then，inmyeyes，notonlycontemporaneousoccurrences，butcorrelativefacts。Whenthefabulistsseektointerestusintheactionsofbeasts，theyinvestthemwithhumannotionsandpassions;thepoetswhosingofspiritsandangelsdothesame;thereisnowretchednesssodeep，noranyhappinesssopure，astofillthehumanmindandtouchtheheart，unlessweareourselveshelduptoourowneyesunderotherfeatures。
Thisisstrictlyapplicabletothesubjectuponwhichweareatpresentengaged。Whenallmenareirrevocablymarshalledinanaristocraticcommunity，accordingtotheirprofessions，theirproperty，andtheirbirth，themembersofeachclass，consideringthemselvesaschildrenofthesamefamily，cherishaconstantandlivelysympathytowardseachother，whichcanneverbefeltinanequaldegreebythecitizensofademocracy。Butthesamefeelingdoesnotexistbetweentheseveralclassestowardseachother。Amongstanaristocraticpeopleeachcastehasitsownopinions，feelings，rights，manners，andmodesofliving。Thusthemenofwhomeachcasteiscomposeddonotresemblethemassoftheirfellow—citizens;theydonotthinkorfeelinthesamemanner，andtheyscarcelybelievethattheybelongtothesamehumanrace。Theycannot，therefore，thoroughlyunderstandwhatothersfeel，norjudgeofothersbythemselves。Yettheyaresometimeseagertolendeachothermutualaid;butthisisnotcontrarytomypreviousobservation。Thesearistocraticinstitutions，whichmadethebeingsofoneandthesameracesodifferent，neverthelessboundthemtoeachotherbyclosepoliticalties。Althoughtheserfhadnonaturalinterestinthefateofnobles，hedidnotthelessthinkhimselfobligedtodevotehispersontotheserviceofthatnoblewhohappenedtobehislord;andalthoughthenobleheldhimselftobeofadifferentnaturefromthatofhisserfs，heneverthelessheldthathisdutyandhishonorconstrainedhimtodefend，attheriskofhisownlife，thosewhodweltuponhisdomains。
Itisevidentthatthesemutualobligationsdidnotoriginateinthelawofnature，butinthelawofsociety;andthattheclaimofsocialdutywasmorestringentthanthatofmerehumanity。Theseserviceswerenotsupposedtobeduefrommantoman，buttothevassalortothelord。Feudalinstitutionsawakenedalivelysympathyforthesufferingsofcertainmen，butnoneatallforthemiseriesofmankind。Theyinfusedgenerosityratherthanmildnessintothemannersofthetime，andalthoughtheypromptedmentogreatactsofself—devotion，theyengenderednorealsympathies;forrealsympathiescanonlyexistbetweenthosewhoarealike;andinaristocraticagesmenacknowledgenonebutthemembersoftheirowncastetobelikethemselves。