\"NordidtheRomanseverestablishtheirlanguage—Iknownotwhethertheywishedtodoso—inthisisland，asweperceivebythatstubbornBritishtonguewhichhassurvivedtwoconquests。\"
Inhisnote，Mr。HallamexaminesthepassagefromTacitusAgric。
xxi。towhichGibbonrefers。ItmerelyassertstheprogressofLatinstudiesamongthehigherorders。Midd。Ages，iii。314。
Probablyitwasakindofcourtlanguage，andthatofpublicaffairsandprevailedintheRomancolonies。—M。]
[Footnote39:TheCelticwaspreservedinthemountainsofWales，Cornwall，andArmorica。Wemayobserve，thatApuleiusreproachesanAfricanyouth，wholivedamongthepopulace，withtheuseofthePunic；whilsthehadalmostforgotGreek，andneithercouldnorwouldspeakLatin，Apolog。p。596。ThegreaterpartofSt。
Austin\'scongregationswerestrangerstothePunic。]
[Footnote40:SpainaloneproducedColumella，theSenecas，Lucan，Martial，andQuintilian。]
[Footnote41:Thereisnot，Ibelieve，fromDionysiustoLibanus，asingleGreekcriticwhomentionsVirgilorHorace。TheyseemignorantthattheRomanshadanygoodwriters。]
[Footnote42:ThecuriousreadermayseeinDupin，BibliothequeEcclesiastique，tom。xix。p。1，c。8，howmuchtheuseoftheSyriacandEgyptianlanguageswasstillpreserved。]
[Footnote43:SeeJuvenal，Sat。iii。andxv。Ammian。Marcellin。
xxii。16。]
[Footnote44:DionCassius，l。lxxvii。p。1275。ThefirstinstancehappenedunderthereignofSeptimiusSeverus。]
Itisajustthoughtriteobservation，thatvictoriousRomewasherselfsubduedbytheartsofGreece。ThoseimmortalwriterswhostillcommandtheadmirationofmodernEurope，soonbecamethefavoriteobjectofstudyandimitationinItalyandthewesternprovinces。ButtheelegantamusementsoftheRomanswerenotsufferedtointerferewiththeirsoundmaximsofpolicy。
WhilsttheyacknowledgedthecharmsoftheGreek，theyassertedthedignityoftheLatintongue，andtheexclusiveuseofthelatterwasinflexiblymaintainedintheadministrationofcivilaswellasmilitarygovernment。^45Thetwolanguagesexercisedatthesametimetheirseparatejurisdictionthroughouttheempire:theformer，asthenaturalidiomofscience；thelatter，asthelegaldialectofpublictransactions。Thosewhounitedletterswithbusinesswereequallyconversantwithboth；anditwasalmostimpossible，inanyprovince，tofindaRomansubject，ofaliberaleducation，whowasatonceastrangertotheGreekandtotheLatinlanguage。
[Footnote45:SeeValeriusMaximus，l。ii。c。2，n。2。TheemperorClaudiusdisfranchisedaneminentGrecianfornotunderstandingLatin。Hewasprobablyinsomepublicoffice。
SuetoniusinClaud。c。16。
Note:Causesseemtohavebeenpleaded，eveninthesenate，inbothlanguages。Val。Max。loc。cit。Dion。l。lvii。c。15。—
M]
ItwasbysuchinstitutionsthatthenationsoftheempireinsensiblymeltedawayintotheRomannameandpeople。Buttherestillremained，inthecentreofeveryprovinceandofeveryfamily，anunhappyconditionofmenwhoenduredtheweight，withoutsharingthebenefits，ofsociety。Inthefreestatesofantiquity，thedomesticslaveswereexposedtothewantonrigorofdespotism。TheperfectsettlementoftheRomanempirewasprecededbyagesofviolenceandrapine。Theslavesconsisted，forthemostpart，ofbarbariancaptives，takeninthousandsbythechanceofwar，purchasedatavileprice，^46accustomedtoalifeofindependence，andimpatienttobreakandtorevengetheirfetters。Againstsuchinternalenemies，whosedesperateinsurrectionshadmorethanoncereducedtherepublictothebrinkofdestruction，^47themostsevereregulations，^48andthemostcrueltreatment，seemedalmostjustifiedbythegreatlawofself—preservation。ButwhentheprincipalnationsofEurope，Asia，andAfricawereunitedunderthelawsofonesovereign，thesourceofforeignsuppliesflowedwithmuchlessabundance，andtheRomanswerereducedtothemilderbutmoretediousmethodofpropagation。Intheirnumerousfamilies，andparticularlyintheircountryestates，theyencouragedthemarriageoftheirslaves。^!Thesentimentsofnature，thehabitsofeducation，andthepossessionofadependentspeciesofproperty，contributedtoalleviatethehardshipsofservitude。
^49Theexistenceofaslavebecameanobjectofgreatervalue，andthoughhishappinessstilldependedonthetemperandcircumstancesofthemaster，thehumanityofthelatter，insteadofbeingrestrainedbyfear，wasencouragedbythesenseofhisowninterest。Theprogressofmannerswasacceleratedbythevirtueorpolicyoftheemperors；andbytheedictsofHadrianandtheAntonines，theprotectionofthelawswasextendedtothemostabjectpartofmankind。Thejurisdictionoflifeanddeathovertheslaves，apowerlongexercisedandoftenabused，wastakenoutofprivatehands，andreservedtothemagistratesalone。Thesubterraneousprisonswereabolished；and，uponajustcomplaintofintolerabletreatment，theinjuredslaveobtainedeitherhisdeliverance，oralesscruelmaster。^50
[Footnote*:Itwasthiswhichrenderedthewarssosanguinary，andthebattlessoobstinate。TheimmortalRobertson，inanexcellentdiscourseonthestateoftheworldattheperiodoftheestablishmentofChristianity，hastracedapictureofthemelancholyeffectsofslavery，inwhichwefindallthedepthofhisviewsandthestrengthofhismind。IshallopposesuccessivelysomepassagestothereflectionsofGibbon。Thereaderwillsee，notwithoutinterest，thetruthswhichGibbonappearstohavemistakenorvoluntarilyneglected，developedbyoneofthebestofmodernhistorians。Itisimportanttocallthemtomindhere，inordertoestablishthefactsandtheirconsequenceswithaccuracy。Ishallmorethanoncehaveoccasiontoemploy，forthispurpose，thediscourseofRobertson。
\"Captivestakeninwarwere，inallprobability，thefirstpersonssubjectedtoperpetualservitude；and，whenthenecessitiesorluxuryofmankindincreasedthedemandforslaves，everynewwarrecruitedtheirnumber，byreducingthevanquishedtothatwretchedcondition。Henceproceededthefierceanddesperatespiritwithwhichwarswerecarriedonamongancientnations。Whilechainsandslaverywerethecertainlotoftheconquered，battleswerefought，andtownsdefendedwitharageandobstinacywhichnothingbuthorroratsuchafatecouldhaveinspired；but，puttinganendtothecruelinstitutionofslavery，Christianityextendeditsmildinfluencestothepracticeofwar，andthatbarbarousart，softenedbyitshumanespirit，ceasedtobesodestructive。Secure，ineveryevent，ofpersonalliberty，theresistanceofthevanquishedbecamelessobstinate，andthetriumphofthevictorlesscruel。Thushumanitywasintroducedintotheexerciseofwar，withwhichitappearstobealmostincompatible；anditistothemercifulmaximsofChristianity，muchmorethantoanyothercause，thatwemustascribethelittleferocityandbloodshedwhichaccompanymodernvictories。\"—G。]
[Footnote46:InthecampofLucullus，anoxsoldforadrachma，andaslaveforfourdrachmae，oraboutthreeshillings。
Plutarch。inLucull。p。580。
Note:Above100，000prisonersweretakenintheJewishwar。
—G。Hist。ofJews，iii。71。AccordingtoatraditionpreservedbyS。Jerom，aftertheinsurrectioninthetimeofHadrian，theyweresoldascheapashorse。Ibid。124。CompareBlaironRomanSlavery，p。19。—M。，andDureaudelablalle，EconomiePolitiquedesRomains，l。i。c。15。ButIcannotthinkthatthiswriterhasmadeouthiscaseastothecommonpriceofanagriculturalslavebeingfrom2000to2500francs，80l。to100l。Hehasoverlookedthepassageswhichshowtheordinaryprices，i。e。
Hor。Sat。ii。vii。45，andarguedfromextraordinaryandexceptionalcases。—M。1845。]
[Footnote47:DiodorusSiculusinEclog。Hist。l。xxxiv。andxxxvi。Florus，iii。19，20。]
[Footnote*:Thefollowingistheexample:weshallseewhethertheword\"severe\"ishereinitsplace。\"AtthetimeinwhichL。
DomitiuswaspraetorinSicily，aslavekilledawildboarofextraordinarysize。Thepraetor，struckbythedexterityandcourageoftheman，desiredtoseehim。Thepoorwretch，highlygratifiedwiththedistinction，cametopresenthimselfbeforethepraetor，inhopes，nodoubt，ofpraiseandreward；butDomitius，onlearningthathehadonlyajavelintoattackandkilltheboar，orderedhimtobeinstantlycrucified，underthebarbarouspretextthatthelawprohibitedtheuseofthisweapon，asofallothers，toslaves。\"PerhapsthecrueltyofDomitiusislessastonishingthantheindifferencewithwhichtheRomanoratorrelatesthiscircumstance，whichaffectshimsolittlethathethusexpresseshimself:\"Durumhocfortassevideatur，nequeegoinullampartemdisputo。\"\"Thismayappearharsh，nordoIgiveanyopiniononthesubject。\"Anditisthesameoratorwhoexclaimsinthesameoration，\"FacinusestcruciarecivemRomanum；scelusverberare；propeparricidiumnecare:quiddicamincrucemtollere?\"\"ItisacrimetoimprisonaRomancitizen；
wickednesstoscourge；nexttoparricidetoputtodeath，whatshallIcallittocrucify?\"
Ingeneral，thispassageofGibbononslavery，isfull，notonlyofblamableindifference，butofanexaggerationofimpartialitywhichresemblesdishonesty。Heendeavorstoextenuateallthatisappallingintheconditionandtreatmentoftheslaves；hewouldmakeusconsiderthosecrueltiesaspossibly\"justifiedbynecessity。\"Hethendescribes，withminuteaccuracy，theslightestmitigationsoftheirdeplorablecondition；heattributestothevirtueorthepolicyoftheemperorstheprogressiveameliorationinthelotoftheslaves；
andhepassesoverinsilencethemostinfluentialcause，thatwhich，afterrenderingtheslaveslessmiserable，hascontributedatlengthentirelytoenfranchisethemfromtheirsufferingsandtheirchains，—Christianity。Itwouldbeeasytoaccumulatethemostfrightful，themostagonizingdetails，ofthemannerinwhichtheRomanstreatedtheirslaves；wholeworkshavebeendevotedtothedescription。Icontentmyselfwithreferringtothem。SomereflectionsofRobertson，takenfromthediscoursealreadyquoted，willmakeusfeelthatGibbon，intracingthemitigationoftheconditionoftheslaves，uptoaperiodlittlelaterthanthatwhichwitnessedtheestablishmentofChristianityintheworld，couldnothaveavoidedtheacknowledgmentoftheinfluenceofthatbeneficentcause，ifhehadnotalreadydeterminednottospeakofit。
\"UponestablishingdespoticgovernmentintheRomanempire，domestictyrannyrose，inashorttime，toanastonishingheight。
Inthatranksoil，everyvice，whichpowernourishesinthegreat，oroppressionengendersinthemean，thrivedandgrewupapace。***Itisnottheauthorityofanysingledetachedpreceptinthegospel，butthespiritandgeniusoftheChristianreligion，morepowerfulthananyparticularcommand。whichhathabolishedthepracticeofslaverythroughouttheworld。ThetemperwhichChristianityinspiredwasmildandgentle；andthedoctrinesittaughtaddedsuchdignityandlustretohumannature，asrescueditfromthedishonorableservitudeintowhichitwassunk。\"
Itisinvain，then，thatGibbonpretendstoattributesolelytothedesireofkeepingupthenumberofslaves，themilderconductwhichtheRomansbegantoadoptintheirfavoratthetimeoftheemperors。Thiscausehadhithertoactedinanoppositedirection；howcameitonasuddentohaveadifferentinfluence?\"Themasters，\"hesays，\"encouragedthemarriageoftheirslaves；***thesentimentsofnature，thehabitsofeducation，contributedtoalleviatethehardshipsofservitude。\"
Thechildrenofslaveswerethepropertyoftheirmaster，whocoulddisposeoforalienatethemliketherestofhisproperty。
Isitinsuchasituation，withsuchnotions，thatthesentimentsofnatureunfoldthemselves，orhabitsofeducationbecomemildandpeaceful?Wemustnotattributetocausesinadequateoraltogetherwithoutforce，effectswhichrequiretoexplainthemareferencetomoreinfluentialcauses；andeveniftheseslightercauseshadineffectamanifestinfluence，wemustnotforgetthattheyarethemselvestheeffectofaprimary，ahigher，andmoreextensivecause，which，ingivingtothemindandtothecharacteramoredisinterestedandmorehumanebias，disposedmentosecondorthemselvestoadvance，bytheirconduct，andbythechangeofmanners，thehappyresultswhichittendedtoproduce。
—G。
IhaveretainedthewholeofM。Guizot\'snote，though，inhiszealfortheinvaluableblessingsoffreedomandChristianity，hehasdoneGibboninjustice。Theconditionoftheslaveswasundoubtedlyimprovedundertheemperors。Whatagreatauthorityhassaid，\"Theconditionofaslaveisbetterunderanarbitrarythanunderafreegovernment，\"Smith\'sWealthofNations，iv。7，is，Ibelieve，supportedbythehistoryofallagesandnations。TheprotectingedictsofHadrianandtheAntoninesarehistoricalfacts，andcanaslittlebeattributedtotheinfluenceofChristianity，asthemilderlanguageofheathenwriters，ofSeneca，particularlyEp。47，ofPliny，andofPlutarch。ThelatterinfluenceofChristianityisadmittedbyGibbonhimself。ThesubjectofRomanslaveryhasrecentlybeeninvestigatedwithgreatdiligenceinaverymodestbutvaluablevolume，byWm。Blair，Esq。，Edin。1833。Maywebepermitted。
whileonthesubject，torefertothemostsplendidpassageextantofMr。Pitt\'seloquence，thedescriptionoftheRomanslave—dealer。ontheshoresofBritain，condemningtheislandtoirreclaimablebarbarism，asaperpetualandprolificnurseryofslaves?Speeches，vol。ii。p。80。
Gibbon，itshouldbeadded，wasoneofthefirstandmostconsistentopponentsoftheAfricanslave—trade。SeeHist。ch。
xxv。andLetterstoLorSheffield，Misc。Works—M。]
[Footnote48:SeearemarkableinstanceofseverityinCiceroinVerrem，v。3。]
[Footnote*:Anactiveslave—trade，whichwascarriedoninmanyquarters，particularlytheEuxine，theeasternprovinces，thecoastofAfrica，andBritishmustbetakenintotheaccount。
Blair，23—32。—M。]
[Footnote!:TheRomans，aswellinthefirstagesoftherepublicaslater，allowedtotheirslavesakindofmarriage，contubernium:notwithstandingthis，luxurymadeagreaternumberofslavesindemand。Theincreaseintheirpopulationwasnotsufficient，andrecoursewashadtothepurchaseofslaves，whichwasmadeevenintheprovincesoftheEastsubjecttotheRomans。Itis，moreover，knownthatslaveryisastatelittlefavorabletopopulation。SeeHume\'sEssay，andMalthusonpopulation，i。334。—G。ThetestimonyofAppianB。C。l。i。c。
7isdecisiveinfavoroftherapidmultiplicationoftheagriculturalslaves；itisconfirmedbythenumbersengagedintheservilewars。ComparealsoBlair，p。119；likewiseColumellal。viii。—M。]
[Footnote49:SeeinGruter，andtheothercollectors，agreatnumberofinscriptionsaddressedbyslavestotheirwives，children，fellow—servants，masters，&c。TheyareallmostprobablyoftheImperialage。]
[Footnote50:SeetheAugustanHistory，andaDissertationofM。
deBurigny，inthexxxvthvolumeoftheAcademyofInscriptions，upontheRomanslaves。]
Hope，thebestcomfortofourimperfectcondition，wasnotdeniedtotheRomanslave；andifhehadanyopportunityofrenderinghimselfeitherusefuloragreeable，hemightverynaturallyexpectthatthediligenceandfidelityofafewyearswouldberewardedwiththeinestimablegiftoffreedom。Thebenevolenceofthemasterwassofrequentlypromptedbythemeanersuggestionsofvanityandavarice，thatthelawsfounditmorenecessarytorestrainthantoencourageaprofuseandundistinguishingliberality，whichmightdegenerateintoaverydangerousabuse。^51Itwasamaximofancientjurisprudence，thataslavehadnotanycountryofhisown；heacquiredwithhislibertyanadmissionintothepoliticalsocietyofwhichhispatronwasamember。TheconsequencesofthismaximwouldhaveprostitutedtheprivilegesoftheRomancitytoameanandpromiscuousmultitude。Someseasonableexceptionswerethereforeprovided；andthehonorabledistinctionwasconfinedtosuchslavesonlyas，forjustcauses，andwiththeapprobationofthemagistrate，shouldreceiveasolemnandlegalmanumission。Eventhesechosenfreedmenobtainednomorethantheprivaterightsofcitizens，andwererigorouslyexcludedfromcivilormilitaryhonors。Whatevermightbethemeritorfortuneoftheirsons，theylikewisewereesteemedunworthyofaseatinthesenate；norwerethetracesofaservileoriginallowedtobecompletelyobliteratedtillthethirdorfourthgeneration。^52Withoutdestroyingthedistinctionofranks，adistantprospectoffreedomandhonorswaspresented，eventothosewhomprideandprejudicealmostdisdainedtonumberamongthehumanspecies。
[Footnote51:SeeanotherDissertationofM。deBurigny，inthexxxviithvolume，ontheRomanfreedmen。]
[Footnote52:Spanheim，OrbisRoman。l。i。c。16，p。124，&c。]
Itwasonceproposedtodiscriminatetheslavesbyapeculiarhabit；butitwasjustlyapprehendedthattheremightbesomedangerinacquaintingthemwiththeirownnumbers。^53
Withoutinterpreting，intheirutmoststrictness，theliberalappellationsoflegionsandmyriads，^54wemayventuretopronounce，thattheproportionofslaves，whowerevaluedasproperty，wasmoreconsiderablethanthatofservants，whocanbecomputedonlyasanexpense。^55Theyouthsofapromisinggeniuswereinstructedintheartsandsciences，andtheirpricewasascertainedbythedegreeoftheirskillandtalents。^56Almosteveryprofession，eitherliberal^57ormechanical，mightbefoundinthehouseholdofanopulentsenator。Theministersofpompandsensualityweremultipliedbeyondtheconceptionofmodernluxury。^58Itwasmorefortheinterestofthemerchantormanufacturertopurchase，thantohirehisworkmen；andinthecountry，slaveswereemployedasthecheapestandmostlaboriousinstrumentsofagriculture。Toconfirmthegeneralobservation，andtodisplaythemultitudeofslaves，wemightallegeavarietyofparticularinstances。Itwasdiscovered，onaverymelancholyoccasion，thatfourhundredslavesweremaintainedinasinglepalaceofRome。^59ThesamenumberoffourhundredbelongedtoanestatewhichanAfricanwidow，ofaveryprivatecondition，resignedtoherson，whilstshereservedforherselfamuchlargershareofherproperty。^60Afreedman，underthenameofAugustus，thoughhisfortunehadsufferedgreatlossesinthecivilwars，leftbehindhimthreethousandsixhundredyokeofoxen，twohundredandfiftythousandheadofsmallercattle，andwhatwasalmostincludedinthedescriptionofcattle，fourthousandonehundredandsixteenslaves。^61
[Footnote53:SenecadeClementia，l。i。c。24。Theoriginalismuchstronger，\"Quantumpericulumimmineretsiservinostrinumerarenoscoepissent。\"]
[Footnote54:SeePlinyHist。Natur。l。xxxiii。andAthenaeusDeipnosophist。l。vi。p。272。Thelatterboldlyasserts，thatheknewverymanyRomanswhopossessed，notforuse，butostentation，tenandeventwentythousandslaves。]
[Footnote55:InParistherearenotmorethan43，000domesticsofeverysort，andnotatwelfthpartoftheinhabitants。
Messange，RecherchessuilaPopulation，p。186。]
[Footnote56:Alearnedslavesoldformanyhundredpoundssterling:Atticusalwaysbredandtaughtthemhimself。Cornel。
NeposinVit。c。13，[onthepricesofslaves。Blair，149。]—
M。]
[Footnote57:ManyoftheRomanphysicianswereslaves。SeeDr。
Middleton\'sDissertationandDefence。]
[Footnote58:TheirranksandofficesareverycopiouslyenumeratedbyPignoriusdeServis。]
[Footnote59:Tacit。Annal。xiv。43。Theywereallexecutedfornotpreventingtheirmaster\'smurder。