ChapterLXVIII:ReignOfMahometTheSecond，ExtinctionOfEasternEmpirePartI。
ReignAndCharacterOfMahometTheSecond。—Siege，Assault，AndFinalConquest，OfConstantinopleByTheTurks。—DeathOfConstantinePalaeologus。—ServitudeOfTheGreeks。—ExtinctionOfTheRomanEmpireInTheEast。—ConsternationOfEurope。—
ConquestsAndDeathOfMahometTheSecond。
ThesiegeofConstantinoplebytheTurksattractsourfirstattentiontothepersonandcharacterofthegreatdestroyer。
MahomettheSecond^1wasthesonofthesecondAmurath；andthoughhismotherhasbeendecoratedwiththetitlesofChristianandprincess，sheismoreprobablyconfoundedwiththenumerousconcubineswhopeopledfromeveryclimatetheharemofthesultan。HisfirsteducationandsentimentswerethoseofadevoutMussulman；andasoftenasheconversedwithaninfidel，hepurifiedhishandsandfacebythelegalritesofablution。Ageandempireappeartohaverelaxedthisnarrowbigotry:hisaspiringgeniusdisdainedtoacknowledgeapowerabovehisown；
andinhislooserhourshepresumeditissaidtobrandtheprophetofMeccaasarobberandimpostor。YetthesultanperseveredinadecentreverenceforthedoctrineanddisciplineoftheKoran:^2hisprivateindiscretionmusthavebeensacredfromthevulgarear；andweshouldsuspectthecredulityofstrangersandsectaries，sopronetobelievethatamindwhichishardenedagainsttruthmustbearmedwithsuperiorcontemptforabsurdityanderror。Underthetuitionofthemostskilfulmasters，Mahometadvancedwithanearlyandrapidprogressinthepathsofknowledge；andbesideshisnativetongueitisaffirmedthathespokeorunderstoodfivelanguages，^3theArabic，thePersian，theChaldaeanorHebrew，theLatin，andtheGreek。ThePersianmightindeedcontributetohisamusement，andtheArabictohisedification；andsuchstudiesarefamiliartotheOrientalyouth。IntheintercourseoftheGreeksandTurks，aconquerormightwishtoconversewiththepeopleoverwhichhewasambitioustoreign:hisownpraisesinLatinpoetry^4orprose^5mightfindapassagetotheroyalear；butwhatuseormeritcouldrecommendtothestatesmanorthescholartheuncouthdialectofhisHebrewslaves?Thehistoryandgeographyoftheworldwerefamiliartohismemory:thelivesoftheheroesoftheEast，perhapsoftheWest，^6excitedhisemulation:hisskillinastrologyisexcusedbythefollyofthetimes，andsupposessomerudimentsofmathematicalscience；andaprofanetastefortheartsisbetrayedinhisliberalinvitationandrewardofthepaintersofItaly。^7Buttheinfluenceofreligionandlearningwereemployedwithouteffectonhissavageandlicentiousnature。
Iwillnottranscribe，nordoIfirmlybelieve，thestoriesofhisfourteenpages，whosebellieswererippedopeninsearchofastolenmelon；orofthebeauteousslave，whoseheadheseveredfromherbody，toconvincetheJanizariesthattheirmasterwasnotthevotaryoflove。HissobrietyisattestedbythesilenceoftheTurkishannals，whichaccusethree，andthreeonly，oftheOttomanlineoftheviceofdrunkenness。^8Butitcannotbedeniedthathispassionswereatoncefuriousandinexorable；thatinthepalace，asinthefield，atorrentofbloodwasspiltontheslightestprovocation；andthatthenoblestofthecaptiveyouthwereoftendishonoredbyhisunnaturallust。IntheAlbanianwarhestudiedthelessons，andsoonsurpassedtheexample，ofhisfather；andtheconquestoftwoempires，twelvekingdoms，andtwohundredcities，avainandflatteringaccount，isascribedtohisinvinciblesword。Hewasdoubtlessasoldier，andpossiblyageneral；Constantinoplehassealedhisglory；butifwecomparethemeans，theobstacles，andtheachievements，MahomettheSecondmustblushtosustainaparallelwithAlexanderorTimour。Underhiscommand，theOttomanforceswerealwaysmorenumerousthantheirenemies；yettheirprogresswasboundedbytheEuphratesandtheAdriatic；andhisarmswerecheckedbyHuniadesandScanderbeg，bytheRhodianknightsandbythePersianking。
[Footnote1:ForthecharacterofMahometII。itisdangeroustotrusteithertheTurksortheChristians。ThemostmoderatepictureappearstobedrawnbyPhranza，l。i。c。33，whoseresentmenthadcooledinageandsolitude；seelikewiseSpondanus，A。D。1451，No。11，andthecontinuatorofFleury，tom。xxii。p。552，theElogiaofPaulusJovius，l。iii。p。164
—166，andtheDictionnairedeBayle，tom。iii。p。273—279。]
[Footnote2:Cantemir，p。115。andthemosqueswhichhefounded，attesthispublicregardforreligion。MahometfreelydisputedwiththeGennadiusonthetworeligions，Spond。A。D。
1453，No。22。]
[Footnote3:Quinquelinguaspraetersuamnoverat，Graecam，Latinam，Chaldaicam，Persicam。TheLatintranslatorofPhranzahasdroppedtheArabic，whichtheKoranmustrecommendtoeveryMussulman。
Note:ItappearsintheoriginalGreektext，p。95，edit。
Bonn。—M。]
[Footnote4:Philelphus，byaLatinode，requestedandobtainedthelibertyofhiswife\'smotherandsistersfromtheconquerorofConstantinople。Itwasdeliveredintothesultan\'shandsbytheenvoysofthedukeofMilan。PhilelphushimselfwassuspectedofadesignofretiringtoConstantinople；yettheoratoroftensoundedthetrumpetofholywar，seehisLifebyM。Lancelot，intheMemoiresdel\'AcademiedesInscriptions，tom。x。p。718，724，&c。]
[Footnote5:RobertValturiopublishedatVerona，in1483，hisxii。booksdeReMilitari，inwhichhefirstmentionstheuseofbombs。ByhispatronSigismundMalatesta，princeofRimini，ithadbeenaddressedwithaLatinepistletoMahometII。]
[Footnote6:AccordingtoPhranza，heassiduouslystudiedthelivesandactionsofAlexander，Augustus，Constantine，andTheodosius。Ihavereadsomewhere，thatPlutarch\'sLivesweretranslatedbyhisordersintotheTurkishlanguage。IfthesultanhimselfunderstoodGreek，itmusthavebeenforthebenefitofhissubjects。Yettheselivesareaschooloffreedomaswellasofvalor。
Note:VonHammerdisdainfullyrejectsthisfableofMahomet\'sknowledgeoflanguages。Knollesadds，thathedelightedinreadingthehistoryofAlexandertheGreat，andofJuliusCaesar。Theformer，nodoubt，wasthePersianlegend，which，itisremarkable，camebacktoEurope，andwaspopularthroughoutthemiddleagesasthe\"RomauntofAlexander。\"ThefounderoftheImperialdynastyofRome，accordingtoM。VonHammer，isaltogetherunknownintheEast。MahometwasagreatpatronofTurkishliterature:theromanticpoemsofPersiaweretranslated，orimitated，underhispatronage。VonHammervolii。
p。268。—M。]
[Footnote7:ThefamousGentileBellino，whomhehadinvitedfromVenice，wasdismissedwithachainandcollarofgold，andapurseof3000ducats。WithVoltaireIlaughatthefoolishstoryofaslavepurposelybeheadedtoinstructthepainterintheactionofthemuscles。]
[Footnote*:Thisstory，thesubjectofJohnson\'sIrene，isrejectedbyM。VonHammer，vol。ii。p。208。TheGermanhistorian\'sgeneralestimateofMahomet\'scharacteragreesinitsmoremarkedfeatureswithGibbon\'s。—M。]
[Footnote8:TheseImperialdrunkardswereSolimanI。，SelimII。，andAmurathIV。，Cantemir，p。61。ThesophisofPersiacanproduceamoreregularsuccession；andinthelastage，ourEuropeantravellerswerethewitnessesandcompanionsoftheirrevels。]
InthereignofAmurath，hetwicetastedofroyalty，andtwicedescendedfromthethrone:histenderagewasincapableofopposinghisfather\'srestoration，butnevercouldheforgivethevizierswhohadrecommendedthatsalutarymeasure。HisnuptialswerecelebratedwiththedaughterofaTurkmanemir；and，afterafestivaloftwomonths，hedepartedfromAdrianoplewithhisbride，toresideinthegovernmentofMagnesia。Beforetheendofsixweeks，hewasrecalledbyasuddenmessagefromthedivan，whichannouncedthedeceaseofAmurath，andthemutinousspiritoftheJanizaries。Hisspeedandvigorcommandedtheirobedience:hepassedtheHellespontwithachosenguard:andatthedistanceofamilefromAdrianople，theviziersandemirs，theimamsandcandhis，thesoldiersandthepeople，fellprostratebeforethenewsultan。Theyaffectedtoweep，theyaffectedtorejoice:heascendedthethroneattheageoftwenty—oneyears，andremovedthecauseofseditionbythedeath，theinevitabledeath，ofhisinfantbrothers。^9TheambassadorsofEuropeandAsiasoonappearedtocongratulatehisaccessionandsolicithisfriendship；andtoallhespokethelanguageofmoderationandpeace。TheconfidenceoftheGreekemperorwasrevivedbythesolemnoathsandfairassuranceswithwhichhesealedtheratificationofthetreaty:andarichdomainonthebanksoftheStrymonwasassignedfortheannualpaymentofthreehundredthousandaspers，thepensionofanOttomanprince，whowasdetainedathisrequestintheByzantinecourt。
YettheneighborsofMahometmighttrembleattheseveritywithwhichayouthfulmonarchreformedthepompofhisfather\'shousehold:theexpensesofluxurywereappliedtothoseofambition，andauselesstrainofseventhousandfalconerswaseitherdismissedfromhisservice，orenlistedinhistroops。^!
Inthefirstsummerofhisreign，hevisitedwithanarmytheAsiaticprovinces；butafterhumblingthepride，Mahometacceptedthesubmission，oftheCaramanian，thathemightnotbedivertedbythesmallestobstaclefromtheexecutionofhisgreatdesign。
^10
[Footnote9:Calapin，oneoftheseroyalinfants，wassavedfromhiscruelbrother，andbaptizedatRomeunderthenameofCallistusOthomannus。TheemperorFredericIII。presentedhimwithanestateinAustria，whereheendedhislife；andCuspinian，whoinhisyouthconversedwiththeagedprinceatVienna，applaudshispietyandwisdom，deCaesaribus，p。672，673。]
[Footnote*:Ahmed，thesonofaGreekprincess，wastheobjectofhisespecialjealousy。VonHammer，p。501。—M。]
[Footnote!:TheJanizariesobtained，forthefirsttime，agiftontheaccessionofanewsovereign，p。504。—M。]
[Footnote10:SeetheaccessionofMahometII。inDucas，c。33，
Phranza，l。i。c。33，l。iii。c。2，Chalcondyles，l。vii。p。
199，andCantemir，p。96。]
TheMahometan，andmoreespeciallytheTurkishcasuists，havepronouncedthatnopromisecanbindthefaithfulagainsttheinterestanddutyoftheirreligion；andthatthesultanmayabrogatehisowntreatiesandthoseofhispredecessors。ThejusticeandmagnanimityofAmurathhadscornedthisimmoralprivilege；buthisson，thoughtheproudestofmen，couldstoopfromambitiontothebasestartsofdissimulationanddeceit。
Peacewasonhislips，whilewarwasinhisheart:heincessantlysighedforthepossessionofConstantinople；andtheGreeks，bytheirownindiscretion，affordedthefirstpretenceofthefatalrupture。^11Insteadoflaboringtobeforgotten，theirambassadorspursuedhiscamp，todemandthepayment，andeventheincrease，oftheirannualstipend:thedivanwasimportunedbytheircomplaints，andthevizier，asecretfriendoftheChristians，wasconstrainedtodeliverthesenseofhisbrethren。
\"YefoolishandmiserableRomans，\"saidCalil，\"weknowyourdevices，andyeareignorantofyourowndanger!ThescrupulousAmurathisnomore；histhroneisoccupiedbyayoungconqueror，whomnolawscanbind，andnoobstaclescanresist:andifyouescapefromhishands，givepraisetothedivineclemency，whichyetdelaysthechastisementofyoursins。Whydoyeseektoaffrightusbyvainandindirectmenaces?ReleasethefugitiveOrchan，crownhimsultanofRomania；calltheHungariansfrombeyondtheDanube；armagainstusthenationsoftheWest；andbeassured，thatyouwillonlyprovokeandprecipitateyourruin。\"
Butifthefearsoftheambassadorswerealarmedbythesternlanguageofthevizier，theyweresoothedbythecourteousaudienceandfriendlyspeechesoftheOttomanprince；andMahometassuredthemthatonhisreturntoAdrianoplehewouldredressthegrievances，andconsultthetrueinterests，oftheGreeks。
NosoonerhadherepassedtheHellespont，thanheissuedamandatetosuppresstheirpension，andtoexpeltheirofficersfromthebanksoftheStrymon:inthismeasurehebetrayedahostilemind；andthesecondorderannounced，andinsomedegreecommenced，thesiegeofConstantinople。InthenarrowpassoftheBosphorus，anAsiaticfortresshadformerlybeenraisedbyhisgrandfather；intheoppositesituation，ontheEuropeanside，heresolvedtoerectamoreformidablecastle；andathousandmasonswerecommandedtoassembleinthespringonaspotnamedAsomaton，aboutfivemilesfromtheGreekmetropolis。^12
Persuasionistheresourceofthefeeble；andthefeeblecanseldompersuade:theambassadorsoftheemperorattempted，withoutsuccess，todivertMahometfromtheexecutionofhisdesign。Theyrepresented，thathisgrandfatherhadsolicitedthepermissionofManueltobuildacastleonhisownterritories；
butthatthisdoublefortification，whichwouldcommandthestrait，couldonlytendtoviolatetheallianceofthenations；
tointercepttheLatinswhotradedintheBlackSea，andperhapstoannihilatethesubsistenceofthecity。\"Iformtheenterprise，\"repliedtheperfidioussultan，\"againstthecity；
buttheempireofConstantinopleismeasuredbyherwalls。HaveyouforgotthedistresstowhichmyfatherwasreducedwhenyouformedaleaguewiththeHungarians；whentheyinvadedourcountrybyland，andtheHellespontwasoccupiedbytheFrenchgalleys?AmurathwascompelledtoforcethepassageoftheBosphorus；andyourstrengthwasnotequaltoyourmalevolence。
IwasthenachildatAdrianople；theMoslemstrembled；and，forawhile，theGabours^13insultedourdisgrace。ButwhenmyfatherhadtriumphedinthefieldofWarna，hevowedtoerectafortonthewesternshore，andthatvowitismydutytoaccomplish。Haveyetheright，haveyethepower，tocontrolmyactionsonmyownground?Forthatgroundismyown:asfarastheshoresoftheBosphorus，AsiaisinhabitedbytheTurks，andEuropeisdesertedbytheRomans。Return，andinformyourking，thatthepresentOttomanisfardifferentfromhispredecessors；
thathisresolutionssurpasstheirwishes；andthatheperformsmorethantheycouldresolve。Returninsafety—butthenextwhodeliversasimilarmessagemayexpecttobeflayedalive。\"Afterthisdeclaration，Constantine，thefirstoftheGreeksinspiritasinrank，^14haddeterminedtounsheathethesword，andtoresisttheapproachandestablishmentoftheTurksontheBosphorus。Hewasdisarmedbytheadviceofhiscivilandecclesiasticalministers，whorecommendedasystemlessgenerous，andevenlessprudent，thanhisown，toapprovetheirpatienceandlong—suffering，tobrandtheOttomanwiththenameandguiltofanaggressor，andtodependonchanceandtimefortheirownsafety，andthedestructionofafortwhichcouldnotlongbemaintainedintheneighborhoodofagreatandpopulouscity。
Amidsthopeandfear，thefearsofthewise，andthehopesofthecredulous，thewinterrolledaway；theproperbusinessofeachman，andeachhour，waspostponed；andtheGreeksshuttheireyesagainsttheimpendingdanger，tillthearrivalofthespringandthesultandecidetheassuranceoftheirruin。
[Footnote11:BeforeIenteronthesiegeofConstantinople，I
shallobserve，thatexcepttheshorthintsofCantemirandLeunclavius，IhavenotbeenabletoobtainanyTurkishaccountofthisconquest；suchanaccountaswepossessofthesiegeofRhodesbySolimanII。，Memoiresdel\'AcademiedesInscriptions，tom。xxvi。p。723—769。ImustthereforedependontheGreeks，whoseprejudices，insomedegree，aresubduedbytheirdistress。
OurstandardtextsarthoseofDucas，c。34—42，Phranza，l。
iii。c。7—20，Chalcondyles，l。viii。p。201—214，andLeonardusChiensis，HistoriaC。P。aTurcoexpugnatae。
Norimberghae，1544，in4to。，20leaves。Thelastofthesenarrativesistheearliestindate，sinceitwascomposedintheIsleofChios，the16thofAugust，1453，onlyseventy—ninedaysafterthelossofthecity，andinthefirstconfusionofideasandpassions。SomehintsmaybeaddedfromanepistleofCardinalIsidoreinFarragineRerumTurcicarum，adcalcemChalcondyl。Clauseri，Basil，1556toPopeNicholasV。，andatractofTheodosiusZygomala，whichheaddressedintheyear1581
toMartinCrucius，Turco—Graecia，l。i。p。74—98，Basil，1584。Thevariousfactsandmaterialsarebriefly，thoughcritically，reviewedbySpondanus，A。D。1453，No。1—27。ThehearsayrelationsofMonstreletandthedistantLatinsIshalltakeleavetodisregard。
Note:M。VonHammerhasaddedlittlenewinformationonthesiegeofConstantinople，and，byhisgeneralagreement，hasborneanhonorabletestimonytothetruth，andbyhiscloseimitationtothegraphicspiritandboldness，ofGibbon。—M。]
[Footnote12:Thesituationofthefortress，andthetopographyoftheBosphorus，arebestlearnedfromPeterGyllius，deBosphoroThracio，l。ii。c。13，Leunclavius，Pandect。p。445，
andTournefort，VoyagedansleLevant，tom。ii。lettrexv。p。
443，444；butImustregretthemaporplanwhichTournefortsenttotheFrenchministerofthemarine。Thereadermayturnbacktochap。xvii。ofthisHistory。]
[Footnote13:TheopprobriousnamewhichtheTurksbestowontheinfidels，isexpressedbyDucas，andGiaourbyLeunclaviusandthemoderns。TheformertermisderivedbyDucangeGloss。Graectom。i。p。530，invulgarGreek，atortoise，asdenotingaretrogrademotionfromthefaith。Butalas!GabourisnomorethanGheber，whichwastransferredfromthePersiantotheTurkishlanguage，fromtheworshippersoffiretothoseofthecrucifix，D\'Herbelot，Bibliot。Orient。p。375。]
[Footnote14:Phranzadoesjusticetohismaster\'ssenseandcourage。CalliditatemhominisnonignoransImperatorpriorarmamovereconstituit，andstigmatizesthefollyofthecumsacritumprofaniproceres，whichhehadheard，amentesspevanapasci。
Ducaswasnotaprivy—counsellor。]
Ofamasterwhoneverforgives，theordersareseldomdisobeyed。Onthetwenty—sixthofMarch，theappointedspotofAsomatonwascoveredwithanactiveswarmofTurkishartificers；
andthematerialsbyseaandlandwerediligentlytransportedfromEuropeandAsia。^15ThelimehadbeenburntinCataphrygia；
thetimberwascutdowninthewoodsofHeracleaandNicomedia；