[Footnote144:AtAthens，thesonswereequal；butthepoordaughterswereendowedatthediscretionoftheirbrothers。SeethepleadingsofIsaeus，intheviithvolumeoftheGreekOrators，illustratedbytheversionandcommentofSirWilliamJones，ascholar，alawyer，andamanofgenius。]
[Footnote145:InEngland，theeldestsonalsoinheritsalltheland；alaw，saystheorthodoxJudgeBlackstone，CommentariesontheLawsofEngland，vol。ii。p。215，unjustonlyintheopinionofyoungerbrothers。Itmaybeofsomepoliticaluseinsharpeningtheirindustry。]
[Footnote146:Blackstone\'sTablesvol。ii。p。202representandcomparethedecreesofthecivilwiththoseofthecanonandcommonlaw。AseparatetractofJuliusPaulus，degradibusetaffinibus，isinsertedorabridgedinthePandects，l。xxxviii。
tit。x。IntheviithdegreeshecomputesNo。181024persons。]
[Footnote147:TheVoconianlawwasenactedintheyearofRome584。TheyoungerScipio，whowasthen17yearsofage，Frenshemius，Supplement。Livian。xlvi。40，foundanoccasionofexercisinghisgenerositytohismother，sisters，&c。Polybius，tom。ii。l。xxxi。p。1453—1464，editGronov。，adomesticwitness。]
[Footnote148:LegemVoconiamErnesti，ClavisCiceronianamagnavocebonislateribusatlxv。yearsofagesuasissem，saysoldCato，deSenectute，c。5，AulusGelliusvii。13，xvii。6hassavedsomepassages。]
[Footnote149:SeethelawofsuccessionintheInstitutesofCaius，l。ii。tit。viii。p。130—144，andJustinian，l。iii。
tit。i。—vi。，withtheGreekversionofTheophilus，p。515—
575，588—600，thePandects，l。xxxviii。tit。vi。—xvii。，
theCode，l。vi。tit。lv。—lx。，andtheNovels，cxviii。]
Theorderofsuccessionisregulatedbynature，oratleastbythegeneralandpermanentreasonofthelawgiver:butthisorderisfrequentlyviolatedbythearbitraryandpartialwills，whichprolongthedominionofthetestatorbeyondthegrave。^150
Inthesimplestateofsociety，thislastuseorabuseoftherightofpropertyisseldomindulged:itwasintroducedatAthensbythelawsofSolon；andtheprivatetestamentsofthefatherofafamilyareauthorizedbytheTwelveTables。Beforethetimeofthedecemvirs，^151aRomancitizenexposedhiswishesandmotivestotheassemblyofthethirtycuriaeorparishes，andthegenerallawofinheritancewassuspendedbyanoccasionalactofthelegislature。Afterthepermissionofthedecemvirs，eachprivatelawgiverpromulgatedhisverbalorwrittentestamentinthepresenceoffivecitizens，whorepresentedthefiveclassesoftheRomanpeople；asixthwitnessattestedtheirconcurrence；
aseventhweighedthecoppermoney，whichwaspaidbyanimaginarypurchaser；andtheestatewasemancipatedbyafictitioussaleandimmediaterelease。Thissingularceremony，^152whichexcitedthewonderoftheGreeks，wasstillpractisedintheageofSeverus；butthepraetorshadalreadyapprovedamoresimpletestament，forwhichtheyrequiredthesealsandsignaturesofsevenwitnesses，freefromalllegalexception，andpurposelysummonedfortheexecutionofthatimportantact。A
domesticmonarch，whoreignedoverthelivesandfortunesofhischildren，mightdistributetheirrespectivesharesaccordingtothedegreesoftheirmeritorhisaffection；hisarbitrarydispleasurechastisedanunworthysonbythelossofhisinheritance，andthemortifyingpreferenceofastranger。Buttheexperienceofunnaturalparentsrecommendedsomelimitationsoftheirtestamentarypowers。Ason，or，bythelawsofJustinian，evenadaughter，couldnolongerbedisinheritedbytheirsilence:theywerecompelledtonamethecriminal，andtospecifytheoffence；andthejusticeoftheemperorenumeratedthesolecausesthatcouldjustifysuchaviolationofthefirstprinciplesofnatureandsociety。^153Unlessalegitimateportion，afourthpart，hadbeenreservedforthechildren，theywereentitledtoinstituteanactionorcomplaintofinofficioustestament；tosupposethattheirfather\'sunderstandingwasimpairedbysicknessorage；andrespectfullytoappealfromhisrigoroussentencetothedeliberatewisdomofthemagistrate。IntheRomanjurisprudence，anessentialdistinctionwasadmittedbetweentheinheritanceandthelegacies。Theheirswhosucceededtotheentireunity，ortoanyofthetwelvefractionsofthesubstanceofthetestator，representedhiscivilandreligiouscharacter，assertedhisrights，fulfilledhisobligations，anddischargedthegiftsoffriendshiporliberality，whichhislastwillhadbequeathedunderthenameoflegacies。Butastheimprudenceorprodigalityofadyingmanmightexhausttheinheritance，andleaveonlyriskandlabortohissuccessor，hewasempoweredtoretaintheFalcidianportion；
todeduct，beforethepaymentofthelegacies，aclearfourthforhisownemolument。Areasonabletimewasallowedtoexaminetheproportionbetweenthedebtsandtheestate，todecidewhetherheshouldacceptorrefusethetestament；andifheusedthebenefitofaninventory，thedemandsofthecreditorscouldnotexceedthevaluationoftheeffects。Thelastwillofacitizenmightbealteredduringhislife，orrescindedafterhisdeath:thepersonswhomhenamedmightdiebeforehim，orrejecttheinheritance，orbeexposedtosomelegaldisqualification。Inthecontemplationoftheseevents，hewaspermittedtosubstitutesecondandthirdheirs，toreplaceeachotheraccordingtotheorderofthetestament；andtheincapacityofamadmanoraninfanttobequeathhispropertymightbesuppliedbyasimilarsubstitution。^154Butthepowerofthetestatorexpiredwiththeacceptanceofthetestament:eachRomanofmatureageanddiscretionacquiredtheabsolutedominionofhisinheritance，andthesimplicityofthecivillawwasnevercloudedbythelongandintricateentailswhichconfinethehappinessandfreedomofunborngenerations。
[Footnote150:Thatsuccessionwastherule，testamenttheexception，isprovedbyTaylor，ElementsofCivilLaw，p。519—
527，alearned，rambling，spiritedwriter。Intheiidandiiidbooks，themethodoftheInstitutesisdoubtlesspreposterous；
andtheChancellorDaguesseauOeuvres，tom。i。p。275wisheshiscountrymanDomatintheplaceofTribonian。Yetcovenantsbeforesuccessionsisnotsurelythenaturalorderofcivillaws。]
[Footnote151:Priorexamplesoftestamentsareperhapsfabulous。
AtAthensachildlessfatheronlycouldmakeawill，Plutarch，inSolone，tom。i。p。164。SeeIsaeusandJones。]
[Footnote152:ThetestamentofAugustusisspecifiedbySuetonius，inAugust，c。101，inNeron。c。4，whomaybestudiedasacodeofRomanantiquities。PlutarchOpuscul。tom。
ii。p。976issurprised。ThelanguageofUlpianFragment。tit。
xx。p。627，edit。Schultingisalmosttooexclusive—soluminusuest。]
[Footnote153:JustinianNovell。cxv。No。3，4enumeratesonlythepublicandprivatecrimes，forwhichasonmightlikewisedisinherithisfather。
Note:GibbonhassingularnotionsontheprovisionsofNovell。cxv。3，4，whichprobablyhedidnotclearlyunderstand。
—W]
[Footnote154:Thesubstitutionsoffidei—commissairesofthemoderncivillawisafeudalideagraftedontheRomanjurisprudence，andbearsscarcelyanyresemblancetotheancientfidei—commissa，InstitutionsduDroitFrancois，tom。i。p。347—
383。Denissart，DecisionsdeJurisprudence，tom。iv。p。577—
604。TheywerestretchedtothefourthdegreebyanabuseoftheclixthNovel；apartial，perplexed，declamatorylaw。]
Conquestandtheformalitiesoflawestablishedtheuseofcodicils。IfaRomanwassurprisedbydeathinaremoteprovinceoftheempire，headdressedashortepistletohislegitimateortestamentaryheir；whofulfilledwithhonor，orneglectedwithimpunity，thislastrequest，whichthejudgesbeforetheageofAugustuswerenotauthorizedtoenforce。Acodicilmightbeexpressedinanymode，orinanylanguage；butthesubscriptionoffivewitnessesmustdeclarethatitwasthegenuinecompositionoftheauthor。Hisintention，howeverlaudable，wassometimesillegal；andtheinventionoffidei—commissa，ortrusts，aroseformthestrugglebetweennaturaljusticeandpositivejurisprudence。AstrangerofGreeceorAfricamightbethefriendorbenefactorofachildlessRoman，butnone，exceptafellow—citizen，couldactashisheir。TheVoconianlaw，whichabolishedfemalesuccession，restrainedthelegacyorinheritanceofawomantothesumofonehundredthousandsesterces；^155andanonlydaughterwascondemnedalmostasanalieninherfather\'shouse。Thezealoffriendship，andparentalaffection，suggestedaliberalartifice:aqualifiedcitizenwasnamedinthetestament，withaprayerorinjunctionthathewouldrestoretheinheritancetothepersonforwhomitwastrulyintended。Variouswastheconductofthetrusteesinthispainfulsituation:theyhadsworntoobservethelawsoftheircountry，buthonorpromptedthemtoviolatetheiroath；andiftheypreferredtheirinterestunderthemaskofpatriotism，theyforfeitedtheesteemofeveryvirtuousmind。ThedeclarationofAugustusrelievedtheirdoubts，gavealegalsanctiontoconfidentialtestamentsandcodicils，andgentlyunravelledtheformsandrestraintsoftherepublicanjurisprudence。^156Butasthenewpracticeoftrustsdegeneratedintosomeabuse，thetrusteewasenabled，bytheTrebellianandPegasiandecrees，toreserveonefourthoftheestate，ortotransferontheheadoftherealheirallthedebtsandactionsofthesuccession。Theinterpretationoftestamentswasstrictandliteral；butthelanguageoftrustsandcodicilswasdeliveredfromtheminuteandtechnicalaccuracyofthecivilians。^157
[Footnote155:DionCassiustom。ii。l。lvi。p。814，withReimar\'sNotesspecifiesinGreekmoneythesumof25，000
drachms。]
[Footnote156:TherevolutionsoftheRomanlawsofinheritancearefinely，thoughsometimesfancifully，deducedbyMontesquieu，EspritdesLoix，l。xxvii。]
[Footnote157:Oftheciviljurisprudenceofsuccessions，testaments，codicils，legacies，andtrusts，theprinciplesareascertainedintheInstitutesofCaius，l。ii。tit。ii。—ix。p。
91—144，Justinian，l。ii。tit。x。—xxv。，andTheophilus，p。328—514；andtheimmensedetailoccupiestwelvebooksxxviii。—xxxix。ofthePandects。]
III。Thegeneraldutiesofmankindareimposedbytheirpublicandprivaterelations:buttheirspecificobligationstoeachothercanonlybetheeffectof，1。apromise，2。abenefit，or3。aninjury:andwhentheseobligationsareratifiedbylaw，theinterestedpartymaycompeltheperformancebyajudicialaction。Onthisprinciple，theciviliansofeverycountryhaveerectedasimilarjurisprudence，thefairconclusionofuniversalreasonandjustice。^158
[Footnote158:TheInstitutesofCaius，l。ii。tit。ix。x。p。
144—214，ofJustinian，l。iii。tit。xiv。—xxx。l。iv。tit。
i。—vi。，andofTheophilus，p。616—837，distinguishfoursortsofobligations—autre，autverbis，autliterisautconsensu:butIconfessmyselfpartialtomyowndivision。
Note:ItisnotatallapplicabletotheRomansystemofcontracts，evenifIwereallowedtobegood。—M。]
ChapterXLIV:IdeaOfTheRomanJurisprudence。
PartVI。
1。Thegoddessoffaithofhumanandsocialfaithwasworshipped，notonlyinhertemples，butinthelivesoftheRomans；andifthatnationwasdeficientinthemoreamiablequalitiesofbenevolenceandgenerosity，theyastonishedtheGreeksbytheirsincereandsimpleperformanceofthemostburdensomeengagements。^159Yetamongthesamepeople，accordingtotherigidmaximsofthepatriciansanddecemvirs，anakedpact，apromise，orevenanoath，didnotcreateanycivilobligation，unlessitwasconfirmedbythelegalformofastipulation。WhatevermightbetheetymologyoftheLatinword，itconveyedtheideaofafirmandirrevocablecontract，whichwasalwaysexpressedinthemodeofaquestionandanswer。Doyoupromisetopaymeonehundredpiecesofgold?wasthesolemninterrogationofSeius。Idopromise，wasthereplyofSempronius。ThefriendsofSempronius，whoansweredforhisabilityandinclination，mightbeseparatelysuedattheoptionofSeius；andthebenefitofpartition，ororderofreciprocalactions，insensiblydeviatedfromthestricttheoryofstipulation。Themostcautiousanddeliberateconsentwasjustlyrequiredtosustainthevalidityofagratuitouspromise；andthecitizenwhomighthaveobtainedalegalsecurity，incurredthesuspicionoffraud，andpaidtheforfeitofhisneglect。Buttheingenuityofthecivilianssuccessfullylaboredtoconvertsimpleengagementsintotheformofsolemnstipulations。Thepraetors，astheguardiansofsocialfaith，admittedeveryrationalevidenceofavoluntaryanddeliberateact，whichintheirtribunalproducedanequitableobligation，andforwhichtheygaveanactionandaremedy。^160
[Footnote159:Howmuchisthecool，rationalevidenceofPolybiusl。vi。p。693，l。xxxi。p。1459，1460superiortovague，indiscriminateapplause—omniummaximeetpraecipuefidemcoluit，A。Gellius，xx。l。]
[Footnote160:TheJusPraetoriumdePactisetTransactionibusisaseparateandsatisfactorytreatiseofGerardNoodt，Opp。tom。
i。p。483—564。AndIwillhereobserve，thattheuniversitiesofHollandandBrandenburg，inthebeginningofthepresentcentury，appeartohavestudiedthecivillawonthemostjustandliberalprinciples。
Note:Simpleagreementspactaformedasvalidanobligationasasolemncontract。Onlyanaction，ortherighttoadirectjudicialprosecution，wasnotpermittedineverycaseofcompact。Inallotherrespects，thejudgewasboundtomaintainanagreementmadebypactum。Thestipulationwasaformcommontoeverykindofagreement，bywhichtherightofactionwasgiventothis。—W。]
2。Theobligationsofthesecondclass，astheywerecontractedbythedeliveryofathing，aremarkedbythecivilianswiththeepithetofreal。^161Agratefulreturnisduetotheauthorofabenefit；andwhoeverisintrustedwiththepropertyofanother，hasboundhimselftothesacreddutyofrestitution。Inthecaseofafriendlyloan，themeritofgenerosityisonthesideofthelenderonly；inadeposit，onthesideofthereceiver；butinapledge，andtherestoftheselfishcommerceofordinarylife，thebenefitiscompensatedbyanequivalent，andtheobligationtorestoreisvariouslymodifiedbythenatureofthetransaction。TheLatinlanguageveryhappilyexpressesthefundamentaldifferencebetweenthecommodatumandthemutuum，whichourpovertyisreducedtoconfoundunderthevagueandcommonappellationofaloan。Intheformer，theborrowerwasobligedtorestorethesameindividualthingwithwhichhehadbeenaccommodatedforthetemporarysupplyofhiswants；inthelatter，itwasdestinedforhisuseandconsumption，andhedischargedthismutualengagement，bysubstitutingthesamespecificvalueaccordingtoajustestimationofnumber，ofweight，andofmeasure。Inthecontractofsale，theabsolutedominionistransferredtothepurchaser，andherepaysthebenefitwithanadequatesumofgoldorsilver，thepriceanduniversalstandardofallearthlypossessions。Theobligationofanothercontract，thatoflocation，isofamorecomplicatedkind。Landsorhouses，laborortalents，maybehiredforadefiniteterm；attheexpirationofthetime，thethingitselfmustberestoredtotheowner，withanadditionalrewardforthebeneficialoccupationandemployment。Intheselucrativecontracts，towhichmaybeaddedthoseofpartnershipandcommissions，thecivilianssometimesimaginethedeliveryoftheobject，andsometimespresumetheconsentoftheparties。Thesubstantialpledgehasbeenrefinedintotheinvisiblerightsofamortgageorhypotheca；andtheagreementofsale，foracertainprice，imputes，fromthatmoment，thechancesofgainorlosstotheaccountofthepurchaser。Itmaybefairlysupposed，thateverymanwillobeythedictatesofhisinterest；andifheacceptsthebenefit，heisobligedtosustaintheexpense，ofthetransaction。Inthisboundlesssubject，thehistorianwillobservethelocationoflandandmoney，therentoftheoneandtheinterestoftheother，astheymateriallyaffecttheprosperityofagricultureandcommerce。Thelandlordwasoftenobligedtoadvancethestockandinstrumentsofhusbandry，andtocontenthimselfwithapartitionofthefruits。Ifthefeebletenantwasoppressedbyaccident，contagion，orhostileviolence，heclaimedaproportionablerelieffromtheequityofthelaws:fiveyearswerethecustomaryterm，andnosolidorcostlyimprovementscouldbeexpectedfromafarmer，who，ateachmomentmightbeejectedbythesaleoftheestate。^162Usury，^163theinveterategrievanceofthecity，hadbeendiscouragedbytheTwelveTables，^164andabolishedbytheclamorsofthepeople。
Itwasrevivedbytheirwantsandidleness，toleratedbythediscretionofthepraetors，andfinallydeterminedbytheCodeofJustinian。Personsofillustriousrankwereconfinedtothemoderateprofitoffourpercent。；sixwaspronouncedtobetheordinaryandlegalstandardofinterest；eightwasallowedfortheconvenienceofmanufacturesandmerchants；twelvewasgrantedtonauticalinsurance，whichthewiserancientshadnotattemptedtodefine；but，exceptinthisperilousadventure，thepracticeofexorbitantusurywasseverelyrestrained。^165ThemostsimpleinterestwascondemnedbytheclergyoftheEastandWest；^166
butthesenseofmutualbenefit，whichhadtriumphedoverthelawoftherepublic，hasresistedwithequalfirmnessthedecreesofthechurch，andeventheprejudicesofmankind。^167
[Footnote161:Theniceandvarioussubjectofcontractsbyconsentisspreadoverfourbooksxvii。—xx。ofthePandects，andisoneofthepartsbestdeservingoftheattentionofanEnglishstudent。
Note:Thisiserroneouslycalled\"benefits。\"Gibbonenumeratesvariouskindsofcontracts，ofwhichsomealoneareproperlycalledbenefits。—W。]
[Footnote162:ThecovenantsofrentaredefinedinthePandectsl。xix。andtheCode，l。iv。tit。lxv。Thequinquennium，ortermoffiveyears，appearstohavebeenacustomratherthanalaw；butinFranceallleasesoflandweredeterminedinnineyears。Thislimitationwasremovedonlyintheyear1775，EncyclopedieMethodique，tom。i。delaJurisprudence，p。668，669；andIamsorrytoobservethatityetprevailsinthebeauteousandhappycountrywhereIampermittedtoreside。]
[Footnote163:ImightimplicitlyacquiesceinthesenseandlearningofthethreebooksofG。Noodt，defoenoreetusuris。