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　　Itisinthecensoriallinethatthereisthegreatestroomfordisquisitionsthatapplytothecircumstancesofallnationsalike:andinthislinewhatregardsthesubstanceofthelawsinquestionisassusceptibleofanuniversalapplication，aswhatregardsthewords。Thatthelawsofallnations，orevenofanytwonations，shouldcoincideinallpoints，wouldbeasineligibleasitisimpossible:someleadingpoints，however，thereseemtobe，inrespectofwhichthelawsofallcivilizednationsmight，withoutinconvenience，bethesame。Tomarkoutsomeofthesepointswill，asfarasitgoes，bethebusinessofthebodyofthiswork。

　　XXV。Inthesecondplace，withregardtothepoliticalqualityofthepersonswhoseconductistheobjectofthelaw。Thesemay，onanygivenoccasion，beconsideredeitherasmembersofthesamestate，orasmembersofdifferentstates:inthefirstease，thelawmaybereferredtotheheadofinternal，inthesecondcase，tothatofinternationaljurisprudence。

　　Nowastoanytransactionswhichmaytakeplacebetweenindividualswhoaresubjectsofdifferentstates，theseareregulatedbytheinternallaws，anddecideduponbytheinternaltribunals，oftheoneortheotherofthosestates:thecaseisthesamewherethesovereignoftheonehasanyimmediatetransactionswithaprivatememberoftheother:thesovereignreducinghimself，prorenat&acirc；，totheconditionofaprivateperson，asoftenashesubmitshiscausetoeithertribunal；whetherbyclaimingabenefit，ordefendinghimselfagainstaburthen。Thereremainthenthemutualtransactionsbetweensovereigns，assuch，forthesubjectofthatbranchofjurisprudencewhichmaybeproperlyandexclusivelytermedinternational。

　　Withwhatdegreeofproprietyrulesfortheconductofpersonsofthisdescriptioncancomeundertheappellationoflaws，isaquestionthatmustresttillthenatureofthethingcalledalawshallhavebeenmoreparticularlyunfolded。

　　Itisevidentenough，thatinternationaljurisprudencemay，aswellasinternal，becensorialaswellasexpository，unauthoritativeaswellasauthoritative。

　　XXVI。Internaljurisprudence，again，mayeitherconcernallthemembersofastateindiscriminately，orsuchofthemonlyasareconnectedinthewayofresidence，orotherwise，withaparticulardistrict。Jurisprudenceisaccordinglysometimesdistinguishedintonationalandprovincial。Butastheepithetprovincialishardlyapplicabletodistrictssosmallasmanyofthosewhichhavelawsoftheirownarewonttobe，suchastowns，parishes，andmanors；thetermlocalwhereuniversaljurisprudenceisplainlyoutofthequestionorthetermparticular，thoughthislatterisnotverycharacteristic，mighteitherofthembemorecommodious。

　　XXVII。Thirdly，withrespecttotime。Inaworkoftheexpositorykind，thelawsthatareinquestionmayeitherbesuchasarestillinforceatthetimewhenthebookiswriting，orsuchashaveceasedtobeinforce。Inthelattercasethesubjectofitmightbetermedancient；intheformer，presentorlivingjurisprudence:

　　thatis，ifthesubstantivejurisprudence，andnoother，mustatanyratebeemployed，andthatwithanepithetinbothcases。Butthetruthis，thatabookoftheformerkindisratherabookofhistorythanabookofjurisprudence；and，ifthewordjurisprudencebeexpressiveofthesubject，itisonlywithsomesuchwordsashistoryorantiquitiesprefixed。Andasthelawswhichareanywhereinquestionaresupposed，ifnothingappearstothecontrary，tobethosewhichareinforce，nosuchepithetasthatofpresentorlivingcommonlyappears。

　　Whereabookissocircumstanced，thatthelawswhichformthesubjectofit，thoughinforceatthetimeofitsbeingwritten，areinforcenolonger，thatbookisneitherabookoflivingjurisprudence，norabookonthehistoryofjurisprudence:itisnolongertheformer，anditneverwasthelatter。Itisevidentthat，owingtothechangeswhichfromtimetotimemusttakeplace，inagreaterorlessdegree，ineverybodyoflaws，everybookofjurisprudence，whichisofanexpositorynature，mustinthecourseofafewyears，cometopartakemoreorlessofthiscondition。

　　Themostcommonandmostusefulobjectofahistoryofjurisprudence，istoexhibitthecircumstancesthathaveattendedtheestablishmentoflawsactuallyinforce。Buttheexpositionofthedeadlawswhichhavebeensuperseded，isinseparablyinterwovenwiththatofthelivingoneswhichhavesupersededthem。

　　Thegreatuseofboththesebranchesofscience，istofurnishexamplesfortheartoflegislation。

　　XXVIII。Fourthly，inpointofexpression，thelawsinquestionmaysubsisteitherintheformofstatuteorinthatofcustomarylaw。

　　Astothedifferencebetweenthesetwobrancheswhichrespectsonlythearticleofformorexpressionitcannotproperlybemadeappeartillsomeprogresshasbeenmadeinthedefinitionofalaw。

　　XXIX。Lastly，Themostintricatedistinctionofall，andthatwhichcomesmostfrequentlyonthecarpet，isthatwhichismadebetweenthecivilbranchofjurisprudenceandthepenal，whichlatteriswont，incertaincircumstances，toreceivethenameofcriminal。

　　Whatisapenalcodeoflaws？Whatacivilcode？Ofwhatnaturearetheircontents？Isitthattherearetwosortsoflaws，theonepenaltheothercivil，sothatthelawsinapenalcodeareallpenallaws，whilethelawsinacivilcodeareallcivillaws？Orisit，thatineverylawthereissomematterwhichisofapenalnature，andwhichthereforebelongstothepenalcode；andatthesametimeothermatterwhichisofacivilnature，andwhichthereforebelongstothecivilcode？Orisit，thatsomelawsbelongtoonecodeortheotherexclusively，whileothersaredividedbetweenthetwo？Toanswerthesequestionsinanymannerthatshallbetolerablysatisfactory，itwillbenecessarytoascertainwhatalawis；meaningoneentirebutsinglelaw:andwhatarethepartsintowhichalaw，assuch，iscapableofbeingdistinguished:

　　or，inotherwords，toascertainwhatthepropertiesarethataretobefoundineveryobjectwhichcanwithproprietyreceivetheappellationofalaw。Thisthenwillbethebusinessofthethirdandfourthsections:whatconcernstheimportofthewordcriminal，asappliedtolaw，willbediscussedseparatelyinthefifth。