[Footnote182:Thucydid。l。i。c。6Thehistorianwhoconsidersthiscircumstanceasthetestofcivilization，woulddisdainthebarbarismofaEuropeancourt]
[Footnote183:Hefirstratedatmillies800，000l。thedamagesofSicily，DivinatioinCaecilium，c。5，whichheafterwardsreducedtoquadringenties，320，000l。—1ActioinVerrem，c。
18，andwasfinallycontentwithtricies，24，000l。PlutarchinCiceron。tom。iii。p。1584hasnotdissembledthepopularsuspicionandreport。]
[Footnote184:Verreslivednearthirtyyearsafterhistrial，tillthesecondtriumvirate，whenhewasproscribedbythetasteofMarkAntonyforthesakeofhisCorinthianplate，Plin。Hist。
Natur。xxxiv。3。]
ThefirstimperfectattempttorestoretheproportionofcrimesandpunishmentswasmadebythedictatorSylla，who，inthemidstofhissanguinarytriumph，aspiredtorestrainthelicense，ratherthantooppresstheliberty，oftheRomans。Hegloriedinthearbitraryproscriptionoffourthousandsevenhundredcitizens。^185But，inthecharacterofalegislator，herespectedtheprejudicesofthetimes；and，insteadofpronouncingasentenceofdeathagainsttherobberorassassin，thegeneralwhobetrayedanarmy，orthemagistratewhoruinedaprovince，Syllawascontenttoaggravatethepecuniarydamagesbythepenaltyofexile，or，inmoreconstitutionallanguage，bytheinterdictionoffireandwater。TheCornelian，andafterwardsthePompeianandJulian，lawsintroducedanewsystemofcriminaljurisprudence；^186andtheemperors，fromAugustustoJustinian，disguisedtheirincreasingrigorunderthenamesoftheoriginalauthors。Buttheinventionandfrequentuseofextraordinarypainsproceededfromthedesiretoextendandconcealtheprogressofdespotism。InthecondemnationofillustriousRomans，thesenatewasalwayspreparedtoconfound，atthewilloftheirmasters，thejudicialandlegislativepowers。Itwasthedutyofthegovernorstomaintainthepeaceoftheirprovince，bythearbitraryandrigidadministrationofjustice；
thefreedomofthecityevaporatedintheextentofempire，andtheSpanishmalefactor，whoclaimedtheprivilegeofaRoman，waselevatedbythecommandofGalbaonafairerandmoreloftycross。^187Occasionalrescriptsissuedfromthethronetodecidethequestionswhich，bytheirnoveltyorimportance，appearedtosurpasstheauthorityanddiscernmentofaproconsul。
Transportationandbeheadingwerereservedforhonorablepersons；
meanercriminalswereeitherhanged，orburnt，orburiedinthemines，orexposedtothewildbeastsoftheamphitheatre。Armedrobberswerepursuedandextirpatedastheenemiesofsociety；
thedrivingawayhorsesorcattlewasmadeacapitaloffence；
^188butsimpletheftwasuniformlyconsideredasamerecivilandprivateinjury。Thedegreesofguilt，andthemodesofpunishment，weretoooftendeterminedbythediscretionoftherulers，andthesubjectwasleftinignoranceofthelegaldangerwhichhemightincurbyeveryactionofhislife。
[Footnote185:SuchisthenumberassignedbyValer\'usMaximus，l。ix。c。2，No。1，Florusiv。21distinguishes2000senatorsandknights。AppiandeBell。Civil。l。i。c。95，tom。ii。p。
133，edit。Schweighausermoreaccuratelycomputesfortyvictimsofthesenatorianrank，and1600oftheequestriancensusororder。]
[Footnote186:ForthepenallawsLegesCorneliae，Pompeiae，Julae，ofSylla，Pompey，andtheCaesarsseethesentencesofPaulus，l。iv。tit。xviii。—xxx。p。497—528，edit。
Schulting，theGregorianCode，Fragment。l。xix。p。705，706，inSchulting，theCollatioLegumMosaicarumetRomanarum，tit。
i。—xv。，theTheodosianCode，l。ix。，theCodeofJustinian，l。ix。，thePandects，xlviii。，theInstitutes，l。iv。tit。
xviii。，andtheGreekversionofTheophilus，p。917—926。]
[Footnote187:Itwasaguardianwhohadpoisonedhisward。Thecrimewasatrocious:yetthepunishmentisreckonedbySuetoniusc。9amongtheactsinwhichGalbashowedhimselfacer，vehemens，etindelictiscoercendisimmodicus。]
[Footnote188:Theabactoresorabigeatores，whodroveonehorse，ortwomaresoroxen，orfivehogs，ortengoats，weresubjecttocapitalpunishment，Paul，Sentent。Recept。l。iv。tit。xviii。p。
497，498。Hadrian，adConcil。Baeticae，mostseverewheretheoffencewasmostfrequent，condemnsthecriminals，adgladium，ludidamnationem，Ulpian，deOfficioProconsulis，l。viii。inCollationeLegumMosaic。etRom。tit。xip。235。]
Asin，avice，acrime，aretheobjectsoftheology，ethics，andjurisprudence。Whenevertheirjudgmentsagree，theycorroborateeachother；but，asoftenastheydiffer，aprudentlegislatorappreciatestheguiltandpunishmentaccordingtothemeasureofsocialinjury。Onthisprinciple，themostdaringattackonthelifeandpropertyofaprivatecitizenisjudgedlessatrociousthanthecrimeoftreasonorrebellion，whichinvadesthemajestyoftherepublic:theobsequiousciviliansunanimouslypronounced，thattherepubliciscontainedinthepersonofitschief；andtheedgeoftheJulianlawwassharpenedbytheincessantdiligenceoftheemperors。Thelicentiouscommerceofthesexesmaybetoleratedasanimpulseofnature，orforbiddenasasourceofdisorderandcorruption；butthefame，thefortunes，thefamilyofthehusband，areseriouslyinjuredbytheadulteryofthewife。ThewisdomofAugustus，aftercurbingthefreedomofrevenge，appliedtothisdomesticoffencetheanimadversionofthelaws:andtheguiltyparties，afterthepaymentofheavyforfeituresandfines，werecondemnedtolongorperpetualexileintwoseparateislands。^189Religionpronouncesanequalcensureagainsttheinfidelityofthehusband；but，asitisnotaccompaniedbythesamecivileffects，thewifewasneverpermittedtovindicateherwrongs；^190andthedistinctionofsimpleordoubleadultery，sofamiliarandsoimportantinthecanonlaw，isunknowntothejurisprudenceoftheCodeandthePandects。Itouchwithreluctance，anddespatchwithimpatience，amoreodiousvice，ofwhichmodestyrejectsthename，andnatureabominatestheidea。TheprimitiveRomanswereinfectedbytheexampleoftheEtruscans^191andGreeks:^192
andinthemadabuseofprosperityandpower，everypleasurethatisinnocentwasdeemedinsipid；andtheScatinianlaw，^193whichhadbeenextortedbyanactofviolence，wasinsensiblyabolishedbythelapseoftimeandthemultitudeofcriminals。Bythislaw，therape，perhapstheseduction，ofaningenuousyouth，wascompensated，asapersonalinjury，bythepoordamagesoftenthousandsesterces，orfourscorepounds；theravishermightbeslainbytheresistanceorrevengeofchastity；andIwishtobelieve，thatatRome，asinAthens，thevoluntaryandeffeminatedeserterofhissexwasdegradedfromthehonorsandtherightsofacitizen。^194Butthepracticeofvicewasnotdiscouragedbytheseverityofopinion:theindeliblestainofmanhoodwasconfoundedwiththemorevenialtransgressionsoffornicationandadultery，norwasthelicentiousloverexposedtothesamedishonorwhichheimpressedonthemaleorfemalepartnerofhisguilt。FromCatullustoJuvenal，^195thepoetsaccuseandcelebratethedegeneracyofthetimes；andthereformationofmannerswasfeeblyattemptedbythereasonandauthorityofthecivilianstillthemostvirtuousoftheCaesarsproscribedthesinagainstnatureasacrimeagainstsociety。^196
[Footnote189:TillthepublicationoftheJuliusPaulusofSchulting，l。ii。tit。xxvi。p。317—323，itwasaffirmedandbelievedthattheJulianlawspunishedadulterywithdeath；andthemistakearosefromthefraudorerrorofTribonian。YetLipsiushadsuspectedthetruthfromthenarrativesofTacitus，Annal。ii。50，iii。24，iv。42，andevenfromthepracticeofAugustus，whodistinguishedthetreasonablefrailtiesofhisfemalekindred。]
[Footnote190:Incasesofadultery，Severusconfinedtothehusbandtherightofpublicaccusation，Cod。Justinian，l。ix。
tit。ix。leg。1。Noristhisprivilegeunjust—sodifferentaretheeffectsofmaleorfemaleinfidelity。]
[Footnote191:Timonl。i。andTheopompusl。xliii。apudAthenaeum，l。xii。p。517describetheluxuryandlustoftheEtruscans。AboutthesameperiodA。U。C。445theRomanyouthstudiedinEtruria，liv。ix。36。]
[Footnote192:ThePersianshadbeencorruptedinthesameschool，Herodot。l。i。c。135。AcuriousdissertationmightbeformedontheintroductionofpaederastyafterthetimeofHomer，itsprogressamongtheGreeksofAsiaandEurope，thevehemenceoftheirpassions，andthethindeviceofvirtueandfriendshipwhichamusedthephilosophersofAthens。Butsceleraostendioportetdumpuniuntur，abscondiflagitia。]
[Footnote193:Thename，thedate，andtheprovisionsofthislawareequallydoubtful，Gravina，Opp。p。432，433。Heineccius，Hist。Jur。Rom。No。108。Ernesti，Clav。Ciceron。inIndiceLegum。ButIwillobservethatthenefandaVenusofthehonestGermanisstyledaversabythemorepoliteItalian。]
[Footnote194:SeetheorationofAeschinesagainstthecatamiteTimarchus，inReiske，Orator。Graec。tom。iii。p。21—184。]
[Footnote195:Acrowdofdisgracefulpassageswillforcethemselvesonthememoryoftheclassicreader:IwillonlyremindhimofthecooldeclarationofOvid:—
Odiconcubitusquinonutrumqueresolvant。Hocestquodpuerumtangaramoreminus。]
[Footnote196:AeliusLampridius，inVit。Heliogabal。inHist。
Augustp。112AureliusVictor，inPhilippo，CodexTheodos。l。ix。
tit。vii。leg。7，andGodefroy\'sCommentary，tom。iii。p。63。
TheodosiusabolishedthesubterraneousbrothelsofRome，inwhichtheprostitutionofbothsexeswasactedwithimpunity。]
ChapterXLIV:IdeaOfTheRomanJurisprudence。
PartVII。
Anewspiritoflegislation，respectableeveninitserror，aroseintheempirewiththereligionofConstantine。^197ThelawsofMoseswerereceivedasthedivineoriginalofjustice，andtheChristianprincesadaptedtheirpenalstatutestothedegreesofmoralandreligiousturpitude。Adulterywasfirstdeclaredtobeacapitaloffence:thefrailtyofthesexeswasassimilatedtopoisonorassassination，tosorceryorparricide；
thesamepenaltieswereinflictedonthepassiveandactiveguiltofpaederasty；andallcriminalsoffreeorservileconditionwereeitherdrownedorbeheaded，orcastaliveintotheavengingflames。Theadulterersweresparedbythecommonsympathyofmankind；buttheloversoftheirownsexwerepursuedbygeneralandpiousindignation:theimpuremannersofGreecestillprevailedinthecitiesofAsia，andeveryvicewasfomentedbythecelibacyofthemonksandclergy。Justinianrelaxedthepunishmentatleastoffemaleinfidelity:theguiltyspousewasonlycondemnedtosolitudeandpenance，andattheendoftwoyearsshemightberecalledtothearmsofaforgivinghusband。
Butthesameemperordeclaredhimselftheimplacableenemyofunmanlylust，andthecrueltyofhispersecutioncanscarcelybeexcusedbythepurityofhismotives。^198Indefianceofeveryprincipleofjustice，hestretchedtopastaswellasfutureoffencestheoperationsofhisedicts，withthepreviousallowanceofashortrespiteforconfessionandpardon。A
painfuldeathwasinflictedbytheamputationofthesinfulinstrument，ortheinsertionofsharpreedsintotheporesandtubesofmostexquisitesensibility；andJustiniandefendedtheproprietyoftheexecution，sincethecriminalswouldhavelosttheirhands，hadtheybeenconvictedofsacrilege。Inthisstateofdisgraceandagony，twobishops，IsaiahofRhodesandAlexanderofDiospolis，weredraggedthroughthestreetsofConstantinople，whiletheirbrethrenwereadmonished，bythevoiceofacrier，toobservethisawfullesson，andnottopollutethesanctityoftheircharacter。Perhapstheseprelateswereinnocent。Asentenceofdeathandinfamywasoftenfoundedontheslightandsuspiciousevidenceofachildoraservant:
theguiltofthegreenfaction，oftherich，andoftheenemiesofTheodora，waspresumedbythejudges，andpaederastybecamethecrimeofthosetowhomnocrimecouldbeimputed。AFrenchphilosopher^199hasdaredtoremarkthatwhateverissecretmustbedoubtful，andthatournaturalhorrorofvicemaybeabusedasanengineoftyranny。Butthefavorablepersuasionofthesamewriter，thatalegislatormayconfideinthetasteandreasonofmankind，isimpeachedbytheunwelcomediscoveryoftheantiquityandextentofthedisease。^200
[Footnote197:SeethelawsofConstantineandhissuccessorsagainstadultery，sodomy&c。，intheTheodosian，l。ix。tit。
vii。leg。7，l。xi。tit。xxxvileg。1，4andJustinianCodes，l。ix。tit。ix。leg。30，31。Theseprincesspeakthelanguageofpassionaswellasofjustice，andfraudulentlyascribetheirownseveritytothefirstCaesars。]
[Footnote198:Justinian，Novel。lxxvii。cxxxiv。cxli。ProcopiusinAnecdot。c。11，16，withthenotesofAlemannus。Theophanes，p。151。Cedrenus。p。688。Zonaras，l。xiv。p。64。]
[Footnote199:Montesquieu，EspritdesLoix，l。xii。c。6。Thateloquentphilosopherconciliatestherightsoflibertyandofnature，whichshouldneverbeplacedinoppositiontoeachother。]
[Footnote200:ForthecorruptionofPalestine，2000yearsbeforetheChristianaera，seethehistoryandlawsofMoses。AncientGaulisstigmatizedbyDiodorusSiculus，tom。i。l。v。p。356，
ChinabytheMahometarandChristiantravellers，AncientRelationsofIndiaandChina，p。34translatedbyRenaudot，andhisbittercriticthePerePremare，LettresEdifiantes，tom。xix。
p。435，andnativeAmericabytheSpanishhistorians，GarcilassodelaVega，l。iii。c。13，Rycaut\'stranslation；andDictionnairedeBayle，tom。iii。p。88。Ibelieve，andhope，thatthenegroes，intheirowncountry，wereexemptfromthismoralpestilence。]
ThefreecitizensofAthensandRomeenjoyed，inallcriminalcases，theinvaluableprivilegeofbeingtriedbytheircountry。^2011。Theadministrationofjusticeisthemostancientofficeofaprince:itwasexercisedbytheRomankings，andabusedbyTarquin；whoalone，withoutlaworcouncil，pronouncedhisarbitraryjudgments。Thefirstconsulssucceededtothisregalprerogative；butthesacredrightofappealsoonabolishedthejurisdictionofthemagistrates，andallpubliccausesweredecidedbythesupremetribunalofthepeople。Butawilddemocracy，superiortotheforms，toooftendisdainstheessentialprinciples，ofjustice:theprideofdespotismwasenvenomedbyplebeianenvy，andtheheroesofAthensmightsometimesapplaudthehappinessofthePersian，whosefatedependedonthecapriceofasingletyrant。Somesalutaryrestraints，imposedbythepeopleortheirownpassions，wereatoncethecauseandeffectofthegravityandtemperanceoftheRomans。Therightofaccusationwasconfinedtothemagistrates。
Avoteofthethirtyfivetribescouldinflictafine；butthecognizanceofallcapitalcrimeswasreservedbyafundamentallawtotheassemblyofthecenturies，inwhichtheweightofinfluenceandpropertywassuretopreponderate。Repeatedproclamationsandadjournmentswereinterposed，toallowtimeforprejudiceandresentmenttosubside:thewholeproceedingmightbeannulledbyaseasonableomen，ortheoppositionofatribune；
andsuchpopulartrialswerecommonlylessformidabletoinnocencethantheywerefavorabletoguilt。Butthisunionofthejudicialandlegislativepowersleftitdoubtfulwhethertheaccusedpartywaspardonedoracquitted；and，inthedefenceofanillustriousclient，theoratorsofRomeandAthensaddresstheirargumentstothepolicyandbenevolence，aswellastothejustice，oftheirsovereign。2。Thetaskofconveningthecitizensforthetrialofeachoffenderbecamemoredifficult，asthecitizensandtheoffenderscontinuallymultiplied；andthereadyexpedientwasadoptedofdelegatingthejurisdictionofthepeopletotheordinarymagistrates，ortoextraordinaryinquisitors。Inthefirstagesthesequestionswererareandoccasional。InthebeginningoftheseventhcenturyofRometheyweremadeperpetual:fourpraetorswereannuallyempoweredtositinjudgmentonthestateoffencesoftreason，extortion，peculation，andbribery；andSyllaaddednewpraetorsandnewquestionsforthosecrimeswhichmoredirectlyinjurethesafetyofindividuals。Bytheseinquisitorsthetrialwaspreparedanddirected；buttheycouldonlypronouncethesentenceofthemajorityofjudges，whowithsometruth，andmoreprejudice，havebeencomparedtotheEnglishjuries。^202Todischargethisimportant，thoughburdensomeoffice，anannuallistofancientandrespectablecitizenswasformedbythepraetor。Aftermanyconstitutionalstruggles，theywerechoseninequalnumbersfromthesenate，theequestrianorder，andthepeople；fourhundredandfiftywereappointedforsinglequestions；andthevariousrollsordecuriesofjudgesmusthavecontainedthenamesofsomethousandRomans，whorepresentedthejudicialauthorityofthestate。Ineachparticularcause，asufficientnumberwasdrawnfromtheurn；theirintegritywasguardedbyanoath；themodeofballotsecuredtheirindependence；thesuspicionofpartialitywasremovedbythemutualchallengesoftheaccuseranddefendant；andthejudgesofMilo，bytheretrenchmentoffifteenoneachside，werereducedtofifty—onevoicesortablets，ofacquittal，ofcondemnation，oroffavorabledoubt。^2033。Inhisciviljurisdiction，thepraetorofthecitywastrulyajudge，andalmostalegislator；but，assoonashehadprescribedtheactionoflaw，heoftenreferredtoadelegatethedeterminationofthefact。Withtheincreaseoflegalproceedings，thetribunalofthecentumvirs，inwhichhepresided，acquiredmoreweightandreputation。Butwhetherheactedalone，orwiththeadviceofhiscouncil，themostabsolutepowersmightbetrustedtoamagistratewhowasannuallychosenbythevotesofthepeople。Therulesandprecautionsoffreedomhaverequiredsomeexplanation；theorderofdespotismissimpleandinanimate。