circus，atheatre，amint，apalace，baths，whichborethenameoftheirfounderMaximian；porticosadornedwithstatues，andadoublecircumferenceofwalls，contributedtothebeautyofthenewcapital；nordiditseemoppressedevenbytheproximityofRome。^90TorivalthemajestyofRomewastheambitionlikewiseofDiocletian，whoemployedhisleisure，andthewealthoftheEast，intheembellishmentofNicomedia，acityplacedonthevergeofEuropeandAsia，almostatanequaldistancebetweentheDanubeandtheEuphrates。Bythetasteofthemonarch，andattheexpenseofthepeople，Nicomediaacquired，inthespaceofafewyears，adegreeofmagnificencewhichmightappeartohaverequiredthelaborofages，andbecameinferioronlytoRome，Alexandria，andAntioch，inextentofpopulousness。^91ThelifeofDiocletianandMaximianwasalifeofaction，andaconsiderableportionofitwasspentincamps，orinthelongandfrequentmarches；butwheneverthepublicbusinessallowedthemanyrelaxation，theyseemedtohaveretiredwithpleasuretotheirfavoriteresidencesofNicomediaandMilan。TillDiocletian，inthetwentiethyearofhisreign，celebratedhisRomantriumph，itisextremelydoubtfulwhetherheevervisitedtheancientcapitaloftheempire。Evenonthatmemorableoccasionhisstaydidnotexceedtwomonths。Disgustedwiththelicentiousfamiliarityofthepeople，hequittedRomewithprecipitationthirteendaysbeforeitwasexpectedthatheshouldhaveappearedinthesenate，investedwiththeensignsoftheconsulardignity。^92
[Footnote88:LivygivesusaspeechofCamillusonthatsubject，v。51—55，fullofeloquenceandsensibility，inoppositiontoadesignofremovingtheseatofgovernmentfromRometotheneighboringcityofVeii。]
[Footnote89:JuliusCaesarwasreproachedwiththeintentionofremovingtheempiretoIliumorAlexandria。SeeSueton。inCaesar。c。79。AccordingtotheingeniousconjectureofLeFevreandDacier，theodeofthethirdbookofHoracewasintendedtodivertfromtheexecutionofasimilardesign。]
[Footnote90:SeeAureliusVictor，wholikewisementionsthebuildingserectedbyMaximianatCarthage，probablyduringtheMoorishwar。WeshallinsertsomeversesofAusoniusdeClar。
Urb。v。
EtMediolanimiraeomnia:copiarerum；
Innumeraecultaequedomus；facundavirorumIngenia，etmoreslaeti:tumduplicemuroAmplificatalocispecies；populiquevoluptasCircus；etinclusimolescuneataTheatri；
Templa，Palatinaequearces，opulensqueMoneta，EtregioHerculeicelebrissubhonorelavacri。
CunctaquemarmoreisornataPeristylasignis；
Moeniaqueinvalliformamcircumdatalabro，OmniaquaemagnisoperumvelutaemulaformisExcellunt:necjunctapremitviciniaRomae。]
[Footnote91:Lactant。deM。P。c。17。Libanius，Orat。viii。p。
203。]
[Footnote92:Lactant。deM。P。c。17。Onasimilaroccasion，Ammianusmentionsthedicacitasplebis，asnotveryagreeabletoanImperialear。Seel。xvi。c。10。]
ThedislikeexpressedbyDiocletiantowardsRomeandRomanfreedom，wasnottheeffectofmomentarycaprice，buttheresultofthemostartfulpolicy。ThatcraftyprincehadframedanewsystemofImperialgovernment，whichwasafterwardscompletedbythefamilyofConstantine；andastheimageoftheoldconstitutionwasreligiouslypreservedinthesenate，heresolvedtodeprivethatorderofitssmallremainsofpowerandconsideration。Wemayrecollect，abouteightyearsbeforetheelevation，ofDiocletianthetransientgreatness，andtheambitioushopes，oftheRomansenate。Aslongasthatenthusiasmprevailed，manyofthenoblesimprudentlydisplayedtheirzealinthecauseoffreedom；andafterthesuccessesofProbushadwithdrawntheircountenancefromtherepublicanparty，thesenatorswereunabletodisguisetheirimpotentresentment。AsthesovereignofItaly，Maximianwasintrustedwiththecareofextinguishingthistroublesome，ratherthandangerousspirit，andthetaskwasperfectlysuitedtohiscrueltemper。Themostillustriousmembersofthesenate，whomDiocletianalwaysaffectedtoesteem，wereinvolved，byhiscolleague，intheaccusationofimaginaryplots；andthepossessionofanelegantvilla，orawell—cultivatedestate，wasinterpretedasaconvincingevidenceofguilt。^93ThecampofthePraetorians，whichhadsolongoppressed，begantoprotect，themajestyofRome；andasthosehaughtytroopswereconsciousofthedeclineoftheirpower，theywerenaturallydisposedtounitetheirstrengthwiththeauthorityofthesenate。BytheprudentmeasuresofDiocletian，thenumbersofthePraetorianswereinsensiblyreduced，theirprivilegesabolished，^94andtheirplacesuppliedbytwofaithfullegionsofIllyricum，who，underthenewtitlesofJoviansandHerculians，wereappointedtoperformtheserviceoftheImperialguards。^95Butthemostfatalthoughsecretwound，whichthesenatereceivedfromthehandsofDiocletianandMaximian，wasinflictedbytheinevitableoperationoftheirabsence。AslongastheemperorsresidedatRome，thatassemblymightbeoppressed，butitcouldscarcelybeneglected。ThesuccessorsofAugustusexercisedthepowerofdictatingwhateverlawstheirwisdomorcapricemightsuggest；
butthoselawswereratifiedbythesanctionofthesenate。Themodelofancientfreedomwaspreservedinitsdeliberationsanddecrees；andwiseprinces，whorespectedtheprejudicesoftheRomanpeople，wereinsomemeasureobligedtoassumethelanguageandbehaviorsuitabletothegeneralandfirstmagistrateoftherepublic。Inthearmiesandintheprovinces，theydisplayedthedignityofmonarchs；andwhentheyfixedtheirresidenceatadistancefromthecapital，theyforeverlaidasidethedissimulationwhichAugustushadrecommendedtohissuccessors。
Intheexerciseofthelegislativeaswellastheexecutivepower，thesovereignadvisedwithhisministers，insteadofconsultingthegreatcouncilofthenation。Thenameofthesenatewasmentionedwithhonortillthelastperiodoftheempire；thevanityofitsmemberswasstillflatteredwithhonorarydistinctions；^96buttheassemblywhichhadsolongbeenthesource，andsolongtheinstrumentofpower，wasrespectfullysufferedtosinkintooblivion。ThesenateofRome，losingallconnectionwiththeImperialcourtandtheactualconstitution，wasleftavenerablebutuselessmonumentofantiquityontheCapitolinehill。
[Footnote93:LactantiusaccusesMaximianofdestroyingfictiscriminationibusluminasenatus，DeM。P。c。8。AureliusVictorspeaksverydoubtfullyofthefaithofDiocletiantowardshisfriends。]
[Footnote94:Truncataeviresurbis，imminutopraetoriarumcohortiumatqueinarmisvulginumero。AureliusVictor。
LactantiusattributestoGaleriustheprosecutionofthesameplan，c。26。]
[Footnote95:TheywereoldcorpsstationedinIllyricum；andaccordingtotheancientestablishment，theyeachconsistedofsixthousandmen。Theyhadacquiredmuchreputationbytheuseoftheplumbatoe，ordartsloadedwithlead。Eachsoldiercarriedfiveofthese，whichhedartedfromaconsiderabledistance，withgreatstrengthanddexterity。SeeVegetius，i。
17。]
[Footnote96:SeetheTheodosianCode，l。vi。tit。ii。withGodefroy\'scommentary。]
ChapterXIII:ReignOfDiocletianAndThisThreeAssociates。
PartIV。
WhentheRomanprinceshadlostsightofthesenateandoftheirancientcapital，theyeasilyforgottheoriginandnatureoftheirlegalpower。Thecivilofficesofconsul，ofproconsul，ofcensor，andoftribune，bytheunionofwhichithadbeenformed，betrayedtothepeopleitsrepublicanextraction。Thosemodesttitleswerelaidaside；^97andiftheystilldistinguishedtheirhighstationbytheappellationofEmperor，orImperator，thatwordwasunderstoodinanewandmoredignifiedsense，andnolongerdenotedthegeneraloftheRomanarmies，butthesovereignoftheRomanworld。ThenameofEmperor，whichwasatfirstofamilitarynature，wasassociatedwithanotherofamoreservilekind。TheepithetofDominus，orLord，initsprimitivesignification，wasexpressive，notoftheauthorityofaprinceoverhissubjects，orofacommanderoverhissoldiers，butofthedespoticpowerofamasteroverhisdomesticslaves。^98Viewingitinthatodiouslight，ithadbeenrejectedwithabhorrencebythefirstCaesars。Theirresistanceinsensiblybecamemorefeeble，andthenamelessodious；tillatlengththestyleofourLordandEmperorwasnotonlybestowedbyflattery，butwasregularlyadmittedintothelawsandpublicmonuments。Suchloftyepithetsweresufficienttoelateandsatisfythemostexcessivevanity；andifthesuccessorsofDiocletianstilldeclinedthetitleofKing，itseemstohavebeentheeffectnotsomuchoftheirmoderationasoftheirdelicacy。WherevertheLatintonguewasinuse，anditwasthelanguageofgovernmentthroughouttheempire，theImperialtitle，asitwaspeculiartothemselves，conveyedamorerespectableideathanthenameofking，whichtheymusthavesharedwithahundredbarbarianchieftains；orwhich，atthebest，theycouldderiveonlyfromRomulus，orfromTarquin。ButthesentimentsoftheEastwereverydifferentfromthoseoftheWest。Fromtheearliestperiodofhistory，thesovereignsofAsiahadbeencelebratedintheGreeklanguagebythetitleofBasileus，orKing；andsinceitwasconsideredasthefirstdistinctionamongmen，itwassoonemployedbytheservileprovincialsoftheEast，intheirhumbleaddressestotheRomanthrone。^99Eventheattributes，oratleastthetitles，oftheDivinity，wereusurpedbyDiocletianandMaximian，whotransmittedthemtoasuccessionofChristianemperors。^100Suchextravagantcompliments，however，soonlosetheirimpietybylosingtheirmeaning；andwhentheearisonceaccustomedtothesound，theyareheardwithindifference，asvaguethoughexcessiveprofessionsofrespect。
[Footnote97:Seethe12thdissertationinSpanheim\'sexcellentworkdeUsuNumismatum。Frommedals，inscriptions，andhistorians，heexamineseverytitleseparately，andtracesitfromAugustustothemomentofitsdisappearing。]
[Footnote98:PlinyinPanegyr。c。3，55，&c。speaksofDominuswithexecration，assynonymoustoTyrant，andoppositetoPrince。
AndthesamePlinyregularlygivesthattitleinthetenthbookoftheepistlestohisfriendratherthanmaster，thevirtuousTrajan。Thisstrangecontradictionpuzzlesthecommentators，whothink，andthetranslators，whocanwrite。]
[Footnote99:SynesiusdeRegno，edit。Petav。p。15。IamindebtedforthisquotationtotheAbbedelaBleterie。]
[Footnote100:SoeVandaledeConsecratione，p。354，&c。Itwascustomaryfortheemperorstomentioninthepreambleoflaws
theirnumen，sacreomajesty，divineoracles，&c。AccordingtoTillemont，GregoryNazianzencomplainsmostbitterlyoftheprofanation，especiallywhenitwaspractisedbyanArianemperor。
Note:Inthetimeoftherepublic，saysHegewisch，whentheconsuls，thepraetors，andtheothermagistratesappearedinpublic，toperformthefunctionsoftheiroffice，theirdignitywasannouncedbothbythesymbolswhichusehadconsecrated，andthebrilliantcortegebywhichtheywereaccompanied。Butthisdignitybelongedtotheoffice，nottotheindividual；thispompbelongedtothemagistrate，nottotheman。**Theconsul，followed，inthecomitia，byallthesenate，thepraetors，thequaestors，theaediles，thelictors，theapparitors，andtheheralds，onreenteringhishouse，wasservedonlybyfreedmenandbyhisslaves。Thefirstemperorswentnofurther。Tiberiushad，forhispersonalattendance，onlyamoderatenumberofslaves，andafewfreedmen。Tacit。Ann。iv。7。Butinproportionastherepublicanformsdisappeared，oneafteranother，theinclinationoftheemperorstoenvironthemselveswithpersonalpomp，displayeditselfmoreandmore。**ThemagnificenceandtheceremonialoftheEastwereentirelyintroducedbyDiocletian，andwereconsecratedbyConstantinetotheImperialuse。Thenceforththepalace，thecourt，thetable，allthepersonalattendance，distinguishedtheemperorfromhissubjects，stillmorethanhissuperiordignity。TheorganizationwhichDiocletiangavetohisnewcourt，attachedlesshonoranddistinctiontorankthantoservicesperformedtowardsthemembersoftheImperialfamily。Hegewisch，Essai，Hist。surlesFinancesRomains。
Fewhistorianshavecharacterized，inamorephilosophicmanner，theinfluenceofanewinstitution。—G。
ItissingularthatthesonofaslavereducedthehaughtyaristocracyofHometotheofficesofservitude。—M。]
FromthetimeofAugustustothatofDiocletian，theRomanprinces，conversinginafamiliarmanneramongtheirfellow—citizens，weresalutedonlywiththesamerespectthatwasusuallypaidtosenatorsandmagistrates。TheirprincipaldistinctionwastheImperialormilitaryrobeofpurple；whilstthesenatorialgarmentwasmarkedbyabroad，andtheequestrianbyanarrow，bandorstripeofthesamehonorablecolor。Thepride，orratherthepolicy，ofDiocletian，engagedthatartfulprincetointroducethestatelymagnificenceofthecourtofPersia。^101Heventuredtoassumethediadem，anornamentdetestedbytheRomansastheodiousensignofroyalty，andtheuseofwhichhadbeenconsideredasthemostdesperateactofthemadnessofCaligula。Itwasnomorethanabroadwhitefilletsetwithpearls，whichencircledtheemperor\'shead。ThesumptuousrobesofDiocletianandhissuccessorswereofsilkandgold；anditisremarkedwithindignation，thateventheirshoeswerestuddedwiththemostpreciousgems。Theaccesstotheirsacredpersonwaseverydayrenderedmoredifficultbytheinstitutionofnewformsandceremonies。Theavenuesofthepalacewerestrictlyguardedbythevariousschools，astheybegantobecalled，ofdomesticofficers。Theinteriorapartmentswereintrustedtothejealousvigilanceoftheeunuchs，theincreaseofwhosenumbersandinfluencewasthemostinfalliblesymptomoftheprogressofdespotism。WhenasubjectwasatlengthadmittedtotheImperialpresence，hewasobliged，whatevermightbehisrank，tofallprostrateontheground，andtoadore，accordingtotheeasternfashion，thedivinityofhislordandmaster。^102Diocletianwasamanofsense，who，inthecourseofprivateaswellaspubliclife，hadformedajustestimatebothofhimselfandofmankind:norisiteasytoconceive，thatinsubstitutingthemannersofPersiatothoseofRome，hewasseriouslyactuatedbysomeanaprincipleasthatofvanity。Heflatteredhimself，thatanostentationofsplendorandluxurywouldsubduetheimaginationofthemultitude；thatthemonarchwouldbelessexposedtotherudelicenseofthepeopleandthesoldiers，ashispersonwassecludedfromthepublicview；andthathabitsofsubmissionwouldinsensiblybeproductiveofsentimentsofveneration。LikethemodestyaffectedbyAugustus，thestatemaintainedbyDiocletianwasatheatricalrepresentation；butitmustbeconfessed，thatofthetwocomedies，theformerwasofamuchmoreliberalandmanlycharacterthanthelatter。Itwastheaimoftheonetodisguise，andtheobjectoftheothertodisplay，theunboundedpowerwhichtheemperorspossessedovertheRomanworld。
[Footnote101:SeeSpanheimdeUsuNumismat。Dissert。xii。]
[Footnote102:AureliusVictor。Eutropius，ix。26。ItappearsbythePanegyrists，thattheRomansweresoonreconciledtothenameandceremonyofadoration。]
OstentationwasthefirstprincipleofthenewsysteminstitutedbyDiocletian。Thesecondwasdivision。Hedividedtheempire，theprovinces，andeverybranchofthecivilaswellasmilitaryadministration。Hemultipliedthewheelsofthemachineofgovernment，andrendereditsoperationslessrapid，butmoresecure。Whateveradvantagesandwhateverdefectsmightattendtheseinnovations，theymustbeascribedinaverygreatdegreetothefirstinventor；butasthenewframeofpolicywasgraduallyimprovedandcompletedbysucceedingprinces，itwillbemoresatisfactorytodelaytheconsiderationofittilltheseasonofitsfullmaturityandperfection。^103Reserving，therefore，forthereignofConstantineamoreexactpictureofthenewempire，weshallcontentourselveswithdescribingtheprincipalanddecisiveoutline，asitwastracedbythehandofDiocletian。Hehadassociatedthreecolleaguesintheexerciseofthesupremepower；andashewasconvincedthattheabilitiesofasinglemanwereinadequatetothepublicdefence，heconsideredthejointadministrationoffourprincesnotasatemporaryexpedient，butasafundamentallawoftheconstitution。Itwashisintention，thatthetwoelderprincesshouldbedistinguishedbytheuseofthediadem，andthetitleofAugusti；that，asaffectionoresteemmightdirecttheirchoice，theyshouldregularlycalltotheirassistancetwosubordinatecolleagues；andthattheCoesars，risingintheirturntothefirstrank，shouldsupplyanuninterruptedsuccessionofemperors。Theempirewasdividedintofourparts。TheEastandItalywerethemosthonorable，theDanubeandtheRhinethemostlaboriousstations。TheformerclaimedthepresenceoftheAugusti，thelatterwereintrustedtotheadministrationoftheCoesars。Thestrengthofthelegionswasinthehandsofthefourpartnersofsovereignty，andthedespairofsuccessivelyvanquishingfourformidablerivalsmightintimidatetheambitionofanaspiringgeneral。Intheircivilgovernment，theemperorsweresupposedtoexercisetheundividedpowerofthemonarch，andtheiredicts，inscribedwiththeirjointnames，werereceivedinalltheprovinces，aspromulgatedbytheirmutualcouncilsandauthority。Notwithstandingtheseprecautions，thepoliticalunionoftheRomanworldwasgraduallydissolved，andaprincipleofdivisionwasintroduced，which，inthecourseofafewyears，occasionedtheperpetualseparationoftheEasternandWesternEmpires。
[Footnote103:TheinnovationsintroducedbyDiocletianarechieflydeduced，1st，fromsomeverystrongpassagesinLactantius；and，2dly，fromthenewandvariousofficeswhich，intheTheodosiancode，appearalreadyestablishedinthebeginningofthereignofConstantine。]