[Footnote*:M。HugothinksthattheingenioussystemoftheInstitutesadoptedbyagreatnumberoftheancientlawyers，andbyJustinianhimself，datesfromSeverusSulpicius。HistduDroitRomain，vol。iii。p。119。—W。]
[Footnote54:Crassus，orratherCicerohimself，proposesdeOratore，i。41，42anideaoftheartorscienceofjurisprudence，whichtheeloquent，butilliterate，Antoniusi。
58affectstoderide。ItwaspartlyexecutedbyServiusSulpicius，inBruto，c。41，whosepraisesareelegantlyvariedintheclassicLatinityoftheRomanGravina，p。60。]
[Footnote55:Perturbatricemautemomniumharumrerumacademiam，hancabArcesilaetCarneaderecentem，exoremusutsileat，namsiinvaseritinhaec，quaesatissciteinstructaetcompositavideantur，nimisedetruinas，quamquidemegoplacarecupio，submoverenonaudeo。deLegibus，i。13。Fromthispassagealone，BentleyRemarksonFree—thinking，p。250mighthavelearnedhowfirmlyCicerobelievedinthespeciousdoctrineswhichhehasadorned。]
[Footnote56:ThestoicphilosophywasfirsttaughtatRomebyPanaetius，thefriendoftheyoungerScipio，seehislifeintheMem。del\'AcademisdesInscriptions，tom。x。p。75—89。]
[Footnote57:AsheisquotedbyUlpian，leg。40，40，adSabinuminPandect。l。xlvii。tit。ii。leg。21。YetTrebatius，afterhewasaleadingcivilian，quequifamiliamduxit，becameanepicurean，CiceroadFam。vii。5。Perhapshewasnotconstantorsincereinhisnewsect。
Note:GibbonhadentirelymisunderstoodthisphraseofCicero。Itwasonlysincehistimethattherealmeaningoftheauthorwasapprehended。Cicero，inenumeratingthequalificationsofTrebatius，says，Acceditetiam，quodfamiliamducitinjurecivili，singularismemoria，summascientia，whichmeansthatTrebatiuspossessedastillfurthermostimportantqualificationforastudentofcivillaw，aremarkablememory，&c。Thisexplanation，alreadyconjecturedbyG。Menage，Amaenit。JurisCivilis，c。14，isfoundinthedictionaryofScheller，v。
Familia，andintheHistoryoftheRomanLawbyM。Hugo。Manyauthorshaveasserted，withoutanyproofsufficienttowarranttheconjecture，thatTrebatiuswasoftheschoolofEpicurus—
W。]
[Footnote58:SeeGravinap。45—51andtheineffectualcavilsofMascou。HeinecciusHist。J。R。No。125quotesandapprovesadissertationofEverardOtto，deStoicaJurisconsultorumPhilosophia。]
Arms，eloquence，andthestudyofthecivillaw，promotedacitizentothehonorsoftheRomanstate；andthethreeprofessionsweresometimesmoreconspicuousbytheirunioninthesamecharacter。Inthecompositionoftheedict，alearnedpraetorgaveasanctionandpreferencetohisprivatesentiments；
theopinionofacensor，oracounsel，wasentertainedwithrespect；andadoubtfulinterpretationofthelawsmightbesupportedbythevirtuesortriumphsofthecivilian。Thepatricianartswerelongprotectedbytheveilofmystery；andinmoreenlightenedtimes，thefreedomofinquiryestablishedthegeneralprinciplesofjurisprudence。Subtileandintricatecaseswereelucidatedbythedisputesoftheforum:rules，axioms，anddefinitions，^59wereadmittedasthegenuinedictatesofreason；
andtheconsentofthelegalprofessorswasinterwovenintothepracticeofthetribunals。Buttheseinterpreterscouldneitherenactnorexecutethelawsoftherepublic；andthejudgesmightdisregardtheauthorityoftheScaevolasthemselves，whichwasoftenoverthrownbytheeloquenceorsophistryofaningeniouspleader。^60AugustusandTiberiuswerethefirsttoadopt，asausefulengine，thescienceofthecivilians；andtheirservilelaborsaccommodatedtheoldsystemtothespiritandviewsofdespotism。Underthefairpretenceofsecuringthedignityoftheart，theprivilegeofsubscribinglegalandvalidopinionswasconfinedtothesagesofsenatorianorequestrianrank，whohadbeenpreviouslyapprovedbythejudgmentoftheprince；andthismonopolyprevailed，tillAdrianrestoredthefreedomoftheprofessiontoeverycitizenconsciousofhisabilitiesandknowledge。Thediscretionofthepraetorwasnowgovernedbythelessonsofhisteachers；thejudgeswereenjoinedtoobeythecommentaswellasthetextofthelaw；andtheuseofcodicilswasamemorableinnovation，whichAugustusratifiedbytheadviceofthecivilians。^61
[Footnote59:WehaveheardoftheCatonianrule，theAquilianstipulation，andtheManilianforms，of211maxims，andof247
definitions，Pandect。l。i。tit。xvi。xvii。]
[Footnote60:ReadCicero，l。i。deOratore，Topica，proMurena。]
[Footnote61:SeePomponius，deOrigineJurisPandect。l。i。
tit。ii。leg。2，No47，Heineccius，adInstitut。l。i。tit。ii。
No。8，l。ii。tit。xxv。inElementetAntiquitat。，andGravina，p。41—45。YetthemonopolyofAugustus，aharshmeasure，wouldappearwithsomesofteningincontemporaryevidence；anditwasprobablyveiledbyadecreeofthesenate]
[Footnote*:TheauthorherefollowsthethengenerallyreceivedopinionofHeineccius。Theproofswhichappeartoconfirmitarel。2，47，D。I。2，and8。Instit。I。2。Thefirstofthesepassagesspeaksexpresslyofaprivilegegrantedtocertainlawyers，untilthetimeofAdrian，publicerespondendijusanteAugustitemporanondabatur。PrimusDivusAugustus，utmajorjurisauctoritashaberetur，constituit，utexauctoritateejusresponderent。ThepassageoftheInstitutesspeaksofthedifferentopinionsofthose，quibusestpermissumjuracondere。
Itistruethatthefirstofthesepassagesdoesnotsaythattheopinionoftheseprivilegedlawyershadtheforceofalawforthejudges。ForthisreasonM。HugoaltogetherrejectstheopinionadoptedbyHeineccius，byBach，andingeneralbyallthewriterswhoprecededhim。Heconceivesthatthe8oftheInstitutesreferredtotheconstitutionofValentinianIII。，whichregulatedtherespectiveauthoritytobeascribedtothedifferentwritingsofthegreatcivilians。ButwehavenowthefollowingpassageintheInstitutesofGaius:Responsaprudentumsuntsententiaeetopinioneseorum，quibuspermissumestjuracondere；quorumomniumsiinunumsententiaeconcorrupt，idquoditasentiunt，legisvicemobtinet，siverodissentiunt，judicilicet，quamvelitsententiamsequi，idquerescriptoDiviHadriansigniticatur。Idonotknow，howinoppositiontothispassage，theopinionofM。Hugocanbemaintained。WemustaddtothisthepassagequotedfromPomponiusandfromsuchstrongproofs，itseemsincontestablethattheemperorshadgrantedsomekindofprivilegetocertaincivilians，quibuspermissumeratjuracondere。Theiropinionhadsometimestheforceoflaw，legisvicem。M。Hugo，endeavoringtoreconcilethisphrasewithhissystem，givesitaforcedinterpretation，whichquitealtersthesense；hesupposesthatthepassagecontainsnomorethanwhatisevidentofitself，thattheauthorityofthecivilianswastoberespected，thusmakingaprivilegeofthatwhichwasfreetoalltheworld。Itappearstomealmostindisputable，thattheemperorshadsanctionedcertainprovisionsrelativetotheauthorityofthesecivilians，consultedbythejudges。Buthowfarwastheiradvicetoberespected?Thisisaquestionwhichitisimpossibletoanswerprecisely，fromthewantofhistoricevidence。Isitnotpossiblethattheemperorsestablishedanauthoritytobeconsultedbythejudges?andinthiscasethisauthoritymusthaveemanatedfromcertainciviliansnamedforthispurposebytheemperors。SeeHugo，l。c。Moreover，maynotthepassageofSuetonius，intheLifeofCaligula，wherehesaysthattheemperorwouldnolongerpermitthecivilianstogivetheiradvice，meanthatCaligulaentertainedthedesignofsuppressingthisinstitution?SeeonthispassagetheThemis，vol。xi。p。17，36。OurauthornotbeingacquaintedwiththeopinionsopposedtoHeinecciushasnotgonetothebottomofthesubject。—W。]
Themostabsolutemandatecouldonlyrequirethatthejudgesshouldagreewiththecivilians，iftheciviliansagreedamongthemselves。Butpositiveinstitutionsareoftentheresultofcustomandprejudice；lawsandlanguageareambiguousandarbitrary；wherereasonisincapableofpronouncing，theloveofargumentisinflamedbytheenvyofrivals，thevanityofmasters，theblindattachmentoftheirdisciples；andtheRomanjurisprudencewasdividedbytheoncefamoussectsoftheProculiansandSabinians。^62Twosagesofthelaw，AteiusCapitoandAntistiusLabeo，^63adornedthepeaceoftheAugustanage；
theformerdistinguishedbythefavorofhissovereign；thelattermoreillustriousbyhiscontemptofthatfavor，andhissternthoughharmlessoppositiontothetyrantofRome。Theirlegalstudieswereinfluencedbythevariouscolorsoftheirtemperandprinciples。Labeowasattachedtotheformoftheoldrepublic；hisrivalembracedthemoreprofitablesubstanceoftherisingmonarchy。Butthedispositionofacourtieristameandsubmissive；andCapitoseldompresumedtodeviatefromthesentiments，oratleastfromthewords，ofhispredecessors；
whiletheboldrepublicanpursuedhisindependentideaswithoutfearofparadoxorinnovations。ThefreedomofLabeowasenslaved，however，bytherigorofhisownconclusions，andhedecided，accordingtotheletterofthelaw，thesamequestionswhichhisindulgentcompetitorresolvedwithalatitudeofequitymoresuitabletothecommonsenseandfeelingsofmankind。Ifafairexchangehadbeensubstitutedtothepaymentofmoney，Capitostillconsideredthetransactionasalegalsale；^64andheconsultednaturefortheageofpuberty，withoutconfininghisdefinitiontothepreciseperiodoftwelveorfourteenyears。^65
Thisoppositionofsentimentswaspropagatedinthewritingsandlessonsofthetwofounders；theschoolsofCapitoandLabeomaintainedtheirinveterateconflictfromtheageofAugustustothatofAdrian；^66andthetwosectsderivedtheirappellationsfromSabinusandProculus，theirmostcelebratedteachers。ThenamesofCassiansandPegasianswerelikewiseappliedtothesameparties；but，byastrangereverse，thepopularcausewasinthehandsofPegasus，^67atimidslaveofDomitian，whilethefavoriteoftheCaesarswasrepresentedbyCassius，^68whogloriedinhisdescentfromthepatriotassassin。Bytheperpetualedict，thecontroversiesofthesectswereinagreatmeasuredetermined。Forthatimportantwork，theemperorAdrianpreferredthechiefoftheSabinians:thefriendsofmonarchyprevailed；butthemoderationofSalviusJulianinsensiblyreconciledthevictorsandthevanquished。Likethecontemporaryphilosophers，thelawyersoftheageoftheAntoninesdisclaimedtheauthorityofamaster，andadoptedfromeverysystemthemostprobabledoctrines。^69Buttheirwritingswouldhavebeenlessvoluminous，hadtheirchoicebeenmoreunanimous。Theconscienceofthejudgewasperplexedbythenumberandweightofdiscordanttestimonies，andeverysentencethathispassionorinterestmightpronouncewasjustifiedbythesanctionofsomevenerablename。AnindulgentedictoftheyoungerTheodosiusexcusedhimfromthelaborofcomparingandweighingtheirarguments。Fivecivilians，Caius，Papinian，Paul，Ulpian，andModestinus，wereestablishedastheoraclesofjurisprudence:amajoritywasdecisive:butiftheiropinionswereequallydivided，acastingvotewasascribedtothesuperiorwisdomofPapinian。^70
[Footnote62:IhaveperusedtheDiatribeofGotfridusMascovius，thelearnedMascou，deSectisJurisconsultorum，Lipsiae，1728，in12mo。，p。276，alearnedtreatiseonanarrowandbarrenground。]
[Footnote63:SeethecharacterofAntistiusLabeoinTacitus，Annal。iii。75，andinanepistleofAteiusCapito，Aul。
Gellius，xiii。12，whoaccuseshisrivaloflibertasnimiaetvecors。YetHoracewouldnothavelashedavirtuousandrespectablesenator；andImustadopttheemendationofBentley，whoreadsLabienoinsanior，Serm。I。iii。82。SeeMascou，deSectis，c。i。p。1—24。]
[Footnote64:JustinianInstitut。l。iii。tit。23，andTheophil。
Vers。Graec。p。677，680hascommemoratedthisweightydispute，andtheversesofHomerthatwereallegedoneithersideaslegalauthorities。ItwasdecidedbyPaul，leg。33，adEdict。inPandect。l。xviii。tit。i。leg。1，since，inasimpleexchange，thebuyercouldnotbediscriminatedfromtheseller。]
[Footnote65:ThiscontroversywaslikewisegivenfortheProculians，tosupersedetheindecencyofasearch，andtocomplywiththeaphorismofHippocrates，whowasattachedtotheseptenarynumberoftwoweeksofyears，or700ofdays，Institut。l。i。tit。xxii。PlutarchandtheStoicsdePlacit。
Philosoph。l。v。c。24assignamorenaturalreason。Fourteenyearsistheage。SeethevestigiaofthesectsinMascou，c。
ix。p。145—276。]
[Footnote66:TheseriesandconclusionofthesectsaredescribedbyMascou，c。ii。—vii。p。24—120；anditwouldbealmostridiculoustopraisehisequaljusticetotheseobsoletesects。
Note:TheworkofGaius，subsequenttothetimeofAdrian，furnishesuswithsomeinformationonthissubject。Thedisputeswhichrosebetweenthesetwosectsappeartohavebeenverynumerous。GaiusavowshimselfadiscipleofSabinusandofCaius。CompareHugo，vol。ii。p。106。—W。]
[Footnote67:Atthefirstsummonshefliestotheturbot—council；yetJuvenalSatir。iv。75—81stylesthepraefectorbailiffofRomesanctissimusleguminterpres。Fromhisscience，saystheoldscholiast，hewascalled，notaman，butabook。HederivedthesingularnameofPegasusfromthegalleywhichhisfathercommanded。]
[Footnote68:Tacit。Annal。xvii。7。Sueton。inNerone，c。
xxxvii。]
[Footnote69:Mascou，deSectis，c。viii。p。120—144deHerciscundis，alegaltermwhichwasappliedtotheseeclecticlawyers:herciscereissynonymoustodividere。
Note:Thiswordhasneverexisted。Cujaciusistheauthorofit，whoreadmewordsterriscondiinServiusadVirg。
herciscundi，towhichhegaveanerroneousinterpretation。—W。]
[Footnote70:SeetheTheodosianCode，l。i。tit。iv。withGodefroy\'sCommentary，tom。i。p。30—35。^!ThisdecreemightgiveoccasiontoJesuiticaldisputeslikethoseintheLettresProvinciales，whetheraJudgewasobligedtofollowtheopinionofPapinian，orofamajority，againsthisjudgment，againsthisconscience，&c。Yetalegislatormightgivethatopinion，howeverfalse，thevalidity，notoftruth，butoflaw。
Note:Wepossesssince1824someinterestinginformationastotheframingoftheTheodosianCode，anditsratificationatRome，intheyear438。M。Closius，nowprofessoratDorpatinRussia，andM。Peyron，memberoftheAcademyofTurin，havediscovered，theoneatMilan，theotheratTurin，agreatpartofthefivefirstbooksoftheCodewhichwerewanting，andbesidesthis，thereportsgestaofthesittingofthesenateatRome，inwhichtheCodewaspublished，intheyearafterthemarriageofValentinianIII。AmongthesepiecesaretheconstitutionswhichnominatecommissionersfortheformationoftheCode；andthoughtherearemanypointsofconsiderableobscurityinthesedocuments，theycommunicatemanyfactsrelativetothislegislation。
1。ThatTheodosiusdesignedagreatreforminthelegislation；toaddtotheGregorianandHermogeniancodesallthenewconstitutionsfromConstantinetohisownday；andtoframeasecondcodeforcommonusewithextractsfromthethreecodes，andfromtheworksofthecivillawyers。Alllawseitherabrogatedorfallenintodisuseweretobenotedundertheirproperheads。
2。AnOrdinancewasissuedin429toformacommissionforthispurposeofninepersons，ofwhichAntiochus，asquaestorandpraefectus，waspresident。Asecondcommissionofsixteenmemberswasissuedin435underthesamepresident。
3。Acode，whichwepossessunderthenameofCodexTheodosianus，wasfinishedin438，publishedintheEast，inanordinanceaddressedtothePraetorianpraefect，Florentinus，andintendedtobepublishedintheWest。
4。BeforeitwaspublishedintheWest，Valentiniansubmittedittothesenate。Thereisareportoftheproceedingsofthesenate，whichclosedwithloudacclamationsandgratulations。—FromWarnkonig，HistoireduDroitRomain，p。169
—Wenckhaspublishedthiswork，CodicisTheodosianilibripriores。Leipzig，1825。—M。]
Note*:ClosiusofTubingencommunicatedtoM。WarnkonigthetwofollowingconstitutionsoftheemperorConstantine，whichhediscoveredintheAmbrosianlibraryatMilan:—
1。Imper。ConstantinusAug。adMaximiumPraef。Praetorio。
Perpetuasprudentumcontentioneseruerecupientes，UlpianiacPauli，inPapinianumnotas，quidumingeniilaudemsectantur，nontamcorrigereeumquamdepraveremaluerunt，aboleripraecepimus。Dat。III。Kalend。Octob。Const。Cons。etCrispi，321。Idem。Aug。adMaximiumPraefPraet。
Universa，quaescripturaPaulicontinentur，receptaauctoritatefirmandarunt，etomnivenerationecelebranda。
Ideoquesententiarumlibrosplepissimaluceetperfectissimaelocutioneetjustissimajurisrationesuccinctosinjudiciisprolatosvalereminimiedubitatur。Dat。V。Kalend。Oct。TroviaCoust。etMax。Coss。327。—W]
ChapterXLIV:IdeaOfTheRomanJurisprudence。