Inallcasestheytookcaretorepresentgovernmentasathingmadeupofmysteries,whichonlythemselvesunderstood;andtheyhidfromtheunderstandingofthenationtheonlythingthatwasbeneficialtoknow,namely,Thatgovernmentisnothingmorethananationalassociationaddingontheprinciplesofsociety。
Havingthusendeavouredtoshowthatthesocialandcivilisedstateofmaniscapableofperformingwithinitselfalmosteverythingnecessarytoitsprotectionandgovernment,itwillbeproper,ontheotherhand,totakeareviewofthepresentoldgovernments,andexaminewhethertheirprinciplesandpracticearecorrespondentthereto。
CHAPTERII
OftheOriginofthePresentOldGovernmentsItisimpossiblethatsuchgovernmentsashavehithertoexistedintheworld,couldhavecommencedbyanyothermeansthanatotalviolationofeveryprinciplesacredandmoral。Theobscurityinwhichtheoriginofallthepresentoldgovernmentsisburied,impliestheiniquityanddisgracewithwhichtheybegan。TheoriginofthepresentgovernmentofAmericaandFrancewilleverberemembered,becauseitishonourabletorecordit;butwithrespecttotherest,evenFlatteryhasconsignedthemtothetomboftime,withoutaninscription。
Itcouldhavebeennodifficultthingintheearlyandsolitaryagesoftheworld,whilethechiefemploymentofmenwasthatofattendingflocksandherds,forabandittiofruffianstooverrunacountry,andlayitundercontributions。Theirpowerbeingthusestablished,thechiefofthebandcontrivedtolosethenameofRobberinthatofMonarch;andhencetheoriginofMonarchyandKings。
TheoriginoftheGovernmentofEngland,sofarasrelatestowhatiscalleditslineofmonarchy,beingoneofthelatest,isperhapsthebestrecorded。ThehatredwhichtheNormaninvasionandtyrannybegat,musthavebeendeeplyrootedinthenation,tohaveoutlivedthecontrivancetoobliterateit。Thoughnotacourtierwilltalkofthecurfew—bell,notavillageinEnglandhasforgottenit。
Thosebandsofrobbershavingparcelledouttheworld,anddivideditintodominions,began,asisnaturallythecase,toquarrelwitheachother。Whatatfirstwasobtainedbyviolencewasconsideredbyothersaslawfultobetaken,andasecondplunderersucceededthefirst。Theyalternatelyinvadedthedominionswhicheachhadassignedtohimself,andthebrutalitywithwhichtheytreatedeachotherexplainstheoriginalcharacterofmonarchy。
Itwasruffiantorturingruffian。Theconquerorconsideredtheconquered,notashisprisoner,buthisproperty。Heledhimintriumphrattlinginchains,anddoomedhim,atpleasure,toslaveryordeath。Astimeobliteratedthehistoryoftheirbeginning,theirsuccessorsassumednewappearances,tocutofftheentailoftheirdisgrace,buttheirprinciplesandobjectsremainedthesame。Whatatfirstwasplunder,assumedthesofternameofrevenue;andthepoweroriginallyusurped,theyaffectedtoinherit。
Fromsuchbeginningofgovernments,whatcouldbeexpectedbutacontinuedsystemofwarandextortion？Ithasestablisheditselfintoatrade。Theviceisnotpeculiartoonemorethantoanother,butisthecommonprincipleofall。Theredoesnotexistwithinsuchgovernmentssufficientstaminawhereontoengraftreformation;
andtheshortestandmosteffectualremedyistobeginanewonthegroundofthenation。
Whatscenesofhorror,whatperfectionofiniquity,presentthemselvesincontemplatingthecharacterandreviewingthehistoryofsuchgovernments！Ifwewoulddelineatehumannaturewithabasenessofheartandhypocrisyofcountenancethatreflectionwouldshudderatandhumanitydisown,itiskings,courtsandcabinetsthatmustsitfortheportrait。Man,naturallyasheis,withallhisfaultsabouthim,isnotuptothecharacter。
Canwepossiblysupposethatifgovernmentshadoriginatedinarightprinciple,andhadnotaninterestinpursuingawrongone,theworldcouldhavebeeninthewretchedandquarrelsomeconditionwehaveseenit？Whatinducementhasthefarmer,whilefollowingtheplough,tolayasidehispeacefulpursuit,andgotowarwiththefarmerofanothercountry？orwhatinducementhasthemanufacturer？Whatisdominiontothem,ortoanyclassofmeninanation？Doesitaddanacretoanyman\'sestate,orraiseitsvalue？Arenotconquestanddefeateachofthesameprice,andtaxesthenever—failingconsequence？—
Thoughthisreasoningmaybegoodtoanation,itisnotsotoagovernment。
WaristhePharo—tableofgovernments,andnationsthedupesofthegame。
Ifthereisanythingtowonderatinthismiserablesceneofgovernmentsmorethanmightbeexpected,itistheprogresswhichthepeacefulartsofagriculture,manufactureandcommercehavemadebeneathsuchalongaccumulatingloadofdiscouragementandoppression。Itservestoshowthatinstinctinanimalsdoesnotactwithstrongerimpulsethantheprinciplesofsocietyandcivilisationoperateinman。Underalldiscouragements,hepursueshisobject,andyieldstonothingbutimpossibilities。
CHAPTERIII
OftheOldandNewSystemsofGovernmentNothingcanappearmorecontradictorythantheprinciplesonwhichtheoldgovernmentsbegan,andtheconditiontowhichsociety,civilisationandcommercearecapableofcarryingmankind。
Government,ontheoldsystem,isanassumptionofpower,fortheaggrandisementofitself;onthenew,adelegationofpowerforthecommonbenefitofsociety。Theformersupportsitselfbykeepingupasystemofwar;thelatterpromotesasystemofpeace,asthetruemeansofenrichinganation。
Theoneencouragesnationalprejudices;theotherpromotesuniversalsociety,asthemeansofuniversalcommerce。Theonemeasuresitsprosperity,bythequantityofrevenueitextorts;theotherprovesitsexcellence,bythesmallquantityoftaxesitrequires。
Mr。Burkehastalkedofoldandnewwhigs。Ifhecanamusehimselfwithchildishnamesanddistinctions,Ishallnotinterrupthispleasure。Itisnottohim,buttotheAbbeSieyes,thatIaddressthischapter。Iamalreadyengagedtothelattergentlemantodiscussthesubjectofmonarchicalgovernment;andasitnaturallyoccursincomparingtheoldandnewsystems,Imakethistheopportunityofpresentingtohimmyobservations。IshalloccasionallytakeMr。Burkeinmyway。
Thoughitmightbeprovedthatthesystemofgovernmentnowcalledthenew,isthemostancientinprincipleofallthathaveexisted,beingfoundedontheoriginal,inherentRightsofMan:yet,astyrannyandtheswordhavesuspendedtheexerciseofthoserightsformanycenturiespast,itservesbetterthepurposeofdistinctiontocallitthenew,thantoclaimtherightofcallingittheold。
Thefirstgeneraldistinctionbetweenthosetwosystems,is,thattheonenowcalledtheoldishereditary,eitherinwholeorinpart;andthenewisentirelyrepresentative。Itrejectsallhereditarygovernment:
First,Asbeinganimpositiononmankind。
Secondly,Asinadequatetothepurposesforwhichgovernmentisnecessary。
Withrespecttothefirstoftheseheads—Itcannotbeprovedbywhatrighthereditarygovernmentcouldbegin;neitherdoesthereexistwithinthecompassofmortalpowerarighttoestablishit。Manhasnoauthorityoverposterityinmattersofpersonalright;and,therefore,noman,orbodyofmen,had,orcanhave,arighttosetuphereditarygovernment。Wereevenourselvestocomeagainintoexistence,insteadofbeingsucceededbyposterity,wehavenotnowtherightoftakingfromourselvestherightswhichwouldthenbeours。Onwhatground,then,dowepretendtotakethemfromothers？
Allhereditarygovernmentisinitsnaturetyranny。Anheritablecrown,oranheritablethrone,orbywhatotherfancifulnamesuchthingsmaybecalled,havenoothersignificantexplanationthanthatmankindareheritableproperty。Toinheritagovernment,istoinheritthepeople,asiftheywereflocksandherds。
Withrespecttothesecondhead,thatofbeinginadequatetothepurposesforwhichgovernmentisnecessary,wehaveonlytoconsiderwhatgovernmentessentiallyis,andcompareitwiththecircumstancestowhichhereditarysuccessionissubject。
Governmentoughttobeathingalwaysinfullmaturity。Itoughttobesoconstructedastobesuperiortoalltheaccidentstowhichindividualmanissubject;and,therefore,hereditarysuccession,bybeingsubjecttothemall,isthemostirregularandimperfectofallthesystemsofgovernment。
WehaveheardtheRightsofMancalledalevellingsystem;buttheonlysystemtowhichthewordlevellingistrulyapplicable,isthehereditarymonarchicalsystem。Itisasystemofmentallevelling。
Itindiscriminatelyadmitseveryspeciesofcharactertothesameauthority。Viceandvirtue,ignoranceandwisdom,inshort,everyqualitygoodorbad,isputonthesamelevel。Kingssucceedeachother,notasrationals,butasanimals。Itsignifiesnotwhattheirmentalormoralcharactersare。Canwethenbesurprisedattheabjectstateofthehumanmindinmonarchicalcountries,whenthegovernmentitselfisformedonsuchanabjectlevellingsystem？—Ithasnofixedcharacter。To—dayitisonething;to—morrowitissomethingelse。Itchangeswiththetemperofeverysucceedingindividual,andissubjecttoallthevarietiesofeach。Itisgovernmentthroughthemediumofpassionsandaccidents。Itappearsunderallthevariouscharactersofchildhood,decrepitude,dotage,athingatnurse,inleading—strings,orincrutches。Itreversesthewholesomeorderofnature。Itoccasionallyputschildrenovermen,andtheconceitsofnonageoverwisdomandexperience。Inshort,wecannotconceiveamoreridiculousfigureofgovernment,thanhereditarysuccession,inallitscases,presents。
Coulditbemadeadecreeinnature,oranedictregisteredinheaven,andmancouldknowit,thatvirtueandwisdomshouldinvariablyappertaintohereditarysuccession,theobjectiontoitwouldberemoved;butwhenweseethatnatureactsasifshedisownedandsportedwiththehereditarysystem;thatthementalcharacterofsuccessors,inallcountries,isbelowtheaverageofhumanunderstanding;thatoneisatyrant,anotheranidiot,athirdinsane,andsomeallthreetogether,itisimpossibletoattachconfidencetoit,whenreasoninmanhaspowertoact。
ItisnottotheAbbeSieyesthatIneedapplythisreasoning;hehasalreadysavedmethattroublebygivinghisownopinionuponthecase。\"Ifitbeasked,\"sayshe,\"whatismyopinionwithrespecttohereditaryright,Ianswerwithouthesitation,Thatingoodtheory,anhereditarytransmissionofanypowerofoffice,canneveraccordwiththelawsofatruerepresentation。
Hereditaryshipis,inthissense,asmuchanattaintuponprinciple,asanoutrageuponsociety。Butletus,\"continueshe,\"refertothehistoryofallelectivemonarchiesandprincipalities:isthereoneinwhichtheelectivemodeisnotworsethanthehereditarysuccession？\"
Astodebatingonwhichistheworstofthetwo,itisadmittingbothtobebad;andhereinweareagreed。ThepreferencewhichtheAbbehasgiven,isacondemnationofthethingthatheprefers。
Suchamodeofreasoningonsuchasubjectisinadmissible,becauseitfinallyamountstoanaccusationuponProvidence,asifshehadlefttomannootherchoicewithrespecttogovernmentthanbetweentwoevils,thebestofwhichheadmitstobe\"anattaintuponprinciple,andanoutrageuponsociety。\"
Passingover,forthepresent,alltheevilsandmischiefswhichmonarchyhasoccasionedintheworld,nothingcanmoreeffectuallyproveitsuselessnessinastateofcivilgovernment,thanmakingithereditary。Wouldwemakeanyofficehereditarythatrequiredwisdomandabilitiestofillit？Andwherewisdomandabilitiesarenotnecessary,suchanoffice,whateveritmaybe,issuperfluousorinsignificant。
Hereditarysuccessionisaburlesqueuponmonarchy。Itputsitinthemostridiculouslight,bypresentingitasanofficewhichanychildoridiotmayfill。Itrequiressometalentstobeacommonmechanic;buttobeakingrequiresonlytheanimalfigureofman—asortofbreathingautomaton。Thissortofsuperstitionmaylastafewyearsmore,butitcannotlongresisttheawakenedreasonandinterestofman。
AstoMr。Burke,heisasticklerformonarchy,notaltogetherasapensioner,ifheisone,whichIbelieve,butasapoliticalman。Hehastakenupacontemptibleopinionofmankind,who,intheirturn,aretakingupthesameofhim。Heconsidersthemasaherdofbeingsthatmustbegovernedbyfraud,effigy,andshow;
andanidolwouldbeasgoodafigureofmonarchywithhim,asaman。Iwill,however,dohimthejusticetosaythat,withrespecttoAmerica,hehasbeenverycomplimentary。Healwayscontended,atleastinmyhearing,thatthepeopleofAmericaweremoreenlightenedthanthoseofEngland,orofanycountryinEurope;andthatthereforetheimpositionofshowwasnotnecessaryintheirgovernments。
Thoughthecomparisonbetweenhereditaryandelectivemonarchy,whichtheAbbehasmade,isunnecessarytothecase,becausetherepresentativesystemrejectsboth:yet,wereItomakethecomparison,Ishoulddecidecontrarytowhathehasdone。
Thecivilwarswhichhaveoriginatedfromcontestedhereditaryclaims,aremorenumerous,andhavebeenmoredreadful,andoflongercontinuance,thanthosewhichhavebeenoccasionedbyelection。
AllthecivilwarsinFrancearosefromthehereditarysystem;theywereeitherproducedbyhereditaryclaims,orbytheimperfectionofthehereditaryform,whichadmitsofregenciesormonarchyatnurse。WithrespecttoEngland,itshistoryisfullofthesamemisfortunes。ThecontestsforsuccessionbetweenthehousesofYorkandLancasterlastedawholecentury;andothersofasimilarnaturehaverenewedthemselvessincethatperiod。Thoseof1715and1745wereofthesamekind。ThesuccessionwarforthecrownofSpainembroiledalmosthalfEurope。ThedisturbancesofHollandaregeneratedfromthehereditaryshipoftheStadtholder。A
governmentcallingitselffree,withanhereditaryoffice,islikeathornintheflesh,thatproducesafermentationwhichendeavourstodischargeit。
ButImightgofurther,andplacealsoforeignwars,ofwhateverkind,tothesamecause。Itisbyaddingtheevilofhereditarysuccessiontothatofmonarchy,thatapermanentfamilyinterestiscreated,whoseconstantobjectsaredominionandrevenue。
Poland,thoughanelectivemonarchy,hashadfewerwarsthanthosewhicharehereditary;anditistheonlygovernmentthathasmadeavoluntaryessay,thoughbutasmallone,toreformtheconditionofthecountry。
Havingthusglancedatafewofthedefectsoftheold,orhereditarysystemsofgovernment,letuscompareitwiththenew,orrepresentativesystem。
Therepresentativesystemtakessocietyandcivilisationforitsbasis;
nature,reason,andexperience,foritsguide。
Experience,inallages,andinallcountries,hasdemonstratedthatitisimpossibletocontrolNatureinherdistributionofmentalpowers。Shegivesthemasshepleases。Whateveristherulebywhichshe,apparentlytous,scattersthemamongmankind,thatruleremainsasecrettoman。Itwouldbeasridiculoustoattempttofixthehereditaryshipofhumanbeauty,asofwisdom。
Whateverwisdomconstituentlyis,itislikeaseedlessplant;itmayberearedwhenitappears,butitcannotbevoluntarilyproduced。Thereisalwaysasufficiencysomewhereinthegeneralmassofsocietyforallpurposes;butwithrespecttothepartsofsociety,itiscontinuallychangingitsplace。Itrisesinoneto—day,inanotherto—morrow,andhasmostprobablyvisitedinrotationeveryfamilyoftheearth,andagainwithdrawn。
Asthisisintheorderofnature,theorderofgovernmentmustnecessarilyfollowit,orgovernmentwill,asweseeitdoes,degenerateintoignorance。Thehereditarysystem,therefore,isasrepugnanttohumanwisdomastohumanrights;andisasabsurdasitisunjust。
Astherepublicoflettersbringsforwardthebestliteraryproductions,bygivingtogeniusafairanduniversalchance;sotherepresentativesystemofgovernmentiscalculatedtoproducethewisestlaws,bycollectingwisdomfromwhereitcanbefound。IsmiletomyselfwhenIcontemplatetheridiculousinsignificanceintowhichliteratureandallthescienceswouldsink,weretheymadehereditary;andIcarrythesameideaintogovernments。
Anhereditarygovernorisasinconsistentasanhereditaryauthor。IknownotwhetherHomerorEuclidhadsons;butIwillventureanopinionthatiftheyhad,andhadlefttheirworksunfinished,thosesonscouldnothavecompletedthem。
Doweneedastrongerevidenceoftheabsurdityofhereditarygovernmentthanisseeninthedescendantsofthosemen,inanylineoflife,whooncewerefamous？Istherescarcelyaninstanceinwhichthereisnotatotalreverseofthecharacter？Itappearsasifthetideofmentalfacultiesflowedasfarasitcouldincertainchannels,andthenforsookitscourse,andaroseinothers。Howirrationalthenisthehereditarysystem,whichestablisheschannelsofpower,incompanywithwhichwisdomrefusestoflow！Bycontinuingthisabsurdity,manisperpetuallyincontradictionwithhimself;heaccepts,foraking,orachiefmagistrate,oralegislator,apersonwhomhewouldnotelectforaconstable。
Itappearstogeneralobservation,thatrevolutionscreategeniusandtalents;butthoseeventsdonomorethanbringthemforward。Thereisexistinginman,amassofsenselyinginadormantstate,andwhich,unlesssomethingexcitesittoaction,willdescendwithhim,inthatcondition,tothegrave。Asitistotheadvantageofsocietythatthewholeofitsfacultiesshouldbeemployed,theconstructionofgovernmentoughttobesuchastobringforward,byaquietandregularoperation,allthatextentofcapacitywhichneverfailstoappearinrevolutions。
Thiscannottakeplaceintheinsipidstateofhereditarygovernment,notonlybecauseitprevents,butbecauseitoperatestobenumb。Whenthemindofanationisboweddownbyanypoliticalsuperstitioninitsgovernment,suchashereditarysuccessionis,itlosesaconsiderableportionofitspowersonallothersubjectsandobjects。Hereditarysuccessionrequiresthesameobediencetoignorance,astowisdom;andwhenoncethemindcanbringitselftopaythisindiscriminatereverence,itdescendsbelowthestatureofmentalmanhood。Itisfittobegreatonlyinlittlethings。Itactsatreacheryuponitself,andsuffocatesthesensationsthaturgethedetection。
Thoughtheancientgovernmentspresenttousamiserablepictureoftheconditionofman,thereisonewhichaboveallothersexemptsitselffromthegeneraldescription。ImeanthedemocracyoftheAthenians。Weseemoretoadmire,andlesstocondemn,inthatgreat,extraordinarypeople,thaninanythingwhichhistoryaffords。
Mr。Burkeissolittleacquaintedwithconstituentprinciplesofgovernment,thatheconfoundsdemocracyandrepresentationtogether。Representationwasathingunknownintheancientdemocracies。
Inthosethemassofthepeoplemetandenactedlaws（grammaticallyspeaking）inthefirstperson。Simpledemocracywasnootherthanthecommonhalloftheancients。Itsignifiestheform,aswellasthepublicprincipleofthegovernment。
Asthosedemocraciesincreasedinpopulation,andtheterritoryextended,thesimpledemocraticalformbecameunwieldyandimpracticable;andasthesystemofrepresentationwasnotknown,theconsequencewas,theyeitherdegeneratedconvulsivelyintomonarchies,orbecameabsorbedintosuchasthenexisted。Hadthesystemofrepresentationbeenthenunderstood,asitnowis,thereisnoreasontobelievethatthoseformsofgovernment,nowcalledmonarchicaloraristocratical,wouldeverhavetakenplace。Itwasthewantofsomemethodtoconsolidatethepartsofsociety,afteritbecametoopopulous,andtooextensiveforthesimpledemocraticalform,andalsothelaxandsolitaryconditionofshepherdsandherdsmeninotherpartsoftheworld,thataffordedopportunitiestothoseunnaturalmodesofgovernmenttobegin。
Asitisnecessarytoclearawaytherubbishoferrors,intowhichthesubjectofgovernmenthasbeenthrown,Iwillproceedtoremarkonsomeothers。
Ithasalwaysbeenthepoliticalcraftofcourtiersandcourt—governments,toabusesomethingwhichtheycalledrepublicanism;
butwhatrepublicanismwas,oris,theyneverattempttoexplain。letusexaminealittleintothiscase。
Theonlyformsofgovernmentarethedemocratical,thearistocratical,themonarchical,andwhatisnowcalledtherepresentative。
Whatiscalledarepublicisnotanyparticularformofgovernment。
Itiswhollycharacteristicalofthepurport,matterorobjectforwhichgovernmentoughttobeinstituted,andonwhichitistobeemployed,Res—Publica,thepublicaffairs,orthepublicgood;or,literallytranslated,thepublicthing。Itisawordofagoodoriginal,referringtowhatoughttobethecharacterandbusinessofgovernment;andinthissenseitisnaturallyopposedtothewordmonarchy,whichhasabaseoriginalsignification。
Itmeansarbitrarypowerinanindividualperson;intheexerciseofwhich,himself,andnottheres—publica,istheobject。
EverygovernmentthatdoesnotactontheprincipleofaRepublic,orinotherwords,thatdoesnotmaketheres—publicaitswholeandsoleobject,isnotagoodgovernment。Republicangovernmentisnootherthangovernmentestablishedandconductedfortheinterestofthepublic,aswellindividuallyascollectively。
Itisnotnecessarilyconnectedwithanyparticularform,butitmostnaturallyassociateswiththerepresentativeform,asbeingbestcalculatedtosecuretheendforwhichanationisattheexpenseofsupportingit。
Variousformsofgovernmenthaveaffectedtostylethemselvesarepublic。
Polandcallsitselfarepublic,whichisanhereditaryaristocracy,withwhatiscalledanelectivemonarchy。Hollandcallsitselfarepublic,whichischieflyaristocratical,withanhereditarystadtholdership。ButthegovernmentofAmerica,whichiswhollyonthesystemofrepresentation,istheonlyrealRepublic,incharacterandinpractice,thatnowexists。Itsgovernmenthasnootherobjectthanthepublicbusinessofthenation,andthereforeitisproperlyarepublic;andtheAmericanshavetakencarethatthis,andnoother,shallalwaysbetheobjectoftheirgovernment,bytheirrejectingeverythinghereditary,andestablishinggovernmentsonthesystemofrepresentationonly。Thosewhohavesaidthatarepublicisnotaformofgovernmentcalculatedforcountriesofgreatextent,mistook,inthefirstplace,thebusinessofagovernment,foraformofgovernment;fortheres—publicaequallyappertainstoeveryextentofterritoryandpopulation。And,inthesecondplace,iftheymeantanythingwithrespecttoform,itwasthesimpledemocraticalform,suchaswasthemodeofgovernmentintheancientdemocracies,inwhichtherewasnorepresentation。Thecase,therefore,isnot,thatarepubliccannotbeextensive,butthatitcannotbeextensiveonthesimpledemocraticalform;andthequestionnaturallypresentsitself,WhatisthebestformofgovernmentforconductingtheRes—Publica,orthePublicBusinessofanation,afteritbecomestooextensiveandpopulousforthesimpledemocraticalform？Itcannotbemonarchy,becausemonarchyissubjecttoanobjectionofthesameamounttowhichthesimpledemocraticalformwassubject。