[Footnote97:Tacit。Annal。xiii。31。
Note:ThecustomsportoriaexistedinthetimesoftheancientkingsofRome。TheyweresuppressedinItaly，A。U。694，bythePraetor，CeciliusMatellusNepos。Augustusonlyreestablishedthem。Seenoteabove。—W。]
[Footnote98:SeePliny，Hist。Natur。l。vi。c。23，lxii。c。
18。HisobservationthattheIndiancommoditiesweresoldatRomeatahundredtimestheiroriginalprice，maygiveussomenotionoftheproduceofthecustoms，sincethatoriginalpriceamountedtomorethaneighthundredthousandpounds。]
[Footnote99:Theancientswereunacquaintedwiththeartofcuttingdiamonds。]
[Footnote100:M。Bouchaud，inhistreatisedel\'ImpotchezlesRomains，hastranscribedthiscataloguefromtheDigest，andattemptstoillustrateitbyaveryprolixcommentary。
Note:InthePandects，l。39，t。14，dePublican。CompareCiceroinVerrem。c。72—74。—W。]
II。Theexcise，introducedbyAugustusafterthecivilwars，wasextremelymoderate，butitwasgeneral。Itseldomexceededonepercent。；butitcomprehendedwhateverwassoldinthemarketsorbypublicauction，fromthemostconsiderablepurchasesoflandsandhouses，tothoseminuteobjectswhichcanonlyderiveavaluefromtheirinfinitemultitudeanddailyconsumption。Suchatax，asitaffectsthebodyofthepeople，haseverbeentheoccasionofclamoranddiscontent。Anemperorwellacquaintedwiththewantsandresourcesofthestatewasobligedtodeclare，byapublicedict，thatthesupportofthearmydependedinagreatmeasureontheproduceoftheexcise。
^101
[Footnote101:Tacit。Annal。i。78。Twoyearsafterwards，thereductionofthepoorkingdomofCappadociagaveTiberiusapretencefordiminishingtheexciseofonehalf，butthereliefwasofveryshortduration。]
III。WhenAugustusresolvedtoestablishapermanentmilitaryforceforthedefenceofhisgovernmentagainstforeignanddomesticenemies，heinstitutedapeculiartreasuryforthepayofthesoldiers，therewardsoftheveterans，andtheextra—ordinaryexpensesofwar。Theamplerevenueoftheexcise，thoughpeculiarlyappropriatedtothoseuses，wasfoundinadequate。Tosupplythedeficiency，theemperorsuggestedanewtaxoffivepercent。onalllegaciesandinheritances。ButthenoblesofRomeweremoretenaciousofpropertythanoffreedom。TheirindignantmurmurswerereceivedbyAugustuswithhisusualtemper。Hecandidlyreferredthewholebusinesstothesenate，andexhortedthemtoprovideforthepublicservicebysomeotherexpedientofalessodiousnature。Theyweredividedandperplexed。Heinsinuatedtothem，thattheirobstinacywouldobligehimtoproposeagenerallandtaxandcapitation。Theyacquiescedinsilence。^102。Thenewimpositiononlegaciesandinheritanceswas，however，mitigatedbysomerestrictions。Itdidnottakeplaceunlesstheobjectwasofacertainvalue，mostprobablyoffiftyorahundredpiecesofgold；^103norcoulditbeexactedfromthenearestofkinonthefather\'sside。^104
Whentherightsofnatureandpovertywerethussecured，itseemedreasonable，thatastranger，oradistantrelation，whoacquiredanunexpectedaccessionoffortune，shouldcheerfullyresignatwentiethpartofit，forthebenefitofthestate。^105
[Footnote102:DionCassius，l。lv。p。794，l。lvi。p。825。
Note:Dionneithermentionsthispropositionnorthecapitation。Heonlysaysthattheemperorimposedataxuponlandedproperty，andsenteverywheremenemployedtomakeasurvey，withoutfixinghowmuch，andforhowmucheachwastopay。Thesenatorsthenpreferredgivingthetaxonlegaciesandinheritances。—W。]
[Footnote103:Thesumisonlyfixedbyconjecture。]
[Footnote104:AstheRomanlawsubsistedformanyages，theCognati，orrelationsonthemother\'sside，werenotcalledtothesuccession。Thisharshinstitutionwasgraduallyunderminedbyhumanity，andfinallyabolishedbyJustinian。]
[Footnote105:Plin。Panegyric。c。37。]
Suchatax，plentifulasitmustproveineverywealthycommunity，wasmosthappilysuitedtothesituationoftheRomans，whocouldframetheirarbitrarywills，accordingtothedictatesofreasonorcaprice，withoutanyrestraintfromthemodernfettersofentailsandsettlements。Fromvariouscauses，thepartialityofpaternalaffectionoftenlostitsinfluenceoverthesternpatriotsofthecommonwealth，andthedissolutenoblesoftheempire；andifthefatherbequeathedtohissonthefourthpartofhisestate，heremovedallgroundoflegalcomplaint。^106Butarichchildisholdmanwasadomestictyrant，andhispowerincreasedwithhisyearsandinfirmities。
Aservilecrowd，inwhichhefrequentlyreckonedpraetorsandconsuls，courtedhissmiles，pamperedhisavarice，applaudedhisfollies，servedhispassions，andwaitedwithimpatienceforhisdeath。Theartsofattendanceandflatterywereformedintoamostlucrativescience；thosewhoprofesseditacquiredapeculiarappellation；andthewholecity，accordingtothelivelydescriptionsofsatire，wasdividedbetweentwoparties，thehuntersandtheirgame。^107Yet，whilesomanyunjustandextravagantwillswereeverydaydictatedbycunningandsubscribedbyfolly，afewweretheresultofrationalesteemandvirtuousgratitude。Cicero，whohadsooftendefendedthelivesandfortunesofhisfellow—citizens，wasrewardedwithlegaciestotheamountofahundredandseventythousandpounds；^108nordothefriendsoftheyoungerPlinyseemtohavebeenlessgeneroustothatamiableorator。^109Whateverwasthemotiveofthetestator，thetreasuryclaimed，withoutdistinction，thetwentiethpartofhisestate:andinthecourseoftwoorthreegenerations，thewholepropertyofthesubjectmusthavegraduallypassedthroughthecoffersofthestate。
[Footnote106:SeeHeinecciusintheAntiquit。JurisRomani，l。
ii。]
[Footnote107:Horat。l。ii。Sat。v。Potron。c。116，&c。Plin。
l。ii。Epist。20。]
[Footnote108:CiceroinPhilip。ii。c。16。]
[Footnote109:Seehisepistles。Everysuchwillgavehimanoccasionofdisplayinghisreverencetothedead，andhisjusticetotheliving。Hereconciledbothinhisbehaviortoasonwhohadbeendisinheritedbyhismother，v。l。]
InthefirstandgoldenyearsofthereignofNero，thatprince，fromadesireofpopularity，andperhapsfromablindimpulseofbenevolence，conceivedawishofabolishingtheoppressionofthecustomsandexcise。Thewisestsenatorsapplaudedhismagnanimity:buttheydivertedhimfromtheexecutionofadesignwhichwouldhavedissolvedthestrengthandresourcesoftherepublic。^110Haditindeedbeenpossibletorealizethisdreamoffancy，suchprincesasTrajanandtheAntonineswouldsurelyhaveembracedwithardorthegloriousopportunityofconferringsosignalanobligationonmankind。
Satisfied，however，withalleviatingthepublicburden，theyattemptednottoremoveit。Themildnessandprecisionoftheirlawsascertainedtheruleandmeasureoftaxation，andprotectedthesubjectofeveryrankagainstarbitraryinterpretations，antiquatedclaims，andtheinsolentvexationofthefarmersoftherevenue。^111Foritissomewhatsingular，that，ineveryage，thebestandwisestoftheRomangovernorsperseveredinthisperniciousmethodofcollectingtheprincipalbranchesatleastoftheexciseandcustoms。^112
[Footnote110:Tacit。Annal。xiii。50。EspritdesLoix，l。xii。
c。19。]
[Footnote111:SeePliny\'sPanegyric，theAugustanHistory，andBurmandeVectigal。passim。]
[Footnote112:Thetributesproperlysocalledwerenotfarmed；
sincethegoodprincesoftenremittedmanymillionsofarrears。]
Thesentiments，and，indeed，thesituation，ofCaracallawereverydifferentfromthoseoftheAntonines。Inattentive，orratheraverse，tothewelfareofhispeople，hefoundhimselfunderthenecessityofgratifyingtheinsatiateavaricewhichhehadexcitedinthearmy。OftheseveralimpositionsintroducedbyAugustus，thetwentiethoninheritancesandlegacieswasthemostfruitful，aswellasthemostcomprehensive。AsitsinfluencewasnotconfinedtoRomeorItaly，theproducecontinuallyincreasedwiththegradualextensionoftheRomanCity。Thenewcitizens，thoughcharged，onequalterms，^113
withthepaymentofnewtaxes，whichhadnotaffectedthemassubjects，derivedanamplecompensationfromtheranktheyobtained，theprivilegestheyacquired，andthefairprospectofhonorsandfortunethatwasthrownopentotheirambition。ButthefavorwhichimpliedadistinctionwaslostintheprodigalityofCaracalla，andthereluctantprovincialswerecompelledtoassumethevaintitle，andtherealobligations，ofRomancitizens。NorwastherapacioussonofSeveruscontentedwithsuchameasureoftaxationashadappearedsufficienttohismoderatepredecessors。Insteadofatwentieth，heexactedatenthofalllegaciesandinheritances；andduringhisreignfortheancientproportionwasrestoredafterhisdeathhecrushedalikeeverypartoftheempireundertheweightofhisironsceptre。^114
[Footnote113:ThesituationofthenewcitizensisminutelydescribedbyPliny，Panegyric，c。37，38，39。Trajanpublishedalawverymuchintheirfavor。]
[Footnote*:GibbonhasadoptedtheopinionofSpanheimandofBurman，whichattributestoCaracallathisedict，whichgavetherightofthecitytoalltheinhabitantsoftheprovinces。Thisopinionmaybedisputed。SeveralpassagesofSpartianus，ofAureliusVictor，andofAristides，attributethisedicttoMarc。
Aurelius。Seealearnedessay，entitledJoh。P。MahneriComm。deMarc。Aur。AntoninoConstitutionisdeCivitateUniversoOrbiRomanodataauctore。Halae，1772，8vo。ItappearsthatMarc。
Aureliusmadesomemodificationsofthisedict，whichreleasedtheprovincialsfromsomeofthechargesimposedbytherightofthecity，anddeprivedthemofsomeoftheadvantageswhichitconferred。Caracallaannulledthesemodifications。—W。]
[Footnote114:Dion，l。lxxvii。p。1295。]
WhenalltheprovincialsbecameliabletothepeculiarimpositionsofRomancitizens，theyseemedtoacquirealegalexemptionfromthetributeswhichtheyhadpaidintheirformerconditionofsubjects。SuchwerenotthemaximsofgovernmentadoptedbyCaracallaandhispretendedson。Theoldaswellasthenewtaxeswere，atthesametime，leviedintheprovinces。
ItwasreservedforthevirtueofAlexandertorelievetheminagreatmeasurefromthisintolerablegrievance，byreducingthetributestoathirteenthpartofthesumexactedatthetimeofhisaccession。^115Itisimpossibletoconjecturethemotivethatengagedhimtosparesotriflingaremnantofthepublicevil；butthenoxiousweed，whichhadnotbeentotallyeradicated，againsprangupwiththemostluxuriantgrowth，andinthesucceedingagedarkenedtheRomanworldwithitsdeadlyshade。Inthecourseofthishistory，weshallbetoooftensummonedtoexplainthelandtax，thecapitation，andtheheavycontributionsofcorn，wine，oil，andmeat，whichwereexactedfromtheprovincesfortheuseofthecourt，thearmy，andthecapital。
[Footnote115:Hewhopaidtenaurei，theusualtribute，waschargedwithnomorethanthethirdpartofanaureus，andproportionalpiecesofgoldwerecoinedbyAlexander\'sorder。
Hist。August。p。127，withthecommentaryofSalmasius。]
AslongasRomeandItalywererespectedasthecentreofgovernment，anationalspiritwaspreservedbytheancient，andinsensiblyimbibedbytheadopted，citizens。Theprincipalcommandsofthearmywerefilledbymenwhohadreceivedaliberaleducation，werewellinstructedintheadvantagesoflawsandletters，andwhohadrisen，byequalsteps，throughtheregularsuccessionofcivilandmilitaryhonors。^116TotheirinfluenceandexamplewemaypartlyascribethemodestobedienceofthelegionsduringthetwofirstcenturiesoftheImperialhistory。
[Footnote116:SeethelivesofAgricola，Vespasian，Trajan，Severus，andhisthreecompetitors；andindeedofalltheeminentmenofthosetimes。]
ButwhenthelastenclosureoftheRomanconstitutionwastrampleddownbyCaracalla，theseparationofprofessionsgraduallysucceededtothedistinctionofranks。Themorepolishedcitizensoftheinternalprovinceswerealonequalifiedtoactaslawyersandmagistrates。Theroughertradeofarmswasabandonedtothepeasantsandbarbariansofthefrontiers，whoknewnocountrybuttheircamp，nosciencebutthatofwarnocivillaws，andscarcelythoseofmilitarydiscipline。Withbloodyhands，savagemanners，anddesperateresolutions，theysometimesguarded，butmuchoftenersubverted，thethroneoftheemperors。
ChapterVII:TyrannyOfMaximin，Rebellion，CivilWars，DeathOfMaximin。
PartI。
TheElevationAndTyrannyOfMaximin。—RebellionInAfricaAndItaly，UnderTheAuthorityOfTheSenate。—CivilWarsAndSeditions。—ViolentDeathsOfMaximinAndHisSon，OfMaximusAndBalbinus，AndOfTheThreeGordians。—UsurpationAndSecularGamesOfPhilip。
Ofthevariousformsofgovernmentwhichhaveprevailedintheworld，anhereditarymonarchyseemstopresentthefairestscopeforridicule。Isitpossibletorelatewithoutanindignantsmile，that，onthefather\'sdecease，thepropertyofanation，likethatofadroveofoxen，descendstohisinfantson，asyetunknowntomankindandtohimself；andthatthebravestwarriorsandthewiseststatesmen，relinquishingtheirnaturalrighttoempire，approachtheroyalcradlewithbendedkneesandprotestationsofinviolablefidelity?Satireanddeclamationmaypainttheseobvioustopicsinthemostdazzlingcolors，butourmoreseriousthoughtswillrespectausefulprejudice，thatestablishesaruleofsuccession，independentofthepassionsofmankind；andweshallcheerfullyacquiesceinanyexpedientwhichdeprivesthemultitudeofthedangerous，andindeedtheideal，powerofgivingthemselvesamaster。
Inthecoolshadeofretirement，wemayeasilydeviseimaginaryformsofgovernment，inwhichthesceptreshallbeconstantlybestowedonthemostworthy，bythefreeandincorruptsuffrageofthewholecommunity。Experienceoverturnstheseairyfabrics，andteachesus，thatinalargesociety，theelectionofamonarchcanneverdevolvetothewisest，ortothemostnumerouspartofthepeople。Thearmyistheonlyorderofmensufficientlyunitedtoconcurinthesamesentiments，andpowerfulenoughtoimposethemontherestoftheirfellow—citizens；butthetemperofsoldiers，habituatedatoncetoviolenceandtoslavery，rendersthemveryunfitguardiansofalegal，orevenacivilconstitution。Justice，humanity，orpoliticalwisdom，arequalitiestheyaretoolittleacquaintedwithinthemselves，toappreciatetheminothers。Valorwillacquiretheiresteem，andliberalitywillpurchasetheirsuffrage；butthefirstofthesemeritsisoftenlodgedinthemostsavagebreasts；thelattercanonlyexertitselfattheexpenseofthepublic；andbothmaybeturnedagainstthepossessorofthethrone，bytheambitionofadaringrival。
Thesuperiorprerogativeofbirth，whenithasobtainedthesanctionoftimeandpopularopinion，istheplainestandleastinvidiousofalldistinctionsamongmankind。Theacknowledgedrightextinguishesthehopesoffaction，andtheconscioussecuritydisarmsthecrueltyofthemonarch。TothefirmestablishmentofthisideaweowethepeacefulsuccessionandmildadministrationofEuropeanmonarchies。Tothedefectofitwemustattributethefrequentcivilwars，throughwhichanAsiaticdespotisobligedtocuthiswaytothethroneofhisfathers。Yet，evenintheEast，thesphereofcontentionisusuallylimitedtotheprincesofthereigninghouse，andassoonasthemorefortunatecompetitorhasremovedhisbrethrenbytheswordandthebowstring，henolongerentertainsanyjealousyofhismeanersubjects。ButtheRomanempire，aftertheauthorityofthesenatehadsunkintocontempt，wasavastsceneofconfusion。Theroyal，andevennoble，familiesoftheprovinceshadlongsincebeenledintriumphbeforethecarofthehaughtyrepublicans。TheancientfamiliesofRomehadsuccessivelyfallenbeneaththetyrannyoftheCaesars；andwhilstthoseprinceswereshackledbytheformsofacommonwealth，anddisappointedbytherepeatedfailureoftheirposterity，^1itwasimpossiblethatanyideaofhereditarysuccessionshouldhavetakenrootinthemindsoftheirsubjects。Therighttothethrone，whichnonecouldclaimfrombirth，everyoneassumedfrommerit。Thedaringhopesofambitionweresetloosefromthesalutaryrestraintsoflawandprejudice；andthemeanestofmankindmight，withoutfolly，entertainahopeofbeingraisedbyvalorandfortunetoarankinthearmy，inwhichasinglecrimewouldenablehimtowrestthesceptreoftheworldfromhisfeebleandunpopularmaster。AfterthemurderofAlexanderSeverus，andtheelevationofMaximin，noemperorcouldthinkhimselfsafeuponthethrone，andeverybarbarianpeasantofthefrontiermightaspiretothataugust，butdangerousstation。
[Footnote1:Therehadbeennoexampleofthreesuccessivegenerationsonthethrone；onlythreeinstancesofsonswhosucceededtheirfathers。ThemarriagesoftheCaesarsnotwithstandingthepermission，andthefrequentpracticeofdivorcesweregenerallyunfruitful。]