PartTheFirstPartTheFirstBeingAnAnswerToMr。Burke\'sAttackOnTheFrenchRevolutionGeorgeWashingtonPRESIDENTOFTHEUNITEDSTATESOFAMERICA
SIR,Ipresentyouasmalltreatiseindefenceofthoseprinciplesoffreedomwhichyourexemplaryvirtuehathsoeminentlycontributedtoestablish。
ThattheRightsofManmaybecomeasuniversalasyourbenevolencecanwish,andthatyoumayenjoythehappinessofseeingtheNewWorldregeneratetheOld,istheprayerofSIR,Yourmuchobliged,andObedienthumbleServant,THOMASPAINE
TheAuthor\'sPrefacetotheEnglishEditionFromthepartMr。BurketookintheAmericanRevolution,itwasnaturalthatIshouldconsiderhimafriendtomankind;andasouracquaintancecommencedonthatground,itwouldhavebeenmoreagreeabletometohavehadcausetocontinueinthatopinionthantochangeit。
AtthetimeMr。BurkemadehisviolentspeechlastwinterintheEnglishParliamentagainsttheFrenchRevolutionandtheNationalAssembly,IwasinParis,andhadwrittentohimbutashorttimebeforetoinformhimhowprosperouslymattersweregoingon。SoonafterthisIsawhisadvertisementofthePamphletheintendedtopublish:Astheattackwastobemadeinalanguagebutlittlestudied,andlessunderstoodinFrance,andaseverythingsuffersbytranslation,IpromisedsomeofthefriendsoftheRevolutioninthatcountrythatwheneverMr。Burke\'sPamphletcameforth,Iwouldanswerit。Thisappearedtomethemorenecessarytobedone,whenIsawtheflagrantmisrepresentationswhichMr。Burke\'sPamphletcontains;andthatwhileitisanoutrageousabuseontheFrenchRevolution,andtheprinciplesofLiberty,itisanimpositionontherestoftheworld。
IamthemoreastonishedanddisappointedatthisconductinMr。Burke,as（fromthecircumstancesIamgoingtomention）Ihadformedotherexpectations。
Ihadseenenoughofthemiseriesofwar,towishitmightnevermorehaveexistenceintheworld,andthatsomeothermodemightbefoundouttosettlethedifferencesthatshouldoccasionallyariseintheneighbourhoodofnations。ThiscertainlymightbedoneifCourtsweredisposedtosethonestyaboutit,orifcountrieswereenlightenedenoughnottobemadethedupesofCourts。ThepeopleofAmericahadbeenbredupinthesameprejudicesagainstFrance,whichatthattimecharacterisedthepeopleofEngland;butexperienceandanacquaintancewiththeFrenchNationhavemosteffectuallyshowntotheAmericansthefalsehoodofthoseprejudices;
andIdonotbelievethatamorecordialandconfidentialintercourseexistsbetweenanytwocountriesthanbetweenAmericaandFrance。
WhenIcametoFrance,inthespringof1787,theArchbishopofThoulousewasthenMinister,andatthattimehighlyesteemed。IbecamemuchacquaintedwiththeprivateSecretaryofthatMinister,amanofanenlargedbenevolentheart;andfoundthathissentimentsandmyownperfectlyagreedwithrespecttothemadnessofwar,andthewretchedimpolicyoftwonations,likeEnglandandFrance,continuallyworryingeachother,tonootherendthanthatofamutualincreaseofburdensandtaxes。ThatImightbeassuredIhadnotmisunderstoodhim,norheme,Iputthesubstanceofouropinionsintowritingandsentittohim;subjoiningarequest,thatifIshouldseeamongthepeopleofEngland,anydispositiontocultivateabetterunderstandingbetweenthetwonationsthanhadhithertoprevailed,howfarImightbeauthorisedtosaythatthesamedispositionprevailedonthepartofFrance？
Heansweredmebyletterinthemostunreservedmanner,andthatnotforhimselfonly,butfortheMinister,withwhoseknowledgetheletterwasdeclaredtobewritten。
Iputthisletterintothe,handsofMr。Burkealmostthreeyearsago,andleftitwithhim,whereitstillremains;hoping,andatthesametimenaturallyexpecting,fromtheopinionIhadconceivedofhim,thathewouldfindsomeopportunityofmakinggooduseofit,forthepurposeofremovingthoseerrorsandprejudiceswhichtwoneighbouringnations,fromthewantofknowingeachother,hadentertained,totheinjuryofboth。
WhentheFrenchRevolutionbrokeout,itcertainlyaffordedtoMr。Burkeanopportunityofdoingsomegood,hadhebeendisposedtoit;insteadofwhich,nosoonerdidheseetheoldprejudiceswearingaway,thanheimmediatelybegansowingtheseedsofanewinveteracy,asifhewereafraidthatEnglandandFrancewouldceasetobeenemies。Thattherearemeninallcountrieswhogettheirlivingbywar,andbykeepingupthequarrelsofNations,isasshockingasitistrue;butwhenthosewhoareconcernedinthegovernmentofacountry,makeittheirstudytosowdiscordandcultivateprejudicesbetweenNations,itbecomesthemoreunpardonable。
WithrespecttoaparagraphinthisworkalludingtoMr。Burke\'shavingapension,thereporthasbeensometimeincirculation,atleasttwomonths;
andasapersonisoftenthelasttohearwhatconcernshimthemosttoknow,Ihavementionedit,thatMr。Burkemayhaveanopportunityofcontradictingtherumour,ifhethinksproper。
THOMASPAINE
TheAuthor\'sPrefacetotheFrenchEditionTheastonishmentwhichtheFrenchRevolutionhascausedthroughoutEuropeshouldbeconsideredfromtwodifferentpointsofview:firstasitaffectsforeignpeoples,secondlyasitaffectstheirgovernments。
ThecauseoftheFrenchpeopleisthatofallEurope,orratherofthewholeworld;butthegovernmentsofallthosecountriesarebynomeansfavorabletoit。Itisimportantthatweshouldneverlosesightofthisdistinction。Wemustnotconfusethepeopleswiththeirgovernments;especiallynottheEnglishpeoplewithitsgovernment。
ThegovernmentofEnglandisnofriendoftherevolutionofFrance。
Ofthiswehavesufficientproofsinthethanksgivenbythatweakandwitlessperson,theElectorofHanover,sometimescalledtheKingofEngland,toMr。Burkefortheinsultsheapedonitinhisbook,andinthemalevolentcommentsoftheEnglishMinister,Pitt,inhisspeechesinParliament。
InspiteoftheprofessionsofsincerestfriendshipfoundintheofficialcorrespondenceoftheEnglishgovernmentwiththatofFrance,itsconductgivesthelietoallitsdeclarations,andshowsusclearlythatitisnotacourttobetrusted,butaninsanecourt,plunginginallthequarrelsandintriguesofEurope,inquestofawartosatisfyitsfollyandcountenanceitsextravagance。
TheEnglishnation,onthecontrary,isveryfavorablydisposedtowardstheFrenchRevolution,andtotheprogressoflibertyinthewholeworld;
andthisfeelingwillbecomemoregeneralinEnglandastheintriguesandartificesofitsgovernmentarebetterknown,andtheprinciplesoftherevolutionbetterunderstood。TheFrenchshouldknowthatmostEnglishnewspapersaredirectlyinthepayofgovernment,or,ifindirectlyconnectedwithit,alwaysunderitsorders;andthatthosepapersconstantlydistortandattacktherevolutioninFranceinordertodeceivethenation。But,asitisimpossiblelongtopreventtheprevalenceoftruth,thedailyfalsehoodsofthosepapersnolongerhavethedesiredeffect。
TobeconvincedthatthevoiceoftruthhasbeenstifledinEngland,theworldneedsonlytobetoldthatthegovernmentregardsandprosecutesasalibelthatwhichitshouldprotect。*[1]Thisoutrageonmoralityiscalledlaw,andjudgesarefoundwickedenoughtoinflictpenaltiesontruth。
TheEnglishgovernmentpresents,justnow,acuriousphenomenon。SeeingthattheFrenchandEnglishnationsaregettingridoftheprejudicesandfalsenotionsformerlyentertainedagainsteachother,andwhichhavecostthemsomuchmoney,thatgovernmentseemstobeplacardingitsneedofafoe;forunlessitfindsonesomewhere,nopretextexistsfortheenormousrevenueandtaxationnowdeemednecessary。
ThereforeitseeksinRussiatheenemyithaslostinFrance,andappearstosaytotheuniverse,ortosaytoitself。\"Ifnobodywillbesokindastobecomemyfoe,Ishallneednomorefleetsnorarmies,andshallbeforcedtoreducemytaxes。TheAmericanwarenabledmetodoublethetaxes;theDutchbusinesstoaddmore;theNootkahumbuggavemeapretextforraisingthreemillionssterlingmore;butunlessIcanmakeanenemyofRussiatheharvestfromwarswillend。IwasthefirsttoinciteTurkagainstRussian,andnowIhopetoreapafreshcropoftaxes。\"
Ifthemiseriesofwar,andthefloodofevilsitspreadsoveracountry,didnotcheckallinclinationtomirth,andturnlaughterintogrief,thefranticconductofthegovernmentofEnglandwouldonlyexciteridicule。
Butitisimpossibletobanishfromone\'smindtheimagesofsufferingwhichthecontemplationofsuchviciouspolicypresents。Toreasonwithgovernments,astheyhaveexistedforages,istoarguewithbrutes。Itisonlyfromthenationsthemselvesthatreformscanbeexpected。ThereoughtnotnowtoexistanydoubtthatthepeoplesofFrance,England,andAmerica,enlightenedandenlighteningeachother,shallhenceforthbeable,notmerelytogivetheworldanexampleofgoodgovernment,butbytheirunitedinfluenceenforceitspractice。
（TranslatedfromtheFrench）
RightsofManAmongtheincivilitiesbywhichnationsorindividualsprovokeandirritateeachother,Mr。Burke\'spamphletontheFrenchRevolutionisanextraordinaryinstance。NeitherthePeopleofFrance,northeNationalAssembly,weretroublingthemselvesabouttheaffairsofEngland,ortheEnglishParliament;
andthatMr。Burkeshouldcommenceanunprovokedattackuponthem,bothinParliamentandinpublic,isaconductthatcannotbepardonedonthescoreofmanners,norjustifiedonthatofpolicy。
ThereisscarcelyanepithetofabusetobefoundintheEnglishlanguage,withwhichMr。BurkehasnotloadedtheFrenchNationandtheNationalAssembly。Everythingwhichrancour,prejudice,ignoranceorknowledgecouldsuggest,ispouredforthinthecopiousfuryofnearfourhundredpages。
InthestrainandontheplanMr。Burkewaswriting,hemighthavewrittenontoasmanythousands。Whenthetongueorthepenisletlooseinafrenzyofpassion,itistheman,andnotthesubject,thatbecomesexhausted。
HithertoMr。BurkehasbeenmistakenanddisappointedintheopinionshehadformedoftheaffairsofFrance;butsuchistheingenuityofhishope,orthemalignancyofhisdespair,thatitfurnisheshimwithnewpretencestogoon。TherewasatimewhenitwasimpossibletomakeMr。
BurkebelievetherewouldbeanyRevolutioninFrance。Hisopinionthenwas,thattheFrenchhadneitherspirittoundertakeitnorfortitudetosupportit;andnowthatthereisone,heseeksanescapebycondemningit。
NotsufficientlycontentwithabusingtheNationalAssembly,agreatpartofhisworkistakenupwithabusingDr。Price（oneofthebest—heartedmenthatlives）andthetwosocietiesinEnglandknownbythenameoftheRevolutionSocietyandtheSocietyforConstitutionalInformation。
Dr。Pricehadpreachedasermononthe4thofNovember,1789,beingtheanniversaryofwhatiscalledinEnglandtheRevolution,whichtookplace1688。Mr。Burke,speakingofthissermon,says:\"ThepoliticalDivineproceedsdogmaticallytoassert,thatbytheprinciplesoftheRevolution,thepeopleofEnglandhaveacquiredthreefundamentalrights:Tochooseourowngovernors。Tocashierthemformisconduct。Toframeagovernmentforourselves。\"Dr。Pricedoesnotsaythattherighttodothesethingsexistsinthisorinthatperson,orinthisorinthatdescriptionofpersons,butthatitexistsinthewhole;thatitisarightresidentinthenation。Mr。
Burke,onthecontrary,deniesthatsucharightexistsinthenation,eitherinwholeorinpart,orthatitexistsanywhere;and,whatisstillmorestrangeandmarvellous,hesays:\"thatthepeopleofEnglandutterlydisclaimsucharight,andthattheywillresistthepracticalassertionofitwiththeirlivesandfortunes。\"Thatmenshouldtakeuparmsandspendtheirlivesandfortunes,nottomaintaintheirrights,buttomaintaintheyhavenotrights,isanentirelynewspeciesofdiscovery,andsuitedtotheparadoxicalgeniusofMr。Burke。
ThemethodwhichMr。BurketakestoprovethatthepeopleofEnglandhavenosuchrights,andthatsuchrightsdonotnowexistinthenation,eitherinwholeorinpart,oranywhereatall,isofthesamemarvellousandmonstrouskindwithwhathehasalreadysaid;forhisargumentsarethatthepersons,orthegenerationofpersons,inwhomtheydidexist,aredead,andwiththemtherightisdeadalso。Toprovethis,hequotesadeclarationmadebyParliamentaboutahundredyearsago,toWilliamandMary,inthesewords:\"TheLordsSpiritualandTemporal,andCommons,do,inthenameofthepeopleaforesaid\"（meaningthepeopleofEnglandthenliving）\"mosthumblyandfaithfullysubmitthemselves,theirheirsandposterities,forEVER。\"HequotesaclauseofanotherActofParliamentmadeinthesamereign,thetermsofwhichhesays,\"bindus\"（meaningthepeopleoftheirday）,\"ourheirsandourposterity,tothem,theirheirsandposterity,totheendoftime。\"
Mr。Burkeconceiveshispointsufficientlyestablishedbyproducingthoseclauses,whichheenforcesbysayingthattheyexcludetherightofthenationforever。Andnotyetcontentwithmakingsuchdeclarations,repeatedoverandoveragain,hefarthersays,\"thatifthepeopleofEnglandpossessedsucharightbeforetheRevolution\"（whichheacknowledgestohavebeenthecase,notonlyinEngland,butthroughoutEurope,atanearlyperiod）,\"yetthattheEnglishNationdid,atthetimeoftheRevolution,mostsolemnlyrenounceandabdicateit,forthemselves,andforalltheirposterity,forever。\"
AsMr。Burkeoccasionallyappliesthepoisondrawnfromhishorridprinciples,notonlytotheEnglishnation,buttotheFrenchRevolutionandtheNationalAssembly,andchargesthataugust,illuminatedandilluminatingbodyofmenwiththeepithetofusurpers,Ishall,sansceremonie,placeanothersystemofprinciplesinoppositiontohis。
TheEnglishParliamentof1688didacertainthing,which,forthemselvesandtheirconstituents,theyhadarighttodo,andwhichitappearedrightshouldbedone。But,inadditiontothisright,whichtheypossessedbydelegation,theysetupanotherrightbyassumption,thatofbindingandcontrollingposteritytotheendoftime。Thecase,therefore,dividesitselfintotwoparts;therightwhichtheypossessedbydelegation,andtherightwhichtheysetupbyassumption。Thefirstisadmitted;butwithrespecttothesecond,Ireply—
Thereneverdid,thereneverwill,andtherenevercan,existaParliament,oranydescriptionofmen,oranygenerationofmen,inanycountry,possessedoftherightorthepowerofbindingandcontrollingposteritytothe\"endoftime,\"orofcommandingforeverhowtheworldshallbegoverned,orwhoshallgovernit;andthereforeallsuchclauses,actsordeclarationsbywhichthemakersofthemattempttodowhattheyhaveneithertherightnorthepowertodo,northepowertoexecute,areinthemselvesnullandvoid。Everyageandgenerationmustbeasfreetoactforitselfinallcasesastheageandgenerationswhichprecededit。Thevanityandpresumptionofgoverningbeyondthegraveisthemostridiculousandinsolentofalltyrannies。Manhasnopropertyinman;neitherhasanygenerationapropertyinthegenerationswhicharetofollow。TheParliamentorthepeopleof1688,orofanyotherperiod,hadnomorerighttodisposeofthepeopleofthepresentday,ortobindortocontroltheminanyshapewhatever,thantheparliamentorthepeopleofthepresentdayhavetodisposeof,bindorcontrolthosewhoaretoliveahundredorathousandyearshence。
Everygenerationis,andmustbe,competenttoallthepurposeswhichitsoccasionsrequire。Itistheliving,andnotthedead,thataretobeaccommodated。
Whenmanceasestobe,hispowerandhiswantsceasewithhim;andhavingnolongeranyparticipationintheconcernsofthisworld,hehasnolongeranyauthorityindirectingwhoshallbeitsgovernors,orhowitsgovernmentshallbeorganised,orhowadministered。
Iamnotcontendingfornoragainstanyformofgovernment,norfornoragainstanyparty,hereorelsewhere。Thatwhichawholenationchoosestodoithasarighttodo。Mr。Burkesays,No。Where,then,doestherightexist？Iamcontendingfortherightsoftheliving,andagainsttheirbeingwilledawayandcontrolledandcontractedforbythemanuscriptassumedauthorityofthedead,andMr。Burkeiscontendingfortheauthorityofthedeadovertherightsandfreedomoftheliving。Therewasatimewhenkingsdisposedoftheircrownsbywillupontheirdeath—beds,andconsignedthepeople,likebeastsofthefield,towhateversuccessortheyappointed。
Thisisnowsoexplodedasscarcelytoberemembered,andsomonstrousashardlytobebelieved。ButtheParliamentaryclausesuponwhichMr。
Burkebuildshispoliticalchurchareofthesamenature。
Thelawsofeverycountrymustbeanalogoustosomecommonprinciple。
InEnglandnoparentormaster,noralltheauthorityofParliament,omnipotentasithascalleditself,canbindorcontrolthepersonalfreedomevenofanindividualbeyondtheageoftwenty—oneyears。Onwhatgroundofright,then,couldtheParliamentof1688,oranyotherParliament,bindallposterityforever？
Thosewhohavequittedtheworld,andthosewhohavenotyetarrivedatit,areasremotefromeachotherastheutmoststretchofmortalimaginationcanconceive。Whatpossibleobligation,then,canexistbetweenthem—whatruleorprinciplecanbelaiddownthatoftwononentities,theoneoutofexistenceandtheothernotin,andwhonevercanmeetinthisworld,theoneshouldcontroltheothertotheendoftime？
InEnglanditissaidthatmoneycannotbetakenoutofthepocketsofthepeoplewithouttheirconsent。Butwhoauthorised,orwhocouldauthorise,theParliamentof1688tocontrolandtakeawaythefreedomofposterity（whowerenotinexistencetogiveortowithholdtheirconsent）andlimitandconfinetheirrightofactingincertaincasesforever？
AgreaterabsurditycannotpresentitselftotheunderstandingofmanthanwhatMr。Burkeofferstohisreaders。Hetellsthem,andhetellstheworldtocome,thatacertainbodyofmenwhoexistedahundredyearsagomadealaw,andthattheredoesnotexistinthenation,noreverwill,norevercan,apowertoalterit。Underhowmanysubtiltiesorabsurditieshasthedivinerighttogovernbeenimposedonthecredulityofmankind？
Mr。Burkehasdiscoveredanewone,andhehasshortenedhisjourneytoRomebyappealingtothepowerofthisinfallibleParliamentofformerdays,andheproduceswhatithasdoneasofdivineauthority,forthatpowermustcertainlybemorethanhumanwhichnohumanpowertotheendoftimecanalter。
ButMr。Burkehasdonesomeservice—nottohiscause,buttohiscountry—
bybringingthoseclausesintopublicview。Theyservetodemonstratehownecessaryitisatalltimestowatchagainsttheattemptedencroachmentofpower,andtopreventitsrunningtoexcess。ItissomewhatextraordinarythattheoffenceforwhichJamesII。wasexpelled,thatofsettinguppowerbyassumption,shouldbere—acted,underanothershapeandform,bytheParliamentthatexpelledhim。ItshowsthattheRightsofManwerebutimperfectlyunderstoodattheRevolution,forcertainitisthattherightwhichthatParliamentsetupbyassumption（forbythedelegationithadnot,andcouldnothaveit,becausenonecouldgiveit）overthepersonsandfreedomofposterityforeverwasofthesametyrannicalunfoundedkindwhichJamesattemptedtosetupovertheParliamentandthenation,andforwhichhewasexpelled。Theonlydifferenceis（forinprincipletheydiffernot）thattheonewasanusurperoverliving,andtheotherovertheunborn;andastheonehasnobetterauthoritytostanduponthantheother,bothofthemmustbeequallynullandvoid,andofnoeffect。
Fromwhat,orfromwhence,doesMr。Burkeprovetherightofanyhumanpowertobindposterityforever？Hehasproducedhisclauses,buthemustproducealsohisproofsthatsucharightexisted,andshowhowitexisted。
Ifiteverexisteditmustnowexist,forwhateverappertainstothenatureofmancannotbeannihilatedbyman。Itisthenatureofmantodie,andhewillcontinuetodieaslongashecontinuestobeborn。ButMr。BurkehassetupasortofpoliticalAdam,inwhomallposterityareboundforever。Hemust,therefore,provethathisAdampossessedsuchapower,orsucharight。
Theweakeranycordis,thelesswillitbeartobestretched,andtheworseisthepolicytostretchit,unlessitisintendedtobreakit。HadanyoneproposedtheoverthrowofMr。Burke\'spositions,hewouldhaveproceededasMr。Burkehasdone。Hewouldhavemagnifiedtheauthorities,onpurposetohavecalledtherightofthemintoquestion;andtheinstantthequestionofrightwasstarted,theauthoritiesmusthavebeengivenup。
Itrequiresbutaverysmallglanceofthoughttoperceivethatalthoughlawsmadeinonegenerationoftencontinueinforcethroughsucceedinggenerations,yettheycontinuetoderivetheirforcefromtheconsentoftheliving。Alawnotrepealedcontinuesinforce,notbecauseitcannotberepealed,butbecauseitisnotrepealed;andthenon—repealingpassesforconsent。
ButMr。Burke\'sclauseshavenoteventhisqualificationintheirfavour。
Theybecomenull,byattemptingtobecomeimmortal。Thenatureofthemprecludesconsent。Theydestroytherightwhichtheymighthave,bygroundingitonarightwhichtheycannothave。Immortalpowerisnotahumanright,andthereforecannotbearightofParliament。TheParliamentof1688mightaswellhavepassedanacttohaveauthorisedthemselvestoliveforever,astomaketheirauthorityliveforever。All,therefore,thatcanbesaidofthoseclausesisthattheyareaformalityofwords,ofasmuchimportasifthosewhousedthemhadaddressedacongratulationtothemselves,andintheorientalstyleofantiquityhadsaid:OParliament,liveforever！
Thecircumstancesoftheworldarecontinuallychanging,andtheopinionsofmenchangealso;andasgovernmentisfortheliving,andnotforthedead,itisthelivingonlythathasanyrightinit。Thatwhichmaybethoughtrightandfoundconvenientinoneagemaybethoughtwrongandfoundinconvenientinanother。Insuchcases,whoistodecide,thelivingorthedead？
AsalmostonehundredpagesofMr。Burke\'sbookareemployedupontheseclauses,itwillconsequentlyfollowthatiftheclausesthemselves,sofarastheysetupanassumedusurpeddominionoverposterityforever,areunauthoritative,andintheirnaturenullandvoid;thatallhisvoluminousinferences,anddeclamationdrawntherefrom,orfoundedthereon,arenullandvoidalso;andonthisgroundIrestthematter。