Ferebatetipsesuffragiumintribubus，utunusepopulo。
SuetoniusinAugustc。56。]
[Footnote18:TumprimumComitiaecampoadpatrestranslatasunt。Tacit。Annal。i。15。Thewordprimumseemstoalludetosomefaintandunsuccessfuleffortswhichweremadetowardsrestoringthemtothepeople。
Note:TheemperorCaligulamadetheattempt:herestredtheComitiatothepeople，but，inashorttime，tookthemawayagain。Suet。inCaio。c。16。Dion。lix。9，20。Nevertheless，atthetimeofDion，theypreservedstilltheformoftheComitia。
Dion。lviii。20。—W。]
Bydeclaringthemselvestheprotectorsofthepeople，MariusandCaesarhadsubvertedtheconstitutionoftheircountry。Butassoonasthesenatehadbeenhumbledanddisarmed，suchanassembly，consistingoffiveorsixhundredpersons，wasfoundamuchmoretractableandusefulinstrumentofdominion。ItwasonthedignityofthesenatethatAugustusandhissuccessorsfoundedtheirnewempire；andtheyaffected，oneveryoccasion，toadoptthelanguageandprinciplesofPatricians。Intheadministrationoftheirownpowers，theyfrequentlyconsultedthegreatnationalcouncil，andseemedtorefertoitsdecisionthemostimportantconcernsofpeaceandwar。Rome，Italy，andtheinternalprovinces，weresubjecttotheimmediatejurisdictionofthesenate。Withregardtocivilobjects，itwasthesupremecourtofappeal；withregardtocriminalmatters，atribunal，constitutedforthetrialofalloffencesthatwerecommittedbymeninanypublicstation，orthataffectedthepeaceandmajestyoftheRomanpeople。Theexerciseofthejudicialpowerbecamethemostfrequentandseriousoccupationofthesenate；andtheimportantcausesthatwerepleadedbeforethemaffordedalastrefugetothespiritofancienteloquence。Asacouncilofstate，andasacourtofjustice，thesenatepossessedveryconsiderableprerogatives；butinitslegislativecapacity，inwhichitwassupposedvirtuallytorepresentthepeople，therightsofsovereigntywereacknowledgedtoresideinthatassembly。Everypowerwasderivedfromtheirauthority，everylawwasratifiedbytheirsanction。Theirregularmeetingswereheldonthreestateddaysineverymonth，theCalends，theNones，andtheIdes。Thedebateswereconductedwithdecentfreedom；
andtheemperorsthemselves，whogloriedinthenameofsenators，sat，voted，anddividedwiththeirequals。
Toresume，inafewwords，thesystemoftheImperialgovernment；asitwasinstitutedbyAugustus，andmaintainedbythoseprinceswhounderstoodtheirowninterestandthatofthepeople，itmaybedefinedanabsolutemonarchydisguisedbytheformsofacommonwealth。ThemastersoftheRomanworldsurroundedtheirthronewithdarkness，concealedtheirirresistiblestrength，andhumblyprofessedthemselvestheaccountableministersofthesenate，whosesupremedecreestheydictatedandobeyed。^19
[Footnote19:DionCassiusl。liii。p。703—714hasgivenaverylooseandpartialsketchoftheImperialsystem。Toillustrateandoftentocorrecthim，IhavemeditatedTacitus，examinedSuetonius，andconsultedthefollowingmoderns:theAbbedelaBleterie，intheMemoiresdel\'AcademiedesInscriptions，tom。xix。xxi。xxiv。xxv。xxvii。BeaufortRepubliqueRomaine，tom。i。p。255—275。TheDissertationsofNoodtaadGronoviusdelegeRegia，printedatLeyden，intheyear1731GravinadeImperioRomano，p。479—544ofhisOpuscula。Maffei，VeronaIllustrata，p。i。p。245，&c。]
Thefaceofthecourtcorrespondedwiththeformsoftheadministration。Theemperors，ifweexceptthosetyrantswhosecapriciousfollyviolatedeverylawofnatureanddecency，disdainedthatpompandceremonywhichmightoffendtheircountrymen，butcouldaddnothingtotheirrealpower。Inalltheofficesoflife，theyaffectedtoconfoundthemselveswiththeirsubjects，andmaintainedwiththemanequalintercourseofvisitsandentertainments。Theirhabit，theirpalace，theirtable，weresuitedonlytotherankofanopulentsenator。Theirfamily，howevernumerousorsplendid，wascomposedentirelyoftheirdomesticslavesandfreedmen。^20AugustusorTrajanwouldhaveblushedatemployingthemeanestoftheRomansinthosemenialoffices，which，inthehouseholdandbedchamberofalimitedmonarch，aresoeagerlysolicitedbytheproudestnoblesofBritain。
[Footnote20:Aweakprincewillalwaysbegovernedbyhisdomestics。ThepowerofslavesaggravatedtheshameoftheRomans；andthesenatepaidcourttoaPallasoraNarcissus。
Thereisachancethatamodernfavoritemaybeagentleman。]
Thedeificationoftheemperors^21istheonlyinstanceinwhichtheydepartedfromtheiraccustomedprudenceandmodesty。
TheAsiaticGreekswerethefirstinventors，thesuccessorsofAlexanderthefirstobjects，ofthisservileandimpiousmodeofadulation。ItwaseasilytransferredfromthekingstothegovernorsofAsia；andtheRomanmagistratesveryfrequentlywereadoredasprovincialdeities，withthepompofaltarsandtemples，offestivalsandsacrifices。^22Itwasnaturalthattheemperorsshouldnotrefusewhattheproconsulshadaccepted；andthedivinehonorswhichboththeoneandtheotherreceivedfromtheprovinces，attestedratherthedespotismthantheservitudeofRome。Buttheconquerorssoonimitatedthevanquishednationsintheartsofflattery；andtheimperiousspiritofthefirstCaesartooeasilyconsentedtoassume，duringhislifetime，aplaceamongthetutelardeitiesofRome。Themildertemperofhissuccessordeclinedsodangerousanambition，whichwasneverafterwardsrevived，exceptbythemadnessofCaligulaandDomitian。Augustuspermittedindeedsomeoftheprovincialcitiestoerecttemplestohishonor，onconditionthattheyshouldassociatetheworshipofRomewiththatofthesovereign；
hetoleratedprivatesuperstition，ofwhichhemightbetheobject；^23buthecontentedhimselfwithbeingreveredbythesenateandthepeopleinhishumancharacter，andwiselylefttohissuccessorthecareofhispublicdeification。Aregularcustomwasintroduced，thatonthedeceaseofeveryemperorwhohadneitherlivednordiedlikeatyrant，thesenatebyasolemndecreeshouldplacehiminthenumberofthegods:andtheceremoniesofhisapotheosiswereblendedwiththoseofhisfuneral。^!Thislegal，and，asitshouldseem，injudiciousprofanation，soabhorrenttoourstricterprinciples，wasreceivedwithaveryfaintmurmur，^24bytheeasynatureofPolytheism；butitwasreceivedasaninstitution，notofreligion，butofpolicy。WeshoulddisgracethevirtuesoftheAntoninesbycomparingthemwiththevicesofHerculesorJupiter。EventhecharactersofCaesarorAugustuswerefarsuperiortothoseofthepopulardeities。Butitwasthemisfortuneoftheformertoliveinanenlightenedage，andtheiractionsweretoofaithfullyrecordedtoadmitofsuchamixtureoffableandmystery，asthedevotionofthevulgarrequires。Assoonastheirdivinitywasestablishedbylaw，itsunkintooblivion，withoutcontributingeithertotheirownfame，ortothedignityofsucceedingprinces。
[Footnote21:SeeatreatiseofVandaledeConsecrationePrincipium。Itwouldbeeasierformetocopy，thanithasbeentoverify，thequotationsofthatlearnedDutchman。]
[Footnote*:Thisisinaccurate。ThesuccessorsofAlexanderwerenotthefirstdeifiedsovereigns；theEgyptianshaddeifiedandworshippedmanyoftheirkings；theOlympusoftheGreekswaspeopledwithdivinitieswhohadreignedonearth；finally，RomulushimselfhadreceivedthehonorsofanapotheosisTit。
Liv。i。16alongtimebeforeAlexanderandhissuccessors。ItisalsoaninaccuracytoconfoundthehonorsofferedintheprovincestotheRomangovernors，bytemplesandaltars，withthetrueapotheosisoftheemperors；itwasnotareligiousworship，forithadneitherpriestsnorsacrifices。Augustuswasseverelyblamedforhavingpermittedhimselftobeworshippedasagodintheprovinces，Tac。Ann。i。10:hewouldnothaveincurredthatblameifhehadonlydonewhatthegovernorswereaccustomedtodo。—G。fromW。M。Guizothasbeenguiltyofastillgreaterinaccuracyinconfoundingthedeificationofthelivingwiththeapotheosisofthedeademperors。Thenatureoftheking—worshipofEgyptisstillveryobscure；thehero—worshipoftheGreeksverydifferentfromtheadorationofthe\"praesensnumen\"inthereigningsovereign。—M。]
[Footnote22:SeeadissertationoftheAbbeMongaultinthefirstvolumeoftheAcademyofInscriptions。]
[Footnote23:Jurandasquetuumpernomenponimusaras，saysHoracetotheemperorhimself，andHoracewaswellacquaintedwiththecourtofAugustus。
Note:Thegoodprinceswerenotthosewhoaloneobtainedthehonorsofanapotheosis:itwasconferredonmanytyrants。SeeanexcellenttreatiseofSchaepflin，deConsecrationeImperatorumRomanorum，inhisCommentationeshistoricaeetcriticae。Bale，1741，p。184。—W。]
[Footnote!:ThecurioussatireintheworksofSeneca，isthestrongestremonstranceofprofanedreligion。—M。]
[Footnote24:SeeCiceroinPhilippic。i。6。JulianinCaesaribus。InqueDeumtemplisjurabitRomaperumbras，istheindignantexpressionofLucan；butitisapatrioticratherthanadevoutindignation。]
IntheconsiderationoftheImperialgovernment，wehavefrequentlymentionedtheartfulfounder，underhiswell—knowntitleofAugustus，whichwasnot，however，conferreduponhimtilltheedificewasalmostcompleted。TheobscurenameofOctavianushederivedfromameanfamily，inthelittletownofAricia。^!Itwasstainedwiththebloodoftheproscription；andhewasdesirous，haditbeenpossible，toeraseallmemoryofhisformerlife。TheillustrioussurnameofCaesarhehadassumed，astheadoptedsonofthedictator:buthehadtoomuchgoodsense，eithertohopetobeconfounded，ortowishtobecomparedwiththatextraordinaryman。Itwasproposedinthesenatetodignifytheirministerwithanewappellation；andafteraseriousdiscussion，thatofAugustuswaschosen，amongseveralothers，asbeingthemostexpressiveofthecharacterofpeaceandsanctity，whichheuniformlyaffected。^25Augustuswasthereforeapersonal，Caesarafamilydistinction。Theformershouldnaturallyhaveexpiredwiththeprinceonwhomitwasbestowed；
andhoweverthelatterwasdiffusedbyadoptionandfemalealliance，NerowasthelastprincewhocouldallegeanyhereditaryclaimtothehonorsoftheJulianline。But，atthetimeofhisdeath，thepracticeofacenturyhadinseparablyconnectedthoseappellationswiththeImperialdignity，andtheyhavebeenpreservedbyalongsuccessionofemperors，Romans，Greeks，Franks，andGermans，fromthefalloftherepublictothepresenttime。Adistinctionwas，however，soonintroduced。ThesacredtitleofAugustuswasalwaysreservedforthemonarch，whilstthenameofCaesarwasmorefreelycommunicatedtohisrelations；and，fromthereignofHadrian，atleast，wasappropriatedtothesecondpersoninthestate，whowasconsideredasthepresumptiveheiroftheempire。
[Footnote!:Octaviuswasnotofanobscurefamily，butofaconsiderableoneoftheequestrianorder。Hisfather，C。
Octavius，whopossessedgreatproperty，hadbeenpraetor，governorofMacedonia，adornedwiththetitleofImperator，andwasonthepointofbecomingconsulwhenhedied。HismotherAttia，wasdaughterofM。AttiusBalbus，whohadalsobeenpraetor。M。AnthonyreproachedOctaviuswithhavingbeenborninAricia，which，nevertheless，wasaconsiderablemunicipalcity:
hewasvigorouslyrefutedbyCicero。Philip。iii。c。6。—W。
Gibbonprobablymeantthatthefamilyhadbutrecentlyemergedintonotice。—M。]
[Footnote25:Dion。Cassius，l。liii。p。710，withthecuriousAnnotationsofReimar。]
[Footnote*:TheprinceswhobytheirbirthortheiradoptionbelongedtothefamilyoftheCaesars，tookthenameofCaesar。
AfterthedeathofNero，thisnamedesignatedtheImperialdignityitself，andafterwardstheappointedsuccessor。Thetimeatwhichitwasemployedinthelattersense，cannotbefixedwithcertainty。BachHist。Jurisprud。Rom。304affirmsfromTacitus，H。i。15，andSuetonius，Galba，17，thatGalbaconferredonPisoLucinianusthetitleofCaesar，andfromthattimethetermhadthismeaning:butthesetwohistorianssimplysaythatheappointedPisohissuccessor，anddonotmentionthewordCaesar。AureliusVictorinTraj。348，ed。ArtzensaysthatHadrianfirstreceivedthistitleonhisadoption；butastheadoptionofHadrianisstilldoubtful，andbesidesthis，asTrajan，onhisdeath—bed，wasnotlikelytohavecreatedanewtitleforhissuccessor，itismoreprobablethatAeliusVeruswasthefirstwhowascalledCaesarwhenadoptedbyHadrian。
Spart。inAelioVero，102。—W。]
ChapterIII:TheConstitutionInTheAgeOfTheAntonines。
PartII。
ThetenderrespectofAugustusforafreeconstitutionwhichhehaddestroyed，canonlybeexplainedbyanattentiveconsiderationofthecharacterofthatsubtletyrant。Acoolhead，anunfeelingheart，andacowardlydisposition，promptedhimattheageofnineteentoassumethemaskofhypocrisy，whichheneverafterwardslaidaside。Withthesamehand，andprobablywiththesametemper，hesignedtheproscriptionofCicero，andthepardonofCinna。Hisvirtues，andevenhisvices，wereartificial；andaccordingtothevariousdictatesofhisinterest，hewasatfirsttheenemy，andatlastthefather，oftheRomanworld。^26WhenheframedtheartfulsystemoftheImperialauthority，hismoderationwasinspiredbyhisfears。Hewishedtodeceivethepeoplebyanimageofcivilliberty，andthearmiesbyanimageofcivilgovernment。
[Footnote26:AsOctavianusadvancedtothebanquetoftheCaesars，hiscolorchangedlikethatofthechameleon；paleatfirst，thenred，afterwardsblack，heatlastassumedthemildliveryofVenusandtheGraces，Caesars，p。309。Thisimage，employedbyJulianinhisingeniousfiction，isjustandelegant；
butwhenheconsidersthischangeofcharacterasrealandascribesittothepowerofphilosophy，hedoestoomuchhonortophilosophyandtoOctavianus。]
I。ThedeathofCaesarwaseverbeforehiseyes。Hehadlavishedwealthandhonorsonhisadherents；butthemostfavoredfriendsofhisunclewereinthenumberoftheconspirators。Thefidelityofthelegionsmightdefendhisauthorityagainstopenrebellion；buttheirvigilancecouldnotsecurehispersonfromthedaggerofadeterminedrepublican；andtheRomans，whoreveredthememoryofBrutus，^27wouldapplaudtheimitationofhisvirtue。Caesarhadprovokedhisfate，asmuchasbytheostentationofhispower，asbyhispoweritself。Theconsulorthetribunemighthavereignedinpeace。ThetitleofkinghadarmedtheRomansagainsthislife。Augustuswassensiblethatmankindisgovernedbynames；norwashedeceivedinhisexpectation，thatthesenateandpeoplewouldsubmittoslavery，providedtheywererespectfullyassuredthattheystillenjoyedtheirancientfreedom。Afeeblesenateandenervatedpeoplecheerfullyacquiescedinthepleasingillusion，aslongasitwassupportedbythevirtue，orevenbytheprudence，ofthesuccessorsofAugustus。Itwasamotiveofself—preservation，notaprincipleofliberty，thatanimatedtheconspiratorsagainstCaligula，Nero，andDomitian。Theyattackedthepersonofthetyrant，withoutaimingtheirblowattheauthorityoftheemperor。
[Footnote27:Twocenturiesaftertheestablishmentofmonarchy，theemperorMarcusAntoninusrecommendsthecharacterofBrutusasaperfectmodelofRomanvirtue。
Note:Inaveryingeniousessay，GibbonhasventuredtocallinquestionthepreeminentvirtueofBrutus。MiscWorks，iv。95。
—M。]
Thereappears，indeed，onememorableoccasion，inwhichthesenate，afterseventyyearsofpatience，madeanineffectualattempttore—assumeitslong—forgottenrights。WhenthethronewasvacantbythemurderofCaligula，theconsulsconvokedthatassemblyintheCapitol，condemnedthememoryoftheCaesars，gavethewatchwordlibertytothefewcohortswhofaintlyadheredtotheirstandard，andduringeight—and—fortyhoursactedastheindependentchiefsofafreecommonwealth。Butwhiletheydeliberated，thepraetorianguardshadresolved。ThestupidClaudius，brotherofGermanicus，wasalreadyintheircamp，investedwiththeImperialpurple，andpreparedtosupporthiselectionbyarms。Thedreamoflibertywasatanend；andthesenateawoketoallthehorrorsofinevitableservitude。
Desertedbythepeople，andthreatenedbyamilitaryforce，thatfeebleassemblywascompelledtoratifythechoiceofthepraetorians，andtoembracethebenefitofanamnesty，whichClaudiushadtheprudencetooffer，andthegenerositytoobserve。^28
[SeeTheCapitol:WhenthethronewasvacantbythemurderofCaligula，theconsulsconvokedthatassemblyintheCapitol。]
[Footnote28:ItismuchtoberegrettedthatwehavelostthepartofTacituswhichtreatedofthattransaction。WeareforcedtocontentourselveswiththepopularrumorsofJosephus，andtheimperfecthintsofDionandSuetonius。]
II。TheinsolenceofthearmiesinspiredAugustuswithfearsofastillmorealarmingnature。Thedespairofthecitizenscouldonlyattempt，whatthepowerofthesoldierswas，atanytime，abletoexecute。Howprecariouswashisownauthorityovermenwhomhehadtaughttoviolateeverysocialduty!Hehadheardtheirseditiousclamors；hedreadedtheircalmermomentsofreflection。Onerevolutionhadbeenpurchasedbyimmenserewards；butasecondrevolutionmightdoublethoserewards。ThetroopsprofessedthefondestattachmenttothehouseofCaesar；buttheattachmentsofthemultitudearecapriciousandinconstant。AugustussummonedtohisaidwhateverremainedinthosefiercemindsofRomanprejudices；enforcedtherigorofdisciplinebythesanctionoflaw；and，interposingthemajestyofthesenatebetweentheemperorandthearmy，boldlyclaimedtheirallegiance，asthefirstmagistrateoftherepublic。