Hisdutywastoattendtheemperorinhishoursofstate，orinthoseofamusement，andtoperformabouthispersonallthosemenialservices，whichcanonlyderivetheirsplendorfromtheinfluenceofroyalty。Underaprincewhodeservedtoreign，thegreatchamberlainforsuchwemaycallhimwasausefulandhumbledomestic；butanartfuldomestic，whoimproveseveryoccasionofunguardedconfidence，willinsensiblyacquireoverafeeblemindthatascendantwhichharshwisdomanduncomplyingvirtuecanseldomobtain。ThedegenerategrandsonsofTheodosius，whowereinvisibletotheirsubjects，andcontemptibletotheirenemies，exaltedthepraefectsoftheirbed—chamberabovetheheadsofalltheministersofthepalace；
^142andevenhisdeputy，thefirstofthesplendidtrainofslaveswhowaitedinthepresence，wasthoughtworthytorankbeforetherespectableproconsulsofGreeceorAsia。Thejurisdictionofthechamberlainwasacknowledgedbythecounts，orsuperintendents，whoregulatedthetwoimportantprovincesofthemagnificenceofthewardrobe，andoftheluxuryoftheImperialtable。^1432。Theprincipaladministrationofpublicaffairswascommittedtothediligenceandabilitiesofthemasteroftheoffices。^144Hewasthesuprememagistrateofthepalace，inspectedthedisciplineofthecivilandmilitaryschools，andreceivedappealsfromallpartsoftheempire，inthecauseswhichrelatedtothatnumerousarmyofprivilegedpersons，who，astheservantsofthecourt，hadobtainedforthemselvesandfamiliesarighttodeclinetheauthorityoftheordinaryjudges。Thecorrespondencebetweentheprinceandhissubjectswasmanagedbythefourscrinia，orofficesofthisministerofstate。Thefirstwasappropriatedtomemorials，thesecondtoepistles，thethirdtopetitions，andthefourthtopapersandordersofamiscellaneouskind。Eachofthesewasdirectedbyaninferiormasterofrespectabledignity，andthewholebusinesswasdespatchedbyahundredandforty—eightsecretaries，chosenforthemostpartfromtheprofessionofthelaw，onaccountofthevarietyofabstractsofreportsandreferenceswhichfrequentlyoccurredintheexerciseoftheirseveralfunctions。Fromacondescension，whichinformerageswouldhavebeenesteemedunworthytheRomanmajesty，aparticularsecretarywasallowedfortheGreeklanguage；andinterpreterswereappointedtoreceivetheambassadorsoftheBarbarians；butthedepartmentofforeignaffairs，whichconstitutessoessentialapartofmodernpolicy，seldomdivertedtheattentionofthemasteroftheoffices。Hismindwasmoreseriouslyengagedbythegeneraldirectionofthepostsandarsenalsoftheempire。
Therewerethirty—fourcities，fifteenintheEast，andnineteenintheWest，inwhichregularcompaniesofworkmenwereperpetuallyemployedinfabricatingdefensivearmor，offensiveweaponsofallsorts，andmilitaryengines，whichweredepositedinthearsenals，andoccasionallydeliveredfortheserviceofthetroops。3。Inthecourseofninecenturies，theofficeofquaestorhadexperiencedaverysingularrevolution。IntheinfancyofRome，twoinferiormagistrateswereannuallyelectedbythepeople，torelievetheconsulsfromtheinvidiousmanagementofthepublictreasure；^145asimilarassistantwasgrantedtoeveryproconsul，andtoeverypraetor，whoexercisedamilitaryorprovincialcommand；withtheextentofconquest，thetwoquaestorsweregraduallymultipliedtothenumberoffour，ofeight，oftwenty，and，forashorttime，perhaps，offorty；^146
andthenoblestcitizensambitiouslysolicitedanofficewhichgavethemaseatinthesenate，andajusthopeofobtainingthehonorsoftherepublic。WhilstAugustusaffectedtomaintainthefreedomofelection，heconsentedtoaccepttheannualprivilegeofrecommending，orratherindeedofnominating，acertainproportionofcandidates；anditwashiscustomtoselectoneofthesedistinguishedyouths，toreadhisorationsorepistlesintheassembliesofthesenate。^147ThepracticeofAugustuswasimitatedbysucceedingprinces；theoccasionalcommissionwasestablishedasapermanentoffice；andthefavoredquaestor，assuminganewandmoreillustriouscharacter，alonesurvivedthesuppressionofhisancientanduselesscolleagues。^148Astheorationswhichhecomposedinthenameoftheemperor，^149
acquiredtheforce，and，atlength，theform，ofabsoluteedicts，hewasconsideredastherepresentativeofthelegislativepower，theoracleofthecouncil，andtheoriginalsourceoftheciviljurisprudence。HewassometimesinvitedtotakehisseatinthesupremejudicatureoftheImperialconsistory，withthePraetorianpraefects，andthemasteroftheoffices；andhewasfrequentlyrequestedtoresolvethedoubtsofinferiorjudges:
butashewasnotoppressedwithavarietyofsubordinatebusiness，hisleisureandtalentswereemployedtocultivatethatdignifiedstyleofeloquence，which，inthecorruptionoftasteandlanguage，stillpreservesthemajestyoftheRomanlaws。^150
Insomerespects，theofficeoftheImperialquaestormaybecomparedwiththatofamodernchancellor；buttheuseofagreatseal，whichseemstohavebeenadoptedbytheilliteratebarbarians，wasneverintroducedtoattestthepublicactsoftheemperors。4。Theextraordinarytitleofcountofthesacredlargesseswasbestowedonthetreasurer—generaloftherevenue，withtheintentionperhapsofinculcating，thateverypaymentflowedfromthevoluntarybountyofthemonarch。Toconceivethealmostinfinitedetailoftheannualanddailyexpenseofthecivilandmilitaryadministrationineverypartofagreatempire，wouldexceedthepowersofthemostvigorousimagination。
Theactualaccountemployedseveralhundredpersons，distributedintoelevendifferentoffices，whichwereartfullycontrivedtoexamineandcontroltheirrespectiveoperations。Themultitudeoftheseagentshadanaturaltendencytoincrease；anditwasmorethanoncethoughtexpedienttodismisstotheirnativehomestheuselesssupernumeraries，who，desertingtheirhonestlabors，hadpressedwithtoomucheagernessintothelucrativeprofessionofthefinances。^151Twenty—nineprovincialreceivers，ofwhomeighteenwerehonoredwiththetitleofcount，correspondedwiththetreasurer；andheextendedhisjurisdictionovertheminesfromwhencethepreciousmetalswereextracted，overthemints，inwhichtheywereconvertedintothecurrentcoin，andoverthepublictreasuriesofthemostimportantcities，wheretheyweredepositedfortheserviceofthestate。Theforeigntradeoftheempirewasregulatedbythisminister，whodirectedlikewiseallthelinenandwoollenmanufactures，inwhichthesuccessiveoperationsofspinning，weaving，anddyeingwereexecuted，chieflybywomenofaservilecondition，fortheuseofthepalaceandarmy。Twenty—sixoftheseinstitutionsareenumeratedintheWest，wheretheartshadbeenmorerecentlyintroduced，andastilllargerproportionmaybeallowedfortheindustriousprovincesoftheEast。^1525。Besidesthepublicrevenue，whichanabsolutemonarchmightlevyandexpendaccordingtohispleasure，theemperors，inthecapacityofopulentcitizens，possessedaveryextensiveproperty，whichwasadministeredbythecountortreasureroftheprivateestate。Someparthadperhapsbeentheancientdemesnesofkingsandrepublics；someaccessionsmightbederivedfromthefamilieswhichweresuccessivelyinvestedwiththepurple；butthemostconsiderableportionflowedfromtheimpuresourceofconfiscationsandforfeitures。TheImperialestateswerescatteredthroughtheprovinces，fromMauritaniatoBritain；buttherichandfertilesoilofCappadociatemptedthemonarchtoacquireinthatcountryhisfairestpossessions，^153andeitherConstantineorhissuccessorsembracedtheoccasionofjustifyingavaricebyreligiouszeal。TheysuppressedtherichtempleofComana，wherethehighpriestofthegoddessofwarsupportedthedignityofasovereignprince；andtheyappliedtotheirprivateusetheconsecratedlands，whichwereinhabitedbysixthousandsubjectsorslavesofthedeityandherministers。^154Butthesewerenotthevaluableinhabitants:theplainsthatstretchfromthefootofMountArgaeustothebanksoftheSarus，bredagenerousraceofhorses，renownedaboveallothersintheancientworldfortheirmajesticshapeandincomparableswiftness。Thesesacredanimals，destinedfortheserviceofthepalaceandtheImperialgames，wereprotectedbythelawsfromtheprofanationofavulgarmaster。^155ThedemesnesofCappadociawereimportantenoughtorequiretheinspectionofacount；^156officersofaninferiorrankwerestationedintheotherpartsoftheempire；
andthedeputiesoftheprivate，aswellasthoseofthepublic，treasurerweremaintainedintheexerciseoftheirindependentfunctions，andencouragedtocontroltheauthorityoftheprovincialmagistrates。^1576，7。Thechosenbandsofcavalryandinfantry，whichguardedthepersonoftheemperor，wereundertheimmediatecommandofthetwocountsofthedomestics。Thewholenumberconsistedofthreethousandfivehundredmen，dividedintosevenschools，ortroops，offivehundredeach；andintheEast，thishonorableservicewasalmostentirelyappropriatedtotheArmenians。Whenever，onpublicceremonies，theyweredrawnupinthecourtsandporticosofthepalace，theirloftystature，silentorder，andsplendidarmsofsilverandgold，displayedamartialpompnotunworthyoftheRomanmajesty。^158Fromthesevenschoolstwocompaniesofhorseandfootwereselected，oftheprotectors，whoseadvantageousstationwasthehopeandrewardofthemostdeservingsoldiers。Theymountedguardintheinteriorapartments，andwereoccasionallydespatchedintotheprovinces，toexecutewithcelerityandvigortheordersoftheirmaster。^159ThecountsofthedomesticshadsucceededtotheofficeofthePraetorianpraefects；likethepraefects，theyaspiredfromtheserviceofthepalacetothecommandofarmies。
[Footnote142:Cod。Theod。l。vi。tit。8。]
[Footnote143:Byaverysingularmetaphor，borrowedfromthemilitarycharacterofthefirstemperors，thestewardoftheirhouseholdwasstyledthecountoftheircamp，comescastrensis。
Cassiodorusveryseriouslyrepresentstohim，thathisownfame，andthatoftheempire，mustdependontheopinionwhichforeignambassadorsmayconceiveoftheplentyandmagnificenceoftheroyaltable。Variar。l。vi。epistol。9。]
[Footnote144:GutheriusdeOfficiisDomusAugustae，l。ii。c。
20，l。iii。hasveryaccuratelyexplainedthefunctionsofthemasteroftheoffices，andtheconstitutionofthesubordinatescrinia。Buthevainlyattempts，onthemostdoubtfulauthority，todeducefromthetimeoftheAntonines，orevenofNero，theoriginofamagistratewhocannotbefoundinhistorybeforethereignofConstantine。]
[Footnote145:TacitusAnnal。xi。22says，thatthefirstquaestorswereelectedbythepeople，sixty—fouryearsafterthefoundationoftherepublic；butheisofopinion，thattheyhad，longbeforethatperiod，beenannuallyappointedbytheconsuls，andevenbythekings。Butthisobscurepointofantiquityiscontestedbyotherwriters。]
[Footnote146:TacitusAnnal。xi。22seemstoconsidertwentyasthehighestnumberofquaestors；andDionl。xliii。p374
insinuates，thatifthedictatorCaesaroncecreatedforty，itwasonlytofacilitatethepaymentofanimmensedebtofgratitude。Yettheaugmentationwhichhemadeofpraetorssubsistedunderthesucceedingreigns。]
[Footnote147:Sueton。inAugust。c。65，andTorrent。adloc。
Dion。Cas。p。755。]
[Footnote148:Theyouthandinexperienceofthequaestors，whoenteredonthatimportantofficeintheirtwenty—fifthyear，Lips。Excurs。adTacit。l。iii。D。，engagedAugustustoremovethemfromthemanagementofthetreasury；andthoughtheywererestoredbyClaudius，theyseemtohavebeenfinallydismissedbyNero。TacitAnnal。xiii。29。Sueton。inAug。c。36，inClaud。
c。24。Dion，p。696，961，&c。Plin。Epistol。x。20，etalibi。
IntheprovincesoftheImperialdivision，theplaceofthequaestorswasmoreablysuppliedbytheprocurators，DionCas。
p。707。Tacit。inVit。Agricol。c。15；or，astheywereafterwardscalled，rationales。Hist。August。p。130。ButintheprovincesofthesenatewemaystilldiscoveraseriesofquaestorstillthereignofMarcusAntoninus。SeetheInscriptionsofGruter，theEpistlesofPliny，andadecisivefactintheAugustanHistory，p。64。FromUlpianwemaylearn，Pandect。l。i。tit。13，thatunderthegovernmentofthehouseofSeverus，theirprovincialadministrationwasabolished；andinthesubsequenttroubles，theannualortriennialelectionsofquaestorsmusthavenaturallyceased。]
[Footnote149:Cumpatrisnomineetepistolasipsedictaret，etedictaconscriberet，orationesqueinsenaturecitaret，etiamquaestorisvice。Sueton，inTit。c。6。Theofficemusthaveacquirednewdignity，whichwasoccasionallyexecutedbytheheirapparentoftheempire。TrajanintrustedthesamecaretoHadrian，hisquaestorandcousin。SeeDodwell，Praelection。
Cambden，x。xi。p。362—394。]
[Footnote150:Terrisedictadaturus；
Supplicibusresponsa。—OracularegisEloquiocreveretuo；necdigniusunquamMajestasmeminitseseRomanalocutam。
ClaudianinConsulat。Mall。Theodor。33。SeelikewiseSymmachusEpistol。i。17andCassiodorus。Variar。iv。5。]
[Footnote151:Cod。Theod。l。vi。tit。30。Cod。Justinian。l。
xii。tit。24。]
[Footnote152:Inthedepartmentsofthetwocountsofthetreasury，theeasternpartoftheNotitiahappenstobeverydefective。Itmaybeobserved，thatwehadatreasurychestinLondon，andagyneceumormanufactureatWinchester。ButBritainwasnotthoughtworthyeitherofamintorofanarsenal。Gaulalonepossessedthreeoftheformer，andeightofthelatter。]
[Footnote153:Cod。Theod。l。vi。tit。xxx。leg。2，andGodefroyadloc。]
[Footnote154:Strabon。Geograph。l。xxii。p。809，[edit。
Casaub。]TheothertempleofComana，inPontus，wasacolonyfromthatofCappadocia，l。xii。p。835。ThePresidentDesBrossesseehisSaluste，tom。ii。p。21，[edit。Causub。]conjecturesthatthedeityadoredinbothComanaswasBeltis，theVenusoftheeast，thegoddessofgeneration；averydifferentbeingindeedfromthegoddessofwar。]
[Footnote155:Cod。Theod。l。x。tit。vi。deGregeDominico。
GodefroyhascollectedeverycircumstanceofantiquityrelativetotheCappadocianhorses。Oneofthefinestbreeds，thePalmatian，wastheforfeitureofarebel，whoseestatelayaboutsixteenmilesfromTyana，nearthegreatroadbetweenConstantinopleandAntioch。]
[Footnote156:JustinianNovell。30subjectedtheprovinceofthecountofCappadociatotheimmediateauthorityofthefavoriteeunuch，whopresidedoverthesacredbed—chamber。]
[Footnote157:Cod。Theod。l。vi。tit。xxx。leg。4，&c。]
[Footnote158:Pancirolus，p。102，136。TheappearanceofthesemilitarydomesticsisdescribedintheLatinpoemofCorippus，deLaudibusJustin。l。iii。157—179。p。419，420oftheAppendixHist。Byzantin。Rom。177。]
[Footnote159:AmmianusMarcellinus，whoservedsomanyyears，obtainedonlytherankofaprotector。ThefirsttenamongthesehonorablesoldierswereClarissimi。]
Theperpetualintercoursebetweenthecourtandtheprovinceswasfacilitatedbytheconstructionofroadsandtheinstitutionofposts。Butthesebeneficialestablishmentswereaccidentallyconnectedwithaperniciousandintolerableabuse。
Twoorthreehundredagentsormessengerswereemployed，underthejurisdictionofthemasteroftheoffices，toannouncethenamesoftheannualconsuls，andtheedictsorvictoriesoftheemperors。Theyinsensiblyassumedthelicenseofreportingwhatevertheycouldobserveoftheconducteitherofmagistratesorofprivatecitizens；andweresoonconsideredastheeyesofthemonarch，^160andthescourgeofthepeople。Underthewarminfluenceofafeeblereign，theymultipliedtotheincrediblenumberoftenthousand，disdainedthemildthoughfrequentadmonitionsofthelaws，andexercisedintheprofitablemanagementofthepostsarapaciousandinsolentoppression。
Theseofficialspies，whoregularlycorrespondedwiththepalace，wereencouragedbyfavorandreward，anxiouslytowatchtheprogressofeverytreasonabledesign，fromthefaintandlatentsymptomsofdisaffection，totheactualpreparationofanopenrevolt。Theircarelessorcriminalviolationoftruthandjusticewascoveredbytheconsecratedmaskofzeal；andtheymightsecurelyaimtheirpoisonedarrowsatthebreasteitheroftheguiltyortheinnocent，whohadprovokedtheirresentment，orrefusedtopurchasetheirsilence。Afaithfulsubject，ofSyriaperhaps，orofBritain，wasexposedtothedanger，oratleasttothedread，ofbeingdraggedinchainstothecourtofMilanorConstantinople，todefendhislifeandfortuneagainstthemaliciouschargeoftheseprivilegedinformers。Theordinaryadministrationwasconductedbythosemethodswhichextremenecessitycanalonepalliate；andthedefectsofevidencewerediligentlysuppliedbytheuseoftorture。^161
[Footnote160:Xenophon，Cyropaed。l。viii。Brisson，deRegnoPersico，l。iNo190，p。264。TheemperorsadoptedwithpleasurethisPersianmetaphor。]
[Footnote161:FortheAgentesinRebus，seeAmmian。l。xv。c。3，l。xvi。c。5，l。xxii。c。7，withthecuriousannotationsofValesius。Cod。Theod。l。vi。tit。xxvii。xxviii。xxix。AmongthepassagescollectedintheCommentaryofGodefroy，themostremarkableisonefromLibanius，inhisdiscourseconcerningthedeathofJulian。]
Thedeceitfulanddangerousexperimentofthecriminalquaestion，asitisemphaticallystyled，wasadmitted，ratherthanapproved，inthejurisprudenceoftheRomans。Theyappliedthissanguinarymodeofexaminationonlytoservilebodies，whosesufferingswereseldomweighedbythosehaughtyrepublicansinthescaleofjusticeorhumanity；buttheywouldneverconsenttoviolatethesacredpersonofacitizen，tilltheypossessedtheclearestevidenceofhisguilt。^162Theannalsoftyranny，fromthereignofTiberiustothatofDomitian，circumstantiallyrelatetheexecutionsofmanyinnocentvictims；but，aslongasthefaintestremembrancewaskeptaliveofthenationalfreedomandhonor，thelasthoursofaRomanweresecuredfromthedangerofignominionstorture。^163Theconductoftheprovincialmagistrateswasnot，however，regulatedbythepracticeofthecity，orthestrictmaximsofthecivilians。Theyfoundtheuseoftortureestablishednotonlyamongtheslavesoforientaldespotism，butamongtheMacedonians，whoobeyedalimitedmonarch；amongtheRhodians，whoflourishedbythelibertyofcommerce；andevenamongthesageAthenians，whohadassertedandadornedthedignityofhumankind。^164Theacquiescenceoftheprovincialsencouragedtheirgovernorstoacquire，orperhapstousurp，adiscretionarypowerofemployingtherack，toextortfromvagrantsorplebeiancriminalstheconfessionoftheirguilt，tilltheyinsensiblyproceededtoconfoundthedistinctionofrank，andtodisregardtheprivilegesofRomancitizens。Theapprehensionsofthesubjectsurgedthemtosolicit，andtheinterestofthesovereignengagedhimtogrant，avarietyofspecialexemptions，whichtacitlyallowed，andevenauthorized，thegeneraluseoftorture。Theyprotectedallpersonsofillustriousorhonorablerank，bishopsandtheirpresbyters，professorsoftheliberalarts，soldiersandtheirfamilies，municipalofficers，andtheirposteritytothethirdgeneration，andallchildrenundertheageofpuberty。^165Butafatalmaximwasintroducedintothenewjurisprudenceoftheempire，thatinthecaseoftreason，whichincludedeveryoffencethatthesubtletyoflawyerscouldderivefromahostileintentiontowardstheprinceorrepublic，^166allprivilegesweresuspended，andallconditionswerereducedtothesameignominiouslevel。Asthesafetyoftheemperorwasavowedlypreferredtoeveryconsiderationofjusticeorhumanity，thedignityofageandthetendernessofyouthwerealikeexposedtothemostcrueltortures；andtheterrorsofamaliciousinformation，whichmightselectthemastheaccomplices，orevenasthewitnesses，perhaps，ofanimaginarycrime，perpetuallyhungovertheheadsoftheprincipalcitizensoftheRomanworld。^167