Theycultivatedwithmoresuccessthesublimescienceofastronomy，whichelevatesthemindofmantodisdainhisdiminutiveplanetandmomentaryexistence。ThecostlyinstrumentsofobservationweresuppliedbythecaliphAlmamon，andthelandoftheChaldaeansstillaffordedthesamespaciouslevel，thesameuncloudedhorizon。IntheplainsofSinaar，andasecondtimeinthoseofCufa，hismathematiciansaccuratelymeasuredadegreeofthegreatcircleoftheearth，anddeterminedattwenty—fourthousandmilestheentirecircumferenceofourglobe。^61FromthereignoftheAbbassidestothatofthegrandchildrenofTamerlane，thestars，withouttheaidofglasses，werediligentlyobserved；andtheastronomicaltablesofBagdad，Spain，andSamarcand，^62correctsomeminuteerrors，withoutdaringtorenouncethehypothesisofPtolemy，withoutadvancingasteptowardsthediscoveryofthesolarsystem。IntheEasterncourts，thetruthsofsciencecouldberecommendedonlybyignoranceandfolly，andtheastronomerwouldhavebeendisregarded，hadhenotdebasedhiswisdomorhonestybythevainpredictionsofastrology。^63Butinthescienceofmedicine，theArabianshavebeendeservedlyapplauded。ThenamesofMesuaandGeber，ofRazisandAvicenna，arerankedwiththeGrecianmasters；inthecityofBagdad，eighthundredandsixtyphysicianswerelicensedtoexercisetheirlucrativeprofession:
^64inSpain，thelifeoftheCatholicprinceswasintrustedtotheskilloftheSaracens，^65andtheschoolofSalerno，theirlegitimateoffspring，revivedinItalyandEuropethepreceptsofthehealingart。^66Thesuccessofeachprofessormusthavebeeninfluencedbypersonalandaccidentalcauses；butwemayformalessfancifulestimateoftheirgeneralknowledgeofanatomy，^67
botany，^68andchemistry，^69thethreefoldbasisoftheirtheoryandpractice。AsuperstitiousreverenceforthedeadconfinedboththeGreeksandtheArabianstothedissectionofapesandquadrupeds；themoresolidandvisiblepartswereknowninthetimeofGalen，andthefinerscrutinyofthehumanframewasreservedforthemicroscopeandtheinjectionsofmodernartists。Botanyisanactivescience，andthediscoveriesofthetorridzonemightenrichtheherbalofDioscorideswithtwothousandplants。SometraditionaryknowledgemightbesecretedinthetemplesandmonasteriesofEgypt；muchusefulexperiencehadbeenacquiredinthepracticeofartsandmanufactures；butthescienceofchemistryowesitsoriginandimprovementtotheindustryoftheSaracens。Theyfirstinventedandnamedthealembicforthepurposesofdistillation，analyzedthesubstancesofthethreekingdomsofnature，triedthedistinctionandaffinitiesofalcalisandacids，andconvertedthepoisonousmineralsintosoftandsalutarymedicines。ButthemosteagersearchofArabianchemistrywasthetransmutationofmetals，andtheelixirofimmortalhealth:thereasonandthefortunesofthousandswereevaporatedinthecruciblesofalchemy，andtheconsummationofthegreatworkwaspromotedbytheworthyaidofmystery，fable，andsuperstition。
[Footnote55:TheArabiccatalogueoftheEscurialwillgiveajustideaoftheproportionoftheclasses。InthelibraryofCairo，theMssofastronomyandmedicineamountedto6500，withtwofairglobes，theoneofbrass，theotherofsilver，Bibliot。
Arab。Hisp。tom。i。p。417。]
[Footnote56:As，forinstance，thefifth，sixth，andseventhbookstheeighthisstillwantingoftheConicSectionsofApolloniusPergaeus，whichwereprintedfromtheFlorenceMs。
1661，Fabric。Bibliot。Graec。tom。ii。p。559。YetthefifthbookhadbeenpreviouslyrestoredbythemathematicaldivinationofViviani，seehisElogeinFontenelle，tom。v。p。59，&c。]
[Footnote57:ThemeritoftheseArabicversionsisfreelydiscussedbyRenaudot，Fabric。Bibliot。Graec。tom。i。p。812—
816，andpiouslydefendedbyCasiri，Bibliot。Arab。Hispana，tom。i。p。238—240。MostoftheversionsofPlato，Aristotle，Hippocrates，Galen，&c。，areascribedtoHonain，aphysicianoftheNestoriansect，whoflourishedatBagdadinthecourtofthecaliphs，anddiedA。D。876。Hewasattheheadofaschoolormanufactureoftranslations，andtheworksofhissonsanddiscipleswerepublishedunderhisname。SeeAbulpharagius，Dynast。p。88，115，171—174，andapudAsseman。Bibliot。
Orient。tom。ii。p。438，D\'Herbelot，Bibliot。Orientale，p。
456，Asseman。Bibliot。Orient。tom。iii。p。164，andCasiri，Bibliot。Arab。Hispana，tom。i。p。238，&c。251，286—290，302，304，&c。]
[Footnote58:SeeMosheim，Institut。Hist。Eccles。p。181，214，236，257，315，388，396，438，&c。]
[Footnote59:ThemostelegantcommentaryontheCategoriesorPredicamentsofAristotlemaybefoundinthePhilosophicalArrangementsofMr。JamesHarris，London，1775，inoctavo，wholaboredtorevivethestudiesofGrecianliteratureandphilosophy。]
[Footnote60:Abulpharagius，Dynast。p。81，222。Bibliot。Arab。
Hisp。tom。i。p。370，371。InquemsaystheprimateoftheJacobitessiimmiseritselector，oceanumhocingenerealgebraeinveniet。ThetimeofDiophantusofAlexandriaisunknown；buthissixbooksarestillextant，andhavebeenillustratedbytheGreekPlanudesandtheFrenchmanMeziriac，Fabric。Bibliot。Graec。tom。iv。p。12—15。]
[Footnote61:AbulfedaAnnal。Moslem。p。210，211，vers。Reiske
describesthisoperationaccordingtoIbnChallecan，andthebesthistorians。Thisdegreemostaccuratelycontains200，000royalorHashemitecubitswhichArabiahadderivedfromthesacredandlegalpracticebothofPalestineandEgypt。Thisancientcubitisrepeated400timesineachbasisofthegreatpyramid，andseemstoindicatetheprimitiveanduniversalmeasuresoftheEast。
SeetheMetrologieofthelaborions。M。Paucton，p。101—195。]
[Footnote62:SeetheAstronomicalTablesofUlughBegh，withtheprefaceofDr。HydeinthefirstvolumeofhisSyntagmaDissertationum，Oxon。1767。]
[Footnote63:ThetruthofastrologywasallowedbyAlbumazar，andthebestoftheArabianastronomers，whodrewtheirmostcertainpredictions，notfromVenusandMercury，butfromJupiterandthesun，Abulpharag。Dynast。p。161—163。ForthestateandscienceofthePersianastronomers，seeChardin，VoyagesenPerse，tom。iii。p。162—203。]
[Footnote64:Bibliot。Arabico—Hispana，tom。i。p。438。Theoriginalrelatesapleasanttaleofanignorant，butharmless，practitioner。]
[Footnote65:Intheyear956，SanchotheFat，kingofLeon，wascuredbythephysiciansofCordova，Mariana，l。viii。c。7，tom。
i。p。318。]
[Footnote66:TheschoolofSalerno，andtheintroductionoftheArabiansciencesintoItaly，arediscussedwithlearningandjudgmentbyMuratoriAntiquitat。ItaliaeMediiAevi，tom。iii。
p。932—940andGiannone，IstoriaCivilediNapoli，tom。ii。
p。119—127。]
[Footnote67:SeeagoodviewoftheprogressofanatomyinWotton，ReflectionsonAncientandModernLearning，p。208—
256。HisreputationhasbeenunworthilydepreciatedbythewitsinthecontroversyofBoyleandBentley。]
[Footnote68:Bibliot。Arab。Hispana，tom。i。p。275。AlBeithar，ofMalaga，theirgreatestbotanist，hadtravelledintoAfrica，Persia，andIndia。]
[Footnote69:Dr。Watson，ElementsofChemistry，vol。i。p。17，&c。allowstheoriginalmeritoftheArabians。YethequotesthemodestconfessionofthefamousGeberoftheixthcentury，D\'Herbelot，p。387，thathehaddrawnmostofhisscience，perhapsthetransmutationofmetals，fromtheancientsages。
Whatevermightbetheoriginorextentoftheirknowledge，theartsofchemistryandalchemyappeartohavebeenknowninEgyptatleastthreehundredyearsbeforeMahomet，Wotton\'sReflections，p。121—133。Pauw，RecherchessurlesEgyptiensetlesChinois，tom。i。p。376—429。
Note:Mr。WhewellHist。ofInductiveSciences，vol。i。p。
336rejectstheclaimoftheArabiansasinventorsofthescienceofchemistry。\"Theformationandrealizationofthenotionsofanalysisandaffinitywereimportantstepsinchemicalscience；which，asIshallhereafterendeavortoshowitremainedforthechemistsofEuropetomakeatamuchlaterperiod。\"—M。]
ButtheMoslemsdeprivedthemselvesoftheprincipalbenefitsofafamiliarintercoursewithGreeceandRome，theknowledgeofantiquity，thepurityoftaste，andthefreedomofthought。Confidentintherichesoftheirnativetongue，theArabiansdisdainedthestudyofanyforeignidiom。TheGreekinterpreterswerechosenamongtheirChristiansubjects；theyformedtheirtranslations，sometimesontheoriginaltext，morefrequentlyperhapsonaSyriacversion；andinthecrowdofastronomersandphysicians，thereisnoexampleofapoet，anorator，orevenanhistorian，beingtaughttospeakthelanguageoftheSaracens。^70ThemythologyofHomerwouldhaveprovokedtheabhorrenceofthosesternfanatics:theypossessedinlazyignorancethecoloniesoftheMacedonians，andtheprovincesofCarthageandRome:theheroesofPlutarchandLivywereburiedinoblivion；andthehistoryoftheworldbeforeMahometwasreducedtoashortlegendofthepatriarchs，theprophets，andthePersiankings。OureducationintheGreekandLatinschoolsmayhavefixedinourmindsastandardofexclusivetaste；andIamnotforwardtocondemntheliteratureandjudgmentofnations，ofwhoselanguageIamignorant。YetIknowthattheclassicshavemuchtoteach，andIbelievethattheOrientalshavemuchtolearn；thetemperatedignityofstyle，thegracefulproportionsofart，theformsofvisibleandintellectualbeauty，thejustdelineationofcharacterandpassion，therhetoricofnarrativeandargument，theregularfabricofepicanddramaticpoetry。^71
Theinfluenceoftruthandreasonisofalessambiguouscomplexion。ThephilosophersofAthensandRomeenjoyedtheblessings，andassertedtherights，ofcivilandreligiousfreedom。TheirmoralandpoliticalwritingsmighthavegraduallyunlockedthefettersofEasterndespotism，diffusedaliberalspiritofinquiryandtoleration，andencouragedtheArabiansagestosuspectthattheircaliphwasatyrant，andtheirprophetanimpostor。^72Theinstinctofsuperstitionwasalarmedbytheintroductionevenoftheabstractsciences；andthemorerigiddoctorsofthelawcondemnedtherashandperniciouscuriosityofAlmamon。^73Tothethirstofmartyrdom，thevisionofparadise，andthebeliefofpredestination，wemustascribetheinvincibleenthusiasmoftheprinceandpeople。AndtheswordoftheSaracensbecamelessformidablewhentheiryouthwasdrawnawayfromthecamptothecollege，whenthearmiesofthefaithfulpresumedtoreadandtoreflect。YetthefoolishvanityoftheGreekswasjealousoftheirstudies，andreluctantlyimpartedthesacredfiretotheBarbariansoftheEast。^74
[Footnote70:AbulpharagiusDynast。p。26，148mentionsaSyriacversionofHomer\'stwopoems，byTheophilus，aChristianMaroniteofMountLibanus，whoprofessedastronomyatRohaorEdessatowardstheendoftheviiithcentury。Hisworkwouldbealiterarycuriosity。Ihavereadsomewhere，butIdonotbelieve，thatPlutarch\'sLivesweretranslatedintoTurkishfortheuseofMahomettheSecond。]
[Footnote71:Ihaveperused，withmuchpleasure，SirWilliamJones\'sLatinCommentaryonAsiaticPoetry，London，1774，inoctavo，whichwascomposedintheyouthofthatwonderfullinguist。Atpresent，inthematurityofhistasteandjudgment，hewouldperhapsabateofthefervent，andevenpartial，praisewhichhehasbestowedontheOrientals。]
[Footnote72:AmongtheArabianphilosophers，AverroeshasbeenaccusedofdespisingthereligionsoftheJews，theChristians，andtheMahometans，seehisarticleinBayle\'sDictionary。Eachofthesesectswouldagree，thatintwoinstancesoutofthree，hiscontemptwasreasonable。]
[Footnote73:D\'Herbelot，Bibliotheque，Orientale，p。546。]
[Footnote74:Cedrenus，p。548，whorelateshowmanfullytheemperorrefusedamathematiciantotheinstancesandoffersofthecaliphAlmamon。ThisabsurdscrupleisexpressedalmostinthesamewordsbythecontinuatorofTheophanes，ScriptorespostTheophanem，p。118。]
InthebloodyconflictoftheOmmiadesandAbbassides，theGreekshadstolentheopportunityofavengingtheirwrongsandenlargingtheirlimits。ButasevereretributionwasexactedbyMohadi，thethirdcaliphofthenewdynasty，whoseized，inhisturn，thefavorableopportunity，whileawomanandachild，IreneandConstantine，wereseatedontheByzantinethrone。Anarmyofninety—fivethousandPersiansandArabswassentfromtheTigristotheThracianBosphorus，underthecommandofHarun，^75orAaron，thesecondsonofthecommanderofthefaithful。HisencampmentontheoppositeheightsofChrysopolis，orScutari，informedIrene，inherpalaceofConstantinople，ofthelossofhertroopsandprovinces。Withtheconsentorconnivanceoftheirsovereign，herministerssubscribedanignominiouspeace；
andtheexchangeofsomeroyalgiftscouldnotdisguisetheannualtributeofseventythousanddinarsofgold，whichwasimposedontheRomanempire。TheSaracenshadtoorashlyadvancedintothemidstofadistantandhostileland:theirretreatwassolicitedbythepromiseoffaithfulguidesandplentifulmarkets；andnotaGreekhadcouragetowhisper，thattheirwearyforcesmightbesurroundedanddestroyedintheirnecessarypassagebetweenaslipperymountainandtheRiverSangarius。Fiveyearsafterthisexpedition，Harunascendedthethroneofhisfatherandhiselderbrother；themostpowerfulandvigorousmonarchofhisrace，illustriousintheWest，astheallyofCharlemagne，andfamiliartothemostchildishreaders，astheperpetualherooftheArabiantales。HistitletothenameofAlRashidtheJustissulliedbytheextirpationofthegenerous，perhapstheinnocent，Barmecides；yethecouldlistentothecomplaintofapoorwidowwhohadbeenpillagedbyhistroops，andwhodared，inapassageoftheKoran，tothreatentheinattentivedespotwiththejudgmentofGodandposterity。Hiscourtwasadornedwithluxuryandscience；but，inareignofthree—and—twentyyears，HarunrepeatedlyvisitedhisprovincesfromChorasantoEgypt；ninetimesheperformedthepilgrimageofMecca；eighttimesheinvadedtheterritoriesoftheRomans；andasoftenastheydeclinedthepaymentofthetribute，theyweretaughttofeelthatamonthofdepredationwasmorecostlythanayearofsubmission。ButwhentheunnaturalmotherofConstantinewasdeposedandbanished，hersuccessor，Nicephorus，resolvedtoobliteratethisbadgeofservitudeanddisgrace。Theepistleoftheemperortothecaliphwaspointedwithanallusiontothegameofchess，whichhadalreadyspreadfromPersiatoGreece。
\"ThequeenhespokeofIreneconsideredyouasarook，andherselfasapawn。Thatpusillanimousfemalesubmittedtopayatribute，thedoubleofwhichsheoughttohaveexactedfromtheBarbarians。Restorethereforethefruitsofyourinjustice，orabidethedeterminationofthesword。\"Atthesewordstheambassadorscastabundleofswordsbeforethefootofthethrone。Thecaliphsmiledatthemenace，anddrawinghiscimeter，samsamah，aweaponofhistoricorfabulousrenown，hecutasunderthefeeblearmsoftheGreeks，withoutturningtheedge，orendangeringthetemper，ofhisblade。Hethendictatedanepistleoftremendousbrevity:\"InthenameofthemostmercifulGod，HarunalRashid，commanderofthefaithful，toNicephorus，theRomandog。Ihavereadthyletter，Othousonofanunbelievingmother。Thoushaltnothear，thoushaltbehold，myreply。\"ItwaswrittenincharactersofbloodandfireontheplainsofPhrygia；andthewarlikecelerityoftheArabscouldonlybecheckedbytheartsofdeceitandtheshowofrepentance。
Thetriumphantcaliphretired，afterthefatiguesofthecampaign，tohisfavoritepalaceofRaccaontheEuphrates:^76
butthedistanceoffivehundredmiles，andtheinclemencyoftheseason，encouragedhisadversarytoviolatethepeace。Nicephoruswasastonishedbytheboldandrapidmarchofthecommanderofthefaithful，whorepassed，inthedepthofwinter，thesnowsofMountTaurus:hisstratagemsofpolicyandwarwereexhausted；
andtheperfidiousGreekescapedwiththreewoundsfromafieldofbattleoverspreadwithfortythousandofhissubjects。Yettheemperorwasashamedofsubmission，andthecaliphwasresolvedonvictory。Onehundredandthirty—fivethousandregularsoldiersreceivedpay，andwereinscribedinthemilitaryroll；andabovethreehundredthousandpersonsofeverydenominationmarchedundertheblackstandardoftheAbbassides。
TheysweptthesurfaceofAsiaMinorfarbeyondTyanaandAncyra，andinvestedthePonticHeraclea，^77onceaflourishingstate，nowapaltrytown；atthattimecapableofsustaining，inherantiquewalls，amonth\'ssiegeagainsttheforcesoftheEast。
Theruinwascomplete，thespoilwasample；butifHarunhadbeenconversantwithGrecianstory，hewouldhaveregrettedthestatueofHercules，whoseattributes，theclub，thebow，thequiver，andthelion\'shide，weresculpturedinmassygold。Theprogressofdesolationbyseaandland，fromtheEuxinetotheIsleofCyprus，compelledtheemperorNicephorustoretracthishaughtydefiance。Inthenewtreaty，theruinsofHeracleawereleftforeverasalessonandatrophy；andthecoinofthetributewasmarkedwiththeimageandsuperscriptionofHarunandhisthreesons。^78YetthispluralityoflordsmightcontributetoremovethedishonoroftheRomanname。Afterthedeathoftheirfather，theheirsofthecaliphwereinvolvedincivildiscord，andtheconqueror，theliberalAlmamon，wassufficientlyengagedintherestorationofdomesticpeaceandtheintroductionofforeignscience。
[Footnote75:SeethereignandcharacterofHarunAlRashid，intheBibliothequeOrientale，p。431—433，underhispropertitle；
andintherelativearticlestowhichM。D\'Herbelotrefers。ThatlearnedcollectorhasshownmuchtasteinstrippingtheOrientalchroniclesoftheirinstructiveandamusinganecdotes。]
[Footnote76:ForthesituationofRacca，theoldNicephorium，consultD\'Anville，l\'EuphrateetleTigre，p。24—27。TheArabianNightsrepresentHarunalRashidasalmoststationaryinBagdad。HerespectedtheroyalseatoftheAbbassides:butthevicesoftheinhabitantshaddrivenhimfromthecity，Abulfed。
Annal。p。167。]
[Footnote77:M。deTournefort，inhiscoastingvoyagefromConstantinopletoTrebizond，passedanightatHeracleaorEregri。Hiseyesurveyedthepresentstate，hisreadingcollectedtheantiquities，ofthecityVoyageduLevant，tom。
iii。lettrexvi。p。23—35。WehaveaseparatehistoryofHeracleainthefragmentsofMemnon，whicharepreservedbyPhotius。]
[Footnote78:ThewarsofHarunalRashidagainsttheRomanempirearerelatedbyTheophanes，p。384，385，391，396，407，408。Zonaras，tom。iii。l。xv。p。115，124，Cedrenus，p。477，478，Eutycaius，Annal。tom。ii。p。407，Elmacin，Hist。
Saracen。p。136，151，152，Abulpharagius，Dynast。p。147，151，
andAbulfeda，p。156，166—168。]
ChapterLII:MoreConquestsByTheArabs。
PartIV。
UnderthereignofAlmamonatBagdad，ofMichaeltheStammereratConstantinople，theislandsofCrete^79andSicilyweresubduedbytheArabs。Theformeroftheseconquestsisdisdainedbytheirownwriters，whowereignorantofthefameofJupiterandMinos，butithasnotbeenoverlookedbytheByzantinehistorians，whonowbegintocastaclearerlightontheaffairsoftheirowntimes。^80AbandofAndalusianvolunteers，discontentedwiththeclimateorgovernmentofSpain，exploredtheadventuresofthesea；butastheysailedinnomorethantenortwentygalleys，theirwarfaremustbebrandedwiththenameofpiracy。Asthesubjectsandsectariesofthewhiteparty，theymightlawfullyinvadethedominionsoftheblackcaliphs。ArebelliousfactionintroducedthemintoAlexandria；