WhenIarrivedforthefirsttimeatNewYork，bythatpartoftheAtlanticOceanwhichiscalledtheNarrows，Iwassurprisedtoperceivealongtheshore，atsomedistancefromthecity，aconsiderablenumberoflittlepalacesofwhitemarble，severalofwhichwerebuiltafterthemodelsofancientarchitecture。WhenIwentthenextdaytoinspectmorecloselythebuildingwhichhadparticularlyattractedmynotice，Ifoundthatitswallswereofwhitewashedbrick，anditscolumnsofpaintedwood。AlltheedificeswhichIhadadmiredthenightbeforewereofthesamekind。
Thesocialconditionandtheinstitutionsofdemocracyimpart，moreover，certainpeculiartendenciestoalltheimitativearts，whichitiseasytopointout。Theyfrequentlywithdrawthemfromthedelineationofthesoultofixthemexclusivelyonthatofthebody:andtheysubstitutetherepresentationofmotionandsensationforthatofsentimentandthought:inaword，theyputtherealintheplaceoftheideal。
IdoubtwhetherRaphaelstudiedtheminutestintricaciesofthemechanismofthehumanbodyasthoroughlyasthedraughtsmenofourowntime。Hedidnotattachthesameimportancetorigorousaccuracyonthispointastheydo，becauseheaspiredtosurpassnature。Hesoughttomakeofmansomethingwhichshouldbesuperiortoman，andtoembellishbeauty’sself。Davidandhisscholarswere，onthecontrary，asgoodanatomistsastheyweregoodpainters。Theywonderfullydepictedthemodelswhichtheyhadbeforetheireyes，buttheyrarelyimaginedanythingbeyondthem:theyfollowednaturewithfidelity:whilstRaphaelsoughtforsomethingbetterthannature。Theyhaveleftusanexactportraitureofman;buthedisclosesinhisworksaglimpseoftheDivinity。Thisremarkastothemanneroftreatingasubjectisnolessapplicabletothechoiceofit。ThepaintersoftheMiddleAgesgenerallysoughtfarabovethemselves，andawayfromtheirowntime，formightysubjects，whichlefttotheirimaginationanunboundedrange。Ourpaintersfrequentlyemploytheirtalentsintheexactimitationofthedetailsofprivatelife，whichtheyhavealwaysbeforetheireyes;andtheyareforevercopyingtrivialobjects，theoriginalsofwhichareonlytooabundantinnature。
ChapterXII:WhyTheAmericansRaiseSomeMonumentsSoInsignificant，AndOthersSoImportantIhavejustobserved，thatindemocraticagesmonumentsoftheartstendtobecomemorenumerousandlessimportant。Inowhastentopointouttheexceptiontothisrule。Inademocraticcommunityindividualsareverypowerless;buttheStatewhichrepresentsthemall，andcontainsthemallinitsgrasp，isverypowerful。Nowheredocitizensappearsoinsignificantasinademocraticnation;nowheredoesthenationitselfappeargreater，ordoesthemindmoreeasilytakeinawidegeneralsurveyofit。
Indemocraticcommunitiestheimaginationiscompressedwhenmenconsiderthemselves;itexpandsindefinitelywhentheythinkoftheState。Henceitisthatthesamemenwholiveonasmallscaleinnarrowdwellings，frequentlyaspiretogiganticsplendorintheerectionoftheirpublicmonuments。
TheAmericanstracedoutthecircuitofanimmensecityonthesitewhichtheyintendedtomaketheircapital，butwhich，uptothepresenttime，ishardlymoredenselypeopledthanPontoise，though，accordingtothem，itwillonedaycontainamillionofinhabitants。Theyhavealreadyrooteduptreesfortenmilesround，lesttheyshouldinterferewiththefuturecitizensofthisimaginarymetropolis。TheyhaveerectedamagnificentpalaceforCongressinthecentreofthecity，andhavegivenitthepompousnameoftheCapitol。TheseveralStatesoftheUnionareeverydayplanninganderectingforthemselvesprodigiousundertakings，whichwouldastonishtheengineersofthegreatEuropeannations。Thusdemocracynotonlyleadsmentoavastnumberofinconsiderableproductions;italsoleadsthemtoraisesomemonumentsonthelargestscale:butbetweenthesetwoextremesthereisablank。Afewscatteredremainsofenormousbuildingscanthereforeteachusnothingofthesocialconditionandtheinstitutionsofthepeoplebywhomtheywereraised。Imayadd，thoughtheremarkleadsmetostepoutofmysubject，thattheydonotmakeusbetteracquaintedwithitsgreatness，itscivilization，anditsrealprosperity。
Whensoeverapowerofanykindshallbeabletomakeawholepeopleco—operateinasingleundertaking，thatpower，withalittleknowledgeandagreatdealoftime，willsucceedinobtainingsomethingenormousfromtheco—operationofeffortssomultiplied。Butthisdoesnotleadtotheconclusionthatthepeoplewasveryhappy，veryenlightened，orevenverystrong。
TheSpaniardsfoundtheCityofMexicofullofmagnificenttemplesandvastpalaces;butthatdidnotpreventCortesfromconqueringtheMexicanEmpirewith600footsoldiersandsixteenhorses。IftheRomanshadbeenbetteracquaintedwiththelawsofhydraulics，theywouldnothaveconstructedalltheaqueductswhichsurroundtheruinsoftheircities—theywouldhavemadeabetteruseoftheirpowerandtheirwealth。Iftheyhadinventedthesteam—engine，perhapstheywouldnothaveextendedtotheextremitiesoftheirempirethoselongartificialroadswhicharecalledRomanroads。Thesethingsareatoncethesplendidmemorialsoftheirignoranceandoftheirgreatness。Apeoplewhichshouldleavenoothervestigeofitstrackthanafewleadenpipesintheearthandafewironrodsuponitssurface，mighthavebeenmorethemasterofnaturethantheRomans。
BookOne—ChaptersXIII—XV
ChapterXIII:LiteraryCharacteristicsOfDemocraticAgesWhenatravellergoesintoabookseller’sshopintheUnitedStates，andexaminestheAmericanbooksupontheshelves，thenumberofworksappearsextremelygreat;whilstthatofknownauthorsappears，onthecontrary，tobeextremelysmall。Hewillfirstmeetwithanumberofelementarytreatises，destinedtoteachtherudimentsofhumanknowledge。MostofthesebooksarewritteninEurope;theAmericansreprintthem，adaptingthemtotheirowncountry。Nextcomesanenormousquantityofreligiousworks，Bibles，sermons，edifyinganecdotes，controversialdivinity，andreportsofcharitablesocieties;lastly，appearsthelongcatalogueofpoliticalpamphlets。InAmerica，partiesdonotwritebookstocombateachothers’opinions，butpamphletswhicharecirculatedforadaywithincrediblerapidity，andthenexpire。Inthemidstofalltheseobscureproductionsofthehumanbrainaretobefoundthemoreremarkableworksofthatsmallnumberofauthors，whosenamesare，oroughttobe，knowntoEuropeans。
AlthoughAmericaisperhapsinourdaysthecivilizedcountryinwhichliteratureisleastattendedto，alargenumberofpersonsareneverthelesstobefoundtherewhotakeaninterestintheproductionsofthemind，andwhomakethem，ifnotthestudyoftheirlives，atleastthecharmoftheirleisurehours。ButEnglandsuppliesthesereaderswiththelargerportionofthebookswhichtheyrequire。AlmostallimportantEnglishbooksarerepublishedintheUnitedStates。TheliterarygeniusofGreatBritainstilldartsitsraysintotherecessesoftheforestsoftheNewWorld。Thereishardlyapioneer’shutwhichdoesnotcontainafewoddvolumesofShakespeare。I
rememberthatIreadthefeudalplayofHenryVforthefirsttimeinaloghouse。
NotonlydotheAmericansconstantlydrawuponthetreasuresofEnglishliterature，butitmaybesaidwithtruththattheyfindtheliteratureofEnglandgrowingontheirownsoil。ThelargerpartofthatsmallnumberofmenintheUnitedStateswhoareengagedinthecompositionofliteraryworksareEnglishinsubstance，andstillmoresoinform。Thustheytransportintothemidstofdemocracytheideasandliteraryfashionswhicharecurrentamongstthearistocraticnationtheyhavetakenfortheirmodel。Theypaintwithcolorsborrowedfromforeignmanners;andastheyhardlyeverrepresentthecountrytheywereborninasitreallyis，theyareseldompopularthere。ThecitizensoftheUnitedStatesarethemselvessoconvincedthatitisnotforthemthatbooksarepublished，thatbeforetheycanmakeuptheirmindsuponthemeritofoneoftheirauthors，theygenerallywaittillhisfamehasbeenratifiedinEngland，justasinpicturestheauthorofanoriginalisheldtobeentitledtojudgeofthemeritofacopy。TheinhabitantsoftheUnitedStateshavethenatpresent，properlyspeaking，noliterature。TheonlyauthorswhomIacknowledgeasAmericanarethejournalists。Theyindeedarenotgreatwriters，buttheyspeakthelanguageoftheircountrymen，andmakethemselvesheardbythem。Otherauthorsarealiens;theyaretotheAmericanswhattheimitatorsoftheGreeksandRomansweretousattherevivaloflearning—anobjectofcuriosity，notofgeneralsympathy。Theyamusethemind，buttheydonotactuponthemannersofthepeople。
Ihavealreadysaidthatthisstateofthingsisveryfarfromoriginatingindemocracyalone，andthatthecausesofitmustbesoughtforinseveralpeculiarcircumstancesindependentofthedemocraticprinciple。IftheAmericans，retainingthesamelawsandsocialcondition，hadhadadifferentorigin，andhadbeentransportedintoanothercountry，Idonotquestionthattheywouldhavehadaliterature。Evenastheynoware，Iamconvincedthattheywillultimatelyhaveone;butitscharacterwillbedifferentfromthatwhichmarkstheAmericanliteraryproductionsofourtime，andthatcharacterwillbepeculiarlyitsown。Norisitimpossibletotracethischaracterbeforehand。
Isupposeanaristocraticpeopleamongstwhomlettersarecultivated;thelaborsofthemind，aswellastheaffairsofstate，areconductedbyarulingclassinsociety。Theliteraryaswellasthepoliticalcareerisalmostentirelyconfinedtothisclass，ortothosenearesttoitinrank。Thesepremisessufficetogivemeakeytoalltherest。Whenasmallnumberofthesamemenareengagedatthesametimeuponthesameobjects，theyeasilyconcertwithoneanother，andagreeuponcertainleadingruleswhicharetogovernthemeachandall。Iftheobjectwhichattractstheattentionofthesemenisliterature，theproductionsofthemindwillsoonbesubjectedbythemtoprecisecanons，fromwhichitwillnolongerbeallowabletodepart。Ifthesemenoccupyahereditarypositioninthecountry，theywillbenaturallyinclined，notonlytoadoptacertainnumberoffixedrulesforthemselves，buttofollowthosewhichtheirforefatherslaiddownfortheirownguidance;theircodewillbeatoncestrictandtraditional。Astheyarenotnecessarilyengrossedbythecaresofdailylife—astheyhaveneverbeenso，anymorethantheirfatherswerebeforethem—
theyhavelearnedtotakeaninterest，forseveralgenerationsback，inthelaborsofthemind。Theyhavelearnedtounderstandliteratureasanart，toloveitintheendforitsownsake，andtofeelascholar—likesatisfactioninseeingmenconformtoitsrules。Noristhisall:themenofwhomIspeakbeganandwillendtheirlivesineasyorinaffluentcircumstances;hencetheyhavenaturallyconceivedatasteforchoicegratifications，andaloveofrefinedanddelicatepleasures。Naymore，akindofindolenceofmindandheart，whichtheyfrequentlycontractinthemidstofthislongandpeacefulenjoymentofsomuchwelfare，leadsthemtoputaside，evenfromtheirpleasures，whatevermightbetoostartlingortooacute。Theyhadratherbeamusedthanintenselyexcited;theywishtobeinterested，butnottobecarriedaway。
Nowletusfancyagreatnumberofliteraryperformancesexecutedbythemen，orforthemen，whomIhavejustdescribed，andweshallreadilyconceiveastyleofliteratureinwhicheverythingwillberegularandprearranged。Theslightestworkwillbecarefullytouchedinitsleastdetails;artandlaborwillbeconspicuousineverything;eachkindofwritingwillhaverulesofitsown，fromwhichitwillnotbeallowedtoswerve，andwhichdistinguishitfromallothers。Stylewillbethoughtofalmostasmuchimportanceasthought;andtheformwillbenolessconsideredthanthematter:thedictionwillbepolished，measured，anduniform。Thetoneofthemindwillbealwaysdignified，seldomveryanimated;andwriterswillcaremoretoperfectwhattheyproducethantomultiplytheirproductions。Itwillsometimeshappenthatthemembersoftheliteraryclass，alwayslivingamongstthemselvesandwritingforthemselvesalone，willlosesightoftherestoftheworld，whichwillinfectthemwithafalseandlaboredstyle;theywilllaydownminuteliteraryrulesfortheirexclusiveuse，whichwillinsensiblyleadthemtodeviatefromcommon—sense，andfinallytotransgresstheboundsofnature。Bydintofstrivingafteramodeofparlancedifferentfromthevulgar，theywillarriveatasortofaristocraticjargon，whichishardlylessremotefrompurelanguagethanisthecoarsedialectofthepeople。Sucharethenaturalperilsofliteratureamongstaristocracies。Everyaristocracywhichkeepsitselfentirelyalooffromthepeoplebecomesimpotent—afactwhichisastrueinliteratureasitisinpolitics。*a[Footnotea:Allthisisespeciallytrueofthearistocraticcountrieswhichhavebeenlongandpeacefullysubjecttoamonarchicalgovernment。Whenlibertyprevailsinanaristocracy，thehigherranksareconstantlyobligedtomakeuseofthelowerclasses;andwhentheyuse，theyapproachthem。Thisfrequentlyintroducessomethingofademocraticspiritintoanaristocraticcommunity。Therespringsup，moreover，inaprivilegedbody，governingwithenergyandanhabituallyboldpolicy，atasteforstirandexcitementwhichmustinfalliblyaffectallliteraryperformances。]
Letusnowturnthepictureandconsidertheothersideofit;letustransportourselvesintothemidstofademocracy，notunpreparedbyancienttraditionsandpresentculturetopartakeinthepleasuresofthemind。Ranksarethereintermingledandconfounded;knowledgeandpowerarebothinfinitelysubdivided，and，ifImayusetheexpression，scatteredoneveryside。Herethenisamotleymultitude，whoseintellectualwantsaretobesupplied。Thesenewvotariesofthepleasuresofthemindhavenotallreceivedthesameeducation;theydonotpossessthesamedegreeofcultureastheirfathers，noranyresemblancetothem—
nay，theyperpetuallydifferfromthemselves，fortheyliveinastateofincessantchangeofplace，feelings，andfortunes。Themindofeachmemberofthecommunityisthereforeunattachedtothatofhisfellow—citizensbytraditionorbycommonhabits;andtheyhaveneverhadthepower，theinclination，northetimetoconcerttogether。Itis，however，fromthebosomofthisheterogeneousandagitatedmassthatauthorsspring;andfromthesamesourcetheirprofitsandtheirfamearedistributed。Icanwithoutdifficultyunderstandthat，underthesecircumstances，I
mustexpecttomeetintheliteratureofsuchapeoplewithbutfewofthosestrictconventionalruleswhichareadmittedbyreadersandbywritersinaristocraticages。Ifitshouldhappenthatthemenofsomeoneperiodwereagreeduponanysuchrules，thatwouldprovenothingforthefollowingperiod;foramongstdemocraticnationseachnewgenerationisanewpeople。Amongstsuchnations，then，literaturewillnoteasilybesubjectedtostrictrules，anditisimpossiblethatanysuchrulesshouldeverbepermanent。
Indemocraciesitisbynomeansthecasethatallthemenwhocultivateliteraturehavereceivedaliteraryeducation;andmostofthosewhohavesometingeofbelles—lettresareeitherengagedinpolitics，orinaprofessionwhichonlyallowsthemtotasteoccasionallyandbystealththepleasuresofthemind。
Thesepleasures，therefore，donotconstitutetheprincipalcharmoftheirlives;buttheyareconsideredasatransientandnecessaryrecreationamidsttheseriouslaborsoflife。Suchmancanneveracquireasufficientlyintimateknowledgeoftheartofliteraturetoappreciateitsmoredelicatebeauties;andtheminorshadesofexpressionmustescapethem。Asthetimetheycandevotetolettersisveryshort，theyseektomakethebestuseofthewholeofit。Theypreferbookswhichmaybeeasilyprocured，quicklyread，andwhichrequirenolearnedresearchestobeunderstood。Theyaskforbeauties，self—profferedandeasilyenjoyed;aboveall，theymusthavewhatisunexpectedandnew。Accustomedtothestruggle，thecrosses，andthemonotonyofpracticallife，theyrequirerapidemotions，startlingpassages—truthsorerrorsbrilliantenoughtorousethemup，andtoplungethematonce，asifbyviolence，intothemidstofasubject。
WhyshouldIsaymore？orwhodoesnotunderstandwhatisabouttofollow，beforeIhaveexpressedit？Takenasawhole，literatureindemocraticagescanneverpresent，asitdoesintheperiodsofaristocracy，anaspectoforder，regularity，science，andart;itsformwill，onthecontrary，ordinarilybeslighted，sometimesdespised。Stylewillfrequentlybefantastic，incorrect，overburdened，andloose—almostalwaysvehementandbold。Authorswillaimatrapidityofexecution，morethanatperfectionofdetail。Smallproductionswillbemorecommonthanbulkybooks;therewillbemorewitthanerudition，moreimaginationthanprofundity;andliteraryperformanceswillbearmarksofanuntutoredandrudevigorofthought—frequentlyofgreatvarietyandsingularfecundity。Theobjectofauthorswillbetoastonishratherthantoplease，andtostirthepassionsmorethantocharmthetaste。Hereandthere，indeed，writerswilldoubtlessoccurwhowillchooseadifferenttrack，andwhowill，iftheyaregiftedwithsuperiorabilities，succeedinfindingreaders，inspiteoftheirdefectsortheirbetterqualities;buttheseexceptionswillberare，andeventheauthorswhoshallsodepartfromthereceivedpracticeinthemainsubjectoftheirworks，willalwaysrelapseintoitinsomelesserdetails。
Ihavejustdepictedtwoextremeconditions:thetransitionbywhichanationpassesfromtheformertothelatterisnotsuddenbutgradual，andmarkedwithshadesofveryvariousintensity。Inthepassagewhichconductsaletteredpeoplefromtheonetotheother，thereisalmostalwaysamomentatwhichtheliterarygeniusofdemocraticnationshasitsconfluencewiththatofaristocracies，andbothseektoestablishtheirjointswayoverthehumanmind。Suchepochsaretransient，butverybrilliant:theyarefertilewithoutexuberance，andanimatedwithoutconfusion。TheFrenchliteratureoftheeighteenthcenturymayserveasanexample。
IshouldsaymorethanImeanifIweretoassertthattheliteratureofanationisalwayssubordinatetoitssocialconditionanditspoliticalconstitution。Iamawarethat，independentlyofthesecauses，thereareseveralotherswhichconfercertaincharacteristicsonliteraryproductions;buttheseappeartometobethechief。Therelationswhichexistbetweenthesocialandpoliticalconditionofapeopleandthegeniusofitsauthorsarealwaysverynumerous:whoeverknowstheoneisnevercompletelyignorantoftheother。
ChapterXIV:TheTradeOfLiteratureDemocracynotonlyinfusesatasteforlettersamongthetradingclasses，butintroducesatradingspiritintoliterature。
Inaristocracies，readersarefastidiousandfewinnumber;indemocracies，theyarefarmorenumerousandfarlessdifficulttoplease。Theconsequenceis，thatamongaristocraticnations，noonecanhopetosucceedwithoutimmenseexertions，andthattheseexertionsmaybestowagreatdealoffame，butcanneverearnmuchmoney;whilstamongdemocraticnations，awritermayflatterhimselfthathewillobtainatacheaprateameagrereputationandalargefortune。Forthispurposeheneednotbeadmired;itisenoughthatheisliked。Theever—increasingcrowdofreaders，andtheircontinualcravingforsomethingnew，insurethesaleofbookswhichnobodymuchesteems。
Indemocraticperiodsthepublicfrequentlytreatauthorsaskingsdotheircourtiers;theyenrich，andtheydespisethem。
Whatmoreisneededbythevenalsoulswhicharebornincourts，orwhichareworthytolivethere？Democraticliteratureisalwaysinfestedwithatribeofwriterswholookuponlettersasameretrade:andforsomefewgreatauthorswhoadornityoumayreckonthousandsofidea—mongers。
ChapterXV:TheStudyOfGreekAndLatinLiteraturePeculiarlyUsefulInDemocraticCommunitiesWhatwascalledthePeopleinthemostdemocraticrepublicsofantiquity，wasveryunlikewhatwedesignatebythatterm。InAthens，allthecitizenstookpartinpublicaffairs;buttherewereonly20，000citizenstomorethan350，000inhabitants。Alltherestwereslaves，anddischargedthegreaterpartofthosedutieswhichbelongatthepresentdaytotheloweroreventothemiddleclasses。Athens，then，withheruniversalsuffrage，wasafterallmerelyanaristocraticrepublicinwhichallthenobleshadanequalrighttothegovernment。ThestrugglebetweenthepatriciansandplebeiansofRomemustbeconsideredinthesamelight:itwassimplyanintestinefeudbetweentheelderandyoungerbranchesofthesamefamily。Allthecitizensbelonged，infact，tothearistocracy，andpartookofitscharacter。
Itismoreovertoberemarked，thatamongsttheancientsbookswerealwaysscarceanddear;andthatverygreatdifficultiesimpededtheirpublicationandcirculation。Thesecircumstancesconcentratedliterarytastesandhabitsamongstasmallnumberofmen，whoformedasmallliteraryaristocracyoutofthechoicerspiritsofthegreatpoliticalaristocracy。
AccordinglynothinggoestoprovethatliteraturewasevertreatedasatradeamongsttheGreeksandRomans。
Thesepeoples，whichnotonlyconstitutedaristocracies，butverypolishedandfreenations，ofcourseimpartedtotheirliteraryproductionsthedefectsandthemeritswhichcharacterizetheliteratureofaristocraticages。Andindeedaverysuperficialsurveyoftheliteraryremainsoftheancientswillsufficetoconvinceus，thatifthosewritersweresometimesdeficientinvariety，orfertilityintheirsubjects，orinboldness，vivacity，orpowerofgeneralizationintheirthoughts，theyalwaysdisplayedexquisitecareandskillintheirdetails。
Nothingintheirworksseemstobedonehastilyoratrandom:
everylineiswrittenfortheeyeoftheconnoisseur，andisshapedaftersomeconceptionofidealbeauty。Noliteratureplacesthosefinequalities，inwhichthewritersofdemocraciesarenaturallydeficient，inbolderreliefthanthatoftheancients;noliterature，therefore，oughttobemorestudiedindemocraticages。Thisstudyisbettersuitedthananyothertocombattheliterarydefectsinherentinthoseages;asfortheirmorepraiseworthyliteraryqualities，theywillspringupoftheirownaccord，withoutitsbeingnecessarytolearntoacquirethem。
Itisimportantthatthispointshouldbeclearlyunderstood。Aparticularstudymaybeusefultotheliteratureofapeople，withoutbeingappropriatetoitssocialandpoliticalwants。Ifmenweretopersistinteachingnothingbuttheliteratureofthedeadlanguagesinacommunitywhereeveryoneishabituallyledtomakevehementexertionstoaugmentortomaintainhisfortune，theresultwouldbeaverypolished，butaverydangerous，raceofcitizens。Forastheirsocialandpoliticalconditionwouldgivethemeverydayasenseofwantswhichtheireducationwouldneverteachthemtosupply，theywouldperturbtheState，inthenameoftheGreeksandRomans，insteadofenrichingitbytheirproductiveindustry。
Itisevidentthatindemocraticcommunitiestheinterestofindividuals，aswellasthesecurityofthecommonwealth，demandsthattheeducationofthegreaternumbershouldbescientific，commercial，andindustrial，ratherthanliterary。GreekandLatinshouldnotbetaughtinallschools;butitisimportantthatthosewhobytheirnaturaldispositionortheirfortunearedestinedtocultivatelettersorpreparedtorelishthem，shouldfindschoolswhereacompleteknowledgeofancientliteraturemaybeacquired，andwherethetruescholarmaybeformed。Afewexcellentuniversitieswoulddomoretowardstheattainmentofthisobjectthanavastnumberofbadgrammarschools，wheresuperfluousmatters，badlylearned，standinthewayofsoundinstructioninnecessarystudies。
Allwhoaspiretoliteraryexcellenceindemocraticnations，oughtfrequentlytorefreshthemselvesatthespringsofancientliterature:thereisnomorewholesomecourseforthemind。NotthatIholdtheliteraryproductionsoftheancientstobeirreproachable;butIthinkthattheyhavesomeespecialmerits，admirablycalculatedtocounterbalanceourpeculiardefects。
Theyareaproponthesideonwhichweareinmostdangeroffalling。
BookOne—ChaptersXVI—XVIII
ChapterXVI:TheEffectOfDemocracyOnLanguageIfthereaderhasrightlyunderstoodwhatIhavealreadysaidonthesubjectofliteratureingeneral，hewillhavenodifficultyincomprehendingthatspeciesofinfluencewhichademocraticsocialconditionanddemocraticinstitutionsmayexerciseoverlanguageitself，whichisthechiefinstrumentofthought。
AmericanauthorsmaytrulybesaidtolivemoreinEnglandthanintheirowncountry;sincetheyconstantlystudytheEnglishwriters，andtakethemeverydayfortheirmodels。Butsuchisnotthecasewiththebulkofthepopulation，whichismoreimmediatelysubjectedtothepeculiarcausesactingupontheUnitedStates。Itisnotthentothewritten，buttothespokenlanguagethatattentionmustbepaid，ifwewoulddetectthemodificationswhichtheidiomofanaristocraticpeoplemayundergowhenitbecomesthelanguageofademocracy。
Englishmenofeducation，andmorecompetentjudgesthanI
canbemyselfofthenicershadesofexpression，havefrequentlyassuredmethatthelanguageoftheeducatedclassesintheUnitedStatesisnotablydifferentfromthatoftheeducatedclassesinGreatBritain。TheycomplainnotonlythattheAmericanshavebroughtintouseanumberofnewwords—thedifferenceandthedistancebetweenthetwocountriesmightsufficetoexplainthatmuch—butthatthesenewwordsaremoreespeciallytakenfromthejargonofparties，themechanicalarts，orthelanguageoftrade。Theyassert，inadditiontothis，thatoldEnglishwordsareoftenusedbytheAmericansinnewacceptations;andlastly，thattheinhabitantsoftheUnitedStatesfrequentlyintermingletheirphraseologyinthestrangestmanner，andsometimesplacewordstogetherwhicharealwayskeptapartinthelanguageofthemother—country。Theseremarks，whichweremadetomeatvarioustimesbypersonswhoappearedtobeworthyofcredit，ledmetoreflectuponthesubject;andmyreflectionsbroughtme，bytheoreticalreasoning，tothesamepointatwhichmyinformantshadarrivedbypracticalobservation。
Inaristocracies，languagemustnaturallypartakeofthatstateofreposeinwhicheverythingremains。Fewnewwordsarecoined，becausefewnewthingsaremade;andevenifnewthingsweremade，theywouldbedesignatedbyknownwords，whosemeaninghasbeendeterminedbytradition。Ifithappensthatthehumanmindbestirsitselfatlength，orisrousedbylightbreakinginfromwithout，thenovelexpressionswhichareintroducedarecharacterizedbyadegreeoflearning，intelligence，andphilosophy，whichshowsthattheydonotoriginateinademocracy。AfterthefallofConstantinoplehadturnedthetideofscienceandliteraturetowardsthewest，theFrenchlanguagewasalmostimmediatelyinvadedbyamultitudeofnewwords，whichhadallGreekorLatinroots。AneruditeneologismthensprangupinFrancewhichwasconfinedtotheeducatedclasses，andwhichproducednosensibleeffect，oratleastaverygradualone，uponthepeople。AllthenationsofEuropesuccessivelyexhibitedthesamechange。MiltonaloneintroducedmorethansixhundredwordsintotheEnglishlanguage，almostallderivedfromtheLatin，theGreek，ortheHebrew。Theconstantagitationwhichprevailsinademocraticcommunitytendsunceasingly，onthecontrary，tochangethecharacterofthelanguage，asitdoestheaspectofaffairs。Inthemidstofthisgeneralstirandcompetitionofminds，agreatnumberofnewideasareformed，oldideasarelost，orreappear，oraresubdividedintoaninfinitevarietyofminorshades。Theconsequenceis，thatmanywordsmustfallintodesuetude，andothersmustbebroughtintouse。
Democraticnationslovechangeforitsownsake;andthisisseenintheirlanguageasmuchasintheirpolitics。Evenwhentheydonotneedtochangewords，theysometimesfeelawishtotransformthem。Thegeniusofademocraticpeopleisnotonlyshownbythegreatnumberofwordstheybringintouse，butalsobythenatureoftheideasthesenewwordsrepresent。Amongstsuchapeoplethemajoritylaysdownthelawinlanguageaswellasineverythingelse;itsprevailingspiritisasmanifestinthatasinotherrespects。Butthemajorityismoreengagedinbusinessthaninstudy—inpoliticalandcommercialintereststhaninphilosophicalspeculationorliterarypursuits。Mostofthewordscoinedoradoptedforitsusewillthereforebearthemarkofthesehabits;theywillmainlyservetoexpressthewantsofbusiness，thepassionsofparty，orthedetailsofthepublicadministration。Inthesedepartmentsthelanguagewillconstantlyspread，whilstontheotherhanditwillgraduallylosegroundinmetaphysicsandtheology。
Astothesourcefromwhichdemocraticnationsarewonttoderivetheirnewexpressions，andthemannerinwhichtheygotoworktocointhem，bothmayeasilybedescribed。MenlivingindemocraticcountriesknowbutlittleofthelanguagewhichwasspokenatAthensandatRome，andtheydonotcaretodiveintotheloreofantiquitytofindtheexpressiontheyhappentowant。
Iftheyhavesometimesrecoursetolearnedetymologies，vanitywillinducethemtosearchattherootsofthedeadlanguages;
buteruditiondoesnotnaturallyfurnishthemwithitsresources。
Themostignorant，itsometimeshappens，willusethemmost。TheeminentlydemocraticdesiretogetabovetheirownspherewilloftenleadthemtoseektodignifyavulgarprofessionbyaGreekorLatinname。Thelowerthecallingis，andthemoreremotefromlearning，themorepompousanderuditeisitsappellation。
ThustheFrenchrope—dancershavetransformedthemselvesintoacrobatesandfunambules。
Intheabsenceofknowledgeofthedeadlanguages，democraticnationsareapttoborrowwordsfromlivingtongues;
fortheirmutualintercoursebecomesperpetual，andtheinhabitantsofdifferentcountriesimitateeachotherthemorereadilyastheygrowmorelikeeachothereveryday。
Butitisprincipallyupontheirownlanguagesthatdemocraticnationsattempttoperpetrateinnovations。Fromtimetotimetheyresumeforgottenexpressionsintheirvocabulary，whichtheyrestoretouse;ortheyborrowfromsomeparticularclassofthecommunityatermpeculiartoit，whichtheyintroducewithafigurativemeaningintothelanguageofdailylife。Manyexpressionswhichoriginallybelongedtothetechnicallanguageofaprofessionoraparty，arethusdrawnintogeneralcirculation。
Themostcommonexpedientemployedbydemocraticnationstomakeaninnovationinlanguageconsistsingivingsomeunwontedmeaningtoanexpressionalreadyinuse。Thismethodisverysimple，prompt，andconvenient;nolearningisrequiredtouseitaright，andignoranceitselfratherfacilitatesthepractice;butthatpracticeismostdangeroustothelanguage。Whenademocraticpeopledoublesthemeaningofawordinthisway，theysometimesrenderthesignificationwhichitretainsasambiguousasthatwhichitacquires。Anauthorbeginsbyaslightdeflectionofaknownexpressionfromitsprimitivemeaning，andheadaptsit，thusmodified，aswellashecantohissubject。A
secondwritertwiststhesenseoftheexpressioninanotherway;
athirdtakespossessionofitforanotherpurpose;andasthereisnocommonappealtothesentenceofapermanenttribunalwhichmaydefinitelysettlethesignificationoftheword，itremainsinanambiguouscondition。Theconsequenceisthatwritershardlyeverappeartodwelluponasinglethought，buttheyalwaysseemtopointtheiraimataknotofideas，leavingthereadertojudgewhichofthemhasbeenhit。Thisisadeplorableconsequenceofdemocracy。IhadratherthatthelanguageshouldbemadehideouswithwordsimportedfromtheChinese，theTartars，ortheHurons，thanthatthemeaningofawordinourownlanguageshouldbecomeindeterminate。Harmonyanduniformityareonlysecondarybeautiesincomposition;manyofthesethingsareconventional，and，strictlyspeaking，itispossibletoforegothem;butwithoutclearphraseologythereisnogoodlanguage。