[Footnote32:Nonambigitursenatumjusfacereposse，isthedecisionofUlpian，l。xvi。adEdict。inPandect。l。i。tit。
iii。leg。9。Pomponiustaxesthecomitiaofthepeopleasaturbahominum，Pandect。l。i。tit。ii。leg9。
Note:Theauthoradoptstheopinion，thatundertheemperorsalonethesenatehadashareinthelegislativepower。TheyhadneverthelessparticipatedinitundertheRepublic，sincesenatus—consultarelatingtocivilrightshavebeenpreserved，whicharemuchearlierthanthereignsofAugustusorTiberius。
Itistruethat，undertheemperors，thesenateexercisedthisrightmorefrequently，andthattheassembliesofthepeoplehadbecomemuchmorerare，thoughinlawtheywerestillpermitted，inthetimeofUlpian。SeethefragmentsofUlpian。BachhasclearlydemonstratedthatthesenatehadthesamepowerinthetimeoftheRepublic。Itisnaturalthatthesenatus—consultashouldhavebeenmorefrequentundertheemperors，becausetheyemployedthosemeansofflatteringtheprideofthesenators，bygrantingthemtherightofdeliberatingonallaffairswhichdidnotintrenchontheImperialpower。ComparethediscussionsofM。Hugo，vol。i。p。284，etseq。—W。]
Thesilenceorambiguityofthelawswassuppliedbytheoccasionaledicts^!ofthosemagistrateswhowereinvestedwiththehonorsofthestate。^33ThisancientprerogativeoftheRomankingswastransferred，intheirrespectiveoffices，totheconsulsanddictators，thecensorsandpraetors；andasimilarrightwasassumedbythetribunesofthepeople，theediles，andtheproconsuls。AtRome，andintheprovinces，thedutiesofthesubject，andtheintentionsofthegovernor，wereproclaimed；andtheciviljurisprudencewasreformedbytheannualedictsofthesupremejudge，thepraetorofthecity。Assoonasheascendedhistribunal，heannouncedbythevoiceofthecrier，andafterwardsinscribedonawhitewall，theruleswhichheproposedtofollowinthedecisionofdoubtfulcases，andthereliefwhichhisequitywouldaffordfromthepreciserigorofancientstatutes。Aprincipleofdiscretionmorecongenialtomonarchywasintroducedintotherepublic:theartofrespectingthename，andeludingtheefficacy，ofthelaws，wasimprovedbysuccessivepraetors；subtletiesandfictionswereinventedtodefeattheplainestmeaningoftheDecemvirs，andwheretheendwassalutary，themeanswerefrequentlyabsurd。Thesecretorprobablewishofthedeadwassufferedtoprevailovertheorderofsuccessionandtheformsoftestaments；andtheclaimant，whowasexcludedfromthecharacterofheir，acceptedwithequalpleasurefromanindulgentpraetorthepossessionofthegoodsofhislatekinsmanorbenefactor。Intheredressofprivatewrongs，compensationsandfinesweresubstitutedtotheobsoleterigoroftheTwelveTables；timeandspacewereannihilatedbyfancifulsuppositions；andthepleaofyouth，orfraud，orviolence，annulledtheobligation，orexcusedtheperformance，ofaninconvenientcontract。Ajurisdictionthusvagueandarbitrarywasexposedtothemostdangerousabuse:thesubstance，aswellastheform，ofjusticewereoftensacrificedtotheprejudicesofvirtue，thebiasoflaudableaffection，andthegrosserseductionsofinterestorresentment。Buttheerrorsorvicesofeachpraetorexpiredwithhisannualoffice；suchmaximsaloneashadbeenapprovedbyreasonandpracticewerecopiedbysucceedingjudges；theruleofproceedingwasdefinedbythesolutionofnewcases；andthetemptationsofinjusticewereremovedbytheCornelianlaw，whichcompelledthepraetoroftheyeartoadheretothespiritandletterofhisfirstproclamation。^34ItwasreservedforthecuriosityandlearningofAdrian，toaccomplishthedesignwhichhadbeenconceivedbythegeniusofCaesar；andthepraetorshipofSalviusJulian，aneminentlawyer，wasimmortalizedbythecompositionofthePerpetualEdict。Thiswell—digestedcodewasratifiedbytheemperorandthesenate；thelongdivorceoflawandequitywasatlengthreconciled；and，insteadoftheTwelveTables，theperpetualedictwasfixedastheinvariablestandardofciviljurisprudence。^35
[Footnote!:ThereisacuriouspassagefromAurelius，awriteronLaw，onthePraetorianPraefect，quotedinLydusdeMagistratibus，p。32，edit。Hase。ThePraetorianpraefectwastotheemperorwhatthemasterofthehorsewastothedictatorundertheRepublic。Hewasthedelegate，therefore，ofthefullImperialauthority；andnoappealcouldbemadeorexceptiontakenagainsthisedicts。Ihadnotobservedthispassage，whenthethirdvolume，whereitwouldhavebeenmoreappropriatelyplaced，passedthroughthepress。—M]
[Footnote33:ThejushonorariumofthepraetorsandothermagistratesisstrictlydefinedintheLatintexttotheInstitutes，l。i。tit。ii。No。7，andmorelooselyexplainedintheGreekparaphraseofTheophilus，p。33—38，edit。Reitz，
whodropstheimportantwordhonorarium。
Note:TheauthorherefollowstheopinionofHeineccius，who，accordingtotheideaofhismasterThomasius，wasunwillingtosupposethatmagistratesexercisingajudicialcouldshareinthelegislativepower。Forthisreasonherepresentstheedictsofthepraetorsasabsurd。Seehiswork，HistoriaJurisRomani，69，74。ButHeinecciushadaltogetherafalsenotionofthisimportantinstitutionoftheRomans，towhichweoweinagreatdegreetheperfectionoftheirjurisprudence。Heineccius，therefore，inhisowndayshadmanyopponentsofhissystem，amongothersthecelebratedRitter，professoratWittemberg，whocontesteditinnotesappendedtotheworkofHeineccius，andretainedinallsubsequenteditionsofthatbook。AfterRitter，thelearnedBachundertooktovindicatetheedictsofthepraetorsinhisHistoriaJurisprud。Rom。edit。6，p。218，224。
Butitremainedforacivilianofourowndaystothrowlightonthespiritandtruecharacterofthisinstitution。M。Hugohascompletelydemonstratedthatthepraetorianedictsfurnishedthesalutarymeansofperpetuallyharmonizingthelegislationwiththespiritofthetimes。Thepraetorswerethetrueorgansofpublicopinion。Itwasnotaccordingtotheircapricethattheyframedtheirregulations，butaccordingtothemannersandtotheopinionsofthegreatcivillawyersoftheirday。WeknowfromCicerohimself，thatitwasesteemedagreathonoramongtheRomanstopublishanedict，wellconceivedandwelldrawn。ThemostdistinguishedlawyersofRomewereinvitedbythepraetortoassistinframingthisannuallaw，which，accordingtoitsprinciple，wasonlyadeclarationwhichthepraetormadetothepublic，toannouncethemannerinwhichhewouldjudge，andtoguardagainsteverychargeofpartiality。Thosewhohadreasontofearhisopinionsmightdelaytheircausetillthefollowingyear。
Thepraetorwasresponsibleforallthefaultswhichhecommitted。Thetribunescouldlodgeanaccusationagainstthepraetorwhoissuedapartialedict。Hewasboundstrictlytofollowandtoobservetheregulationspublishedbyhimatthecommencementofhisyearofoffice，accordingtotheCornelianlaw，bywhichtheseedictswerecalledperpetual，andhecouldmakenochangeinaregulationoncepublished。Thepraetorwasobligedtosubmittohisownedict，andtojudgehisownaffairsaccordingtoitsprovisions。Thesemagistrateshadnopowerofdepartingfromthefundamentallaws，orthelawsoftheTwelveTables。Thepeopleheldtheminsuchconsideration，thattheyrarelyenactedlawscontrarytotheirprovisions；butassomeprovisionswerefoundinefficient，othersopposedtothemannersofthepeople，andtothespiritofsubsequentages，thepraetors，stillmaintainingrespectforthelaws，endeavoredtobringthemintoaccordancewiththenecessitiesoftheexistingtime，bysuchfictionsasbestsuitedthenatureofthecase。Inwhatlegislationdowenotfindthesefictions，whichevenyetexist，absurdandridiculousastheyare，amongtheancientlawsofmodernnations?ThesealwaysvariableedictsatlengthcomprehendedthewholeoftheRomanlegislature，andbecamethesubjectofthecommentariesofthemostcelebratedlawyers。TheymustthereforebeconsideredasthebasisofalltheRomanjurisprudencecomprehendedintheDigestofJustinian。
ItisinthissensethatM。Schraderhaswrittenonthisimportantinstitution，proposingitforimitationasfarasmaybeconsistentwithourmanners，andagreeabletoourpoliticalinstitutions，inordertoavoidimmaturelegislationbecomingapermanentevil。SeetheHistoryoftheRomanLawbyM。Hugo，vol。i。p。296，&c。，vol。ii。p。30，etseq。，78。etseq。，andthenoteinmyelementarybookontheIndustries，p。313。Withregardtotheworksbestsuitedtogiveinformationontheframingandtheformoftheseedicts，seeHaubold，InstitutionesLiterariae，tom。i。p。321，368。
AllthatHeinecciussaysabouttheusurpationoftherightofmakingtheseedictsbythepraetorsisfalse，andcontrarytoallhistoricaltestimony。Amultitudeofauthoritiesprovesthatthemagistrateswereunderanobligationtopublishtheseedicts。
—W。
Withtheutmostdeferencefortheseexcellentcivilians，I
cannotbutconsiderthisconfusionofthejudicialandlegislativeauthorityasaveryperilousconstitutionalprecedent。ItmightansweramongapeoplesosingularlytrainedastheRomanswerebyhabitandnationalcharacterinreverenceforlegalinstitutions，soastobeanaristocracy，ifnotapeople，oflegislators；butinmostnationstheinvestitureofamagistrateinsuchauthority，leavingtohissolejudgmentthelawyershemightconsult，andtheviewofpublicopinionwhichhemighttake，wouldbeaveryinsufficientguarantyforrightlegislation。—M。]
[Footnote*:ComparethroughoutthebriefbutadmirablesketchoftheprogressandgrowthoftheRomanjurisprudence，thenecessaryoperationofthejusgentium，whenRomebecamethesovereignofnations，uponthejuscivileofthecitizensofRome，inthefirstchapterofSavigny。GeschichtedesRomischenRechtsimMittelalter。—M。]
[Footnote34:DionCassiustom。i。l。xxxvi。p。100fixestheperpetualedictsintheyearofRome，686。Theirinstitution，however，isascribedtotheyear585intheActaDiurna，whichhavebeenpublishedfromthepapersofLudovicusVives。TheirauthenticityissupportedorallowedbyPighius，Annal。Rom。
tom。ii。p。377，378，Graevius，adSueton。p。778，Dodwell，Praelection。Cambden，p。665，andHeineccius:butasingleword，ScutumCimbricum，detectstheforgery，Moyle\'sWorks，vol。
i。p。303。]
[Footnote35:Thehistoryofedictsiscomposed，andthetextoftheperpetualedictisrestored，bythemaster—handofHeineccius，Opp。tom。vii。P。ii。p。1—564；inwhoseresearchesImightsafelyacquiesce。IntheAcademyofInscriptions，M。Bouchaudhasgivenaseriesofmemoirstothisinterestingsubjectoflawandliterature。
Note:ThisrestorationwasonlythecommencementofaworkfoundamongthepapersofHeineccius，andpublishedafterhisdeath。—G。]
Note:Gibbonhasherefallenintoanerror，withHeineccius，andalmostthewholeliteraryworld，concerningtherealmeaningofwhatiscalledtheperpetualedictofHadrian。SincetheCornelianlaw，theedictswereperpetual，butonlyinthissense，thatthepraetorcouldnotchangethemduringtheyearofhismagistracy。AndalthoughitappearsthatunderHadrian，thecivilianJulianusmade，orassistedinmaking，acompletecollectionoftheedicts，whichcertainlyhadbeendonelikewisebeforeHadrian，forexample，byOfilius，quidiligenteredictumcomposuit，wehavenosufficientprooftoadmitthecommonopinion，thatthePraetorianedictwasdeclaredperpetuallyunalterablebyHadrian。ThewritersonlawsubsequenttoHadrianandamongtherestPomponius，inhisSummaryoftheRomanJurisprudencespeakoftheedictasitexistedinthetimeofCicero。Theywouldnotcertainlyhavepassedoverinsilencesoremarkableachangeinthemostimportantsourceofthecivillaw。M。Hugohasconclusivelyshownthatthevariouspassagesinauthors，likeEutropius，arenotsufficienttoestablishtheopinionintroducedbyHeineccius。CompareHugo，vol。ii。p。78。
AnewproofofthisisfoundintheInstitutesofGaius，who，inthefirstbooksofhiswork，expresseshimselfinthesamemanner，withoutmentioninganychangemadebyHadrian。
Nevertheless，ifithadtakenplace，hemusthavenoticedit，ashedoesl。i。8，theresponsaprudentum，ontheoccasionofarescriptofHadrian。Thereisnolacunainthetext。WhythenshouldGaiusmaintainsilenceconcerninganinnovationsomuchmoreimportantthanthatofwhichhespeaks?Afterall，thisquestionbecomesofslightinterest，since，infact，wefindnochangeintheperpetualedictinsertedintheDigest，fromthetimeofHadriantotheendofthatepoch，exceptthatmadebyJulian，compareHugo，l。c。Thelatterlawyersappeartofollow，intheircommentaries，thesametextsastheirpredecessors。Itisnaturaltosuppose，that，afterthelaborsofsomanymendistinguishedinjurisprudence，theframingoftheedictmusthaveattainedsuchperfectionthatitwouldhavebeendifficulttohavemadeanyinnovation。WenowherefindthatthejuristsofthePandectsdisputedconcerningthewords，orthedrawingupoftheedict。
Whatdifferencewould，infact，resultfromthiswithregardtoourcodes，andourmodernlegislation?ComparethelearnedDissertationofM。Biener，DeSalviiJulianimeritisinEdictumPraetoriumrecteaestimandis。Lipsae，1809，4to。—W。]
FromAugustustoTrajan，themodestCaesarswerecontenttopromulgatetheiredictsinthevariouscharactersofaRomanmagistrate；and，inthedecreesofthesenate，theepistlesandorationsoftheprincewererespectfullyinserted。Adrian^36appearstohavebeenthefirstwhoassumed，withoutdisguise，theplenitudeoflegislativepower。Andthisinnovation，soagreeabletohisactivemind，wascountenancedbythepatienceofthetimes，andhislongabsencefromtheseatofgovernment。Thesamepolicywasembracedbysucceedingmonarchs，and，accordingtotheharshmetaphorofTertullian，\"thegloomyandintricateforestofancientlawswasclearedawaybytheaxeofroyalmandatesandconstitutions。\"^37Duringfourcenturies，fromAdriantoJustinianthepublicandprivatejurisprudencewasmouldedbythewillofthesovereign；andfewinstitutions，eitherhumanordivine，werepermittedtostandontheirformerbasis。TheoriginofImperiallegislationwasconcealedbythedarknessofagesandtheterrorsofarmeddespotism；andadoubletictionwaspropagatedbytheservility，orperhapstheignorance，ofthecivilians，whobaskedinthesunshineoftheRomanandByzantinecourts。1。TotheprayeroftheancientCaesars，thepeopleorthesenatehadsometimesgrantedapersonalexemptionfromtheobligationandpenaltyofparticularstatutes；andeachindulgencewasanactofjurisdictionexercisedbytherepublicoverthefirstofhercitizens。Hishumbleprivilegewasatlengthtransformedintotheprerogativeofatyrant；andtheLatinexpressionof\"releasedfromthelaws\"
^38wassupposedtoexalttheemperoraboveallhumanrestraints，andtoleavehisconscienceandreasonasthesacredmeasureofhisconduct。2。Asimilardependencewasimpliedinthedecreesofthesenate，which，ineveryreign，definedthetitlesandpowersofanelectivemagistrate。Butitwasnotbeforetheideas，andeventhelanguage，oftheRomanshadbeencorrupted，thataroyallaw，^39andanirrevocablegiftofthepeople，werecreatedbythefancyofUlpian，ormoreprobablyofTribonianhimself；^40andtheoriginofImperialpower，thoughfalseinfact，andslavishinitsconsequence，wassupportedonaprincipleoffreedomandjustice。\"Thepleasureoftheemperorhasthevigorandeffectoflaw，sincetheRomanpeople，bytheroyallaw，havetransferredtotheirprincethefullextentoftheirownpowerandsovereignty。\"^41Thewillofasingleman，ofachildperhaps，wasallowedtoprevailoverthewisdomofagesandtheinclinationsofmillions；andthedegenerateGreekswereproudtodeclare，thatinhishandsalonethearbitraryexerciseoflegislationcouldbesafelydeposited。\"Whatinterestorpassion，\"exclaimsTheophilusinthecourtofJustinian，\"canreachthecalmandsublimeelevationofthemonarch?Heisalreadymasterofthelivesandfortunesofhissubjects；andthosewhohaveincurredhisdispleasurearealreadynumberedwiththedead。\"^42Disdainingthelanguageofflattery，thehistorianmayconfess，thatinquestionsofprivatejurisprudence，theabsolutesovereignofagreatempirecanseldombeinfluencedbyanypersonalconsiderations。Virtue，orevenreason，willsuggesttohisimpartialmind，thatheistheguardianofpeaceandequity，andthattheinterestofsocietyisinseparablyconnectedwithhisown。Undertheweakestandmostviciousreign，theseatofjusticewasfilledbythewisdomandintegrityofPapinianandUlpian；^43andthepurestmaterialsoftheCodeandPandectsareinscribedwiththenamesofCaracallaandhisministers。^44ThetyrantofRomewassometimesthebenefactoroftheprovinces。AdaggerterminatedthecrimesofDomitian；buttheprudenceofNervaconfirmedhisacts，which，inthejoyoftheirdeliverance，hadbeenrescindedbyanindignantsenate。^45Yetintherescripts，^46repliestotheconsultationsofthemagistrates，thewisestofprincesmightbedeceivedbyapartialexpositionofthecase。Andthisabuse，whichplacedtheirhastydecisionsonthesamelevelwithmatureanddeliberateactsoflegislation，wasineffectuallycondemnedbythesenseandexampleofTrajan。Therescriptsoftheemperor，hisgrantsanddecrees，hisedictsandpragmaticsanctions，weresubscribedinpurpleink，^47andtransmittedtotheprovincesasgeneralorspeciallaws，whichthemagistrateswereboundtoexecute，andthepeopletoobey。Butastheirnumbercontinuallymultiplied，theruleofobediencebecameeachdaymoredoubtfulandobscure，tillthewillofthesovereignwasfixedandascertainedintheGregorian，theHermogenian，andtheTheodosiancodes。Thetwofirst，ofwhichsomefragmentshaveescaped，wereframedbytwoprivatelawyers，topreservetheconstitutionsofthePaganemperorsfromAdriantoConstantine。
Thethird，whichisstillextant，wasdigestedinsixteenbooksbytheorderoftheyoungerTheodosiustoconsecratethelawsoftheChristianprincesfromConstantinetohisownreign。Butthethreecodesobtainedanequalauthorityinthetribunals；andanyactwhichwasnotincludedinthesacreddepositmightbedisregardedbythejudgeasepuriousorobsolete。^48
[Footnote*:Itisanimportantquestioninwhatmannertheemperorswereinvestedwiththislegislativepower。ThenewlydiscoveredGaiusdistinctlystatesthatitwasinvirtueofalaw—Necunquamdubitatumest，quinidlegisvicemobtineat，cumipseimperatorperlegemimperiumaccipiat。Butitisstilluncertainwhetherthiswasagenerallaw，passedonthetransitionofthegovernmentfromarepublicantoamonarchicalform，oralawpassedontheaccessionofeachemperor。CompareHugo，Hist。duDroitRomain，Frenchtranslation，vol。ii。p。8。
—M。]
[Footnote36:Hislawsarethefirstinthecode。SeeDodwell，Praelect。Cambden，p。319—340，whowandersfromthesubjectinconfusedreadingandfeebleparadox。
Note:ThisisagainanerrorwhichGibbonshareswithHeineccius，andthegeneralityofauthors。ItarisesfromhavingmistakentheinsignificantedictofHadrian，insertedintheCodeofJustinian，lib。vi，tit。xxiii。c。11，forthefirstconstitutioprincipis，withoutattendingtothefact，thatthePandectscontainsomanyconstitutionsoftheemperors，fromJuliusCaesar，seel。i。Digest29，lM。Hugojustlyobserves，thattheactaofSylla，approvedbythesenate，werethesamethingwiththeconstitutionsofthosewhoafterhimusurpedthesovereignpower。Moreover，wefindthatPliny，andotherancientauthors，reportamultitudeofrescriptsoftheemperorsfromthetimeofAugustus。SeeHugo，Hist。duDroitRomain，vol。ii。p。
24—27。—W。]
[Footnote37:Totamillamveteremetsqualentemsylvamlegumnovisprincipaliumrescriptorumetedictorumsecuribustruncatisetcaeditis；Apologet。c。4，p。50，edit。Havercamp。HeproceedstopraisetherecentfirmnessofSeverus，whorepealedtheuselessorperniciouslaws，withoutanyregardtotheirageorauthority。]
[Footnote38:TheconstitutionalstyleofLegibusSolutusismisinterpretedbytheartorignoranceofDionCassius，tom。i。
l。liii。p。713。Onthisoccasion，hiseditor，Reimer，joinstheuniversalcensurewhichfreedomandcriticismhavepronouncedagainstthatslavishhistorian。]
[Footnote39:ThewordLexRegiawasstillmorerecentthanthething。TheslavesofCommodusorCaracallawouldhavestartedatthenameofroyalty。
Note:Yetacenturybefore，DomitianwascallednotonlybyMartialbuteveninpublicdocuments，DominusetDeusNoster。