veryaccuratelycorresponded。Thosesubordinaterightsofthepeopletotemporarypossessionwhichhavegrownupin
peacefultimes，haveeverremainedprecariousandimperfect:buttherightoftheruleristherightofthestrongest；and
wheneitherintestinewarsorforeigninvasionhavebroughtanewmastertoadistrict，hisswordhasrestoredthesovereign\'sclaiminallitsprimitiveclearness。Theproportionoftheproducetakenbythesovereign，hasonsomegroundorotherperpetuallyvaried；thatis，whenhehas
pretendedtoconfinehimselftoanydefiniteproportionatall。Thelawsseemtofixitatone-sixth，butinpractice，thislawor
rulehasbeenutterlydisregarded。Strabomentions，thatinhistime，，？
，wherebystrainingtheGreekalittleeitherway，therentmayappeartohavebeen
one-fourthorthree-fourthsoftheproduce。TheMogulconquerorsexactedtheirrentsinproportions，whichvaried
considerablywiththequalityoftheland，moreparticularlywithitscommandofwater。Butnodefiniterateofrenthaseverprevailedlonginpractice。UndertheHindoogovernments，therehadbeenadispositiontoallowmanysubordinateclaimstothepossessionofthesoil，
andtoofficesconnectedwiththecollectionoftherevenue，tobecomehereditary。Oftheoffices，themostimportantwas
thatoftheZemindars。Thesewereentrustedwiththecollectionoftherevenueindistrictsofdifferentsizes，wereentitledto
atenthofitsamount，hadsometimeslandsassignedtothem，andwereendowedwithveryconsiderableauthority。They
weremuchinthehabitofmakingadvancesofseedandstocktoassistthecultivator，andofstipulatingforrepaymentinthe
shapeofproduce。Whenthesonhadbeenallowedtosucceedthefatherforsomegenerationsinsuchanoffice，thetiesand
interestswhichconnectedhimwiththepeopleunderhimweresomanyandstrong，thatthedisplacingaZemindar，unless
forgrossmisconductorforfailureinpaymentofthesovereign\'srent，wasthoughtbyhimselfandtheryots，tobeanactof
tyrannicaloppression。Theryotsverygenerallyoccupiedtheirlandsincommon，andwerecollectedintovillagesunder
officersoftheirown，whodistributedtothecultivatorsandtradesmentheirrespectivesharesoftheproduce。Thevillage
officesandvarioustradesbecamehereditary。Theryottoohimself，theactualcultivator，wasyetlesslikelythanthesuperior
officerstobedisturbedinthepossessionofhislands。Providedthesovereign\'sshareoftheproducewaspaid，hehadno
interestindisturbingthehumbleagentsofproduction，andaverygreatinterestinretainingthem。Fromsimilarreasons，aclaimtomortgageorsellhispossessoryinterest，wassufferedtoestablishitself。Butthenallthesesubordinateinterestswereonlyrespectedinpeacefultimes，andundermoderategovernors；andthese
wererareinIndia。Ithasbeenhithertothemisfortuneofthatcountry，toseearapidsuccessionofshortlivedempires:the
convulsionsamidstwhichtheywereestablished，havehardlysubsided，beforethepeoplehavebeguntobeharassedbythe
consequencesoftheirweaknessanddecay。Whileanyreallyefficientgeneralgovernmenthasexisted，ithasbeentheobvious
interest，andusuallytheaimofthechiefstoactuponsomedefinitesystem；toputsome
limittotheirownexactions；to
protecttheryots，andfostercultivationbygivingreasonablesecuritytoalltheinterestsconcernedinit。TheMogul
emperorsactedinthisspirit，whileexercisingapoweroverthesoil，whichhadnorealbounds，butthosewhichthey
prescribedtothemselves。Butastheempiregrewfeeble，andthesubordinatechieftains，Mahometan，orHindoo，beganto
exerciseanuncontrolledpowerintheirdistricts，theirrapacityandviolenceseemusuallytohavebeenwhollyuncheckedby
policyorprinciple。Therewasatonceanendtoallsystem，moderation，orprotection；ruinousrents，arbitrarilyimposed，
werecollectedinfrequentmilitarycircuits，atthespear\'spoint；andtheresistanceoftenattemptedindespair，wasunsparinglypunishedbyfireandslaughter。Sceneslikethese，intheancienthistoryofIndia，havebeenfrequentlyrenewed，andsucceededrapidlyshortintervalsof
repose。Theywereofcoursedisastrous。Halftherichterritoryofthatcountryhasneverbeencultivated，thoughswarming
withapopulationtowhomthepermissiontomakeitfruitfulinmoderatesecurity，wouldhavebeenhappiness；andnothingcanwellexceedtheordinarypovertyoftheryots，andtheinefficiencyoftheirmeansofcultivation。TheEnglish，whentheybecametherepresentativesoftheMogulemperorinBengal，beganbypushingtoanextremetheir
rightsasproprietorsofthesoil；andneglectedthesubordinateclaimsoftheZemindarsandryots，inamannerwhichwasfelt
tobeoppressiveandtyrannical，althoughnotperhapsinstrictnessillegal。Agreatreactionhastakenplaceintheirviewsand
feelings；perceivingthenecessityofrestoringconfidencetothecultivators，andanxioustoshakeofftheimputationof
injusticeandtyranny，theyshowedthemselvesquitewillingtopartwiththeircharacterofownersofthesoil，andtoretain
simplythatofitssovereign。Anagreementwasinconsequenceenteredinto，bywhichtheZemindarsassumedacharacter，
whichcertainlyneverbeforebelongedtothem，thatofthedirectlandlordsofthoseryots，betweenwhomandthesupreme
governmenttheyhadbeforebeenonlyagents；agents，however，possessedofmanyimperfectbutprescriptiverightstoan
hereditaryinterestintheiroffice。Thegovernment，insteadofexactingrents，wascontenttoreceiveafixedandpermanenttax；forwhichthenewlandlordsweretoberesponsible。Therecanbenodoubtofthefairandevenbenevolentspirit，inwhichthisarrangementwasmade。Itseemshowevertobe
nowgenerallyadmitted，thattheclaimsoftheZemindarswereoverrated，andthatifsomethinglesshadbeendoneforthem，
andsomethingmoreforthesecurityandindependenceoftheryots，thesettlement，withoutbeinglessjustorgenerous，
wouldhavebeenmuchmoreexpedient。
SECTIONIII。
OnRyotRentsinPersia。Ofallthedespoticgovernmentsoftheeast，thatofPersiaisperhapsthemostgreedy，andthemostwantonlyunprincipled；
yetthepeculiarsoilofthatcountryhasintroducedsomevaluablemodificationsofthegeneralAsiaticsystemofryotrents，
andforcedthegovernment，unscrupulousasitis，totreatthevariousinterestsinthelandsubordinatetothoseofthecrown，withconsiderableforbearance。Oneofthemostremarkablegeologicalfeaturesoftheoldworld，isthatgreattractofsandydesert，whichextendsacrossits
wholebreadth，andimposesapeculiarcharacteronthetribeswhichroamoveritssurface，orinhabititsborders。Itformsthe
shoresoftheAtlanticonthewesterncoastofAfrica，andconstitutestheZaharaorgreatsandydesert，whichhas
contributedtoconcealsolongthecentralregionsofthatquarteroftheglobefromEuropeancuriosity。Itformsnextthe
surfaceofEgyptwiththeexceptionofthevalleyoftheNile；stretchesacrosstheArabianwastes，toSyria，Persia，andupper
India；andturningfromPersianorthwards，threadsbetweenMushedandHerat4theElburz
andParapomisanmountains，
partsoftheCaucasianorHimalayanchain；runsnorth-eastwardthroughTartary，androundingthenorthernextremityof
China，sinksfinally，itissupposed，beneaththewavesofthePacific。ThegreaterpartoftheterritoriesofPersiaeither
consistofthisdesert，orborderonit；andpartakesomuchofitsparchedandsterilecharacter，thattheeyeatashort
distancecanhardlytracetheboundary。5Thissoilcanbemadefruitfulonlybyirrigation。Butwater，saysFrazer，isthemost
scantyboonofnatureinPersia；itsriversaresmallandfew，andrivulets，bynomeanscommon，canonlybeappliedtoa
verylimitedquantityofcultivation。Inthebestdistricts，thesmallproportionofcultivatedlandresemblesanOasisinthedesert，servingbycontrasttomakeallarounditmoredreary。6Asthenaturalspringsandstreamsareinsufficienttosupportthecultivationbywhichthepeoplemustexist，thePersians
establishwithgreatlaborandexpenseartificialsources，calledcannauts。Theysinkonthesidesofhillslongchainsofwells，
ofdifferentdepths，andcommunicatingbyachannel，whichconductstothelowestthewatercollectedinthem:thencethe
streamisdistributedoverthefieldswhichitistofertilize。Theseworks，alwayscostlyandimportant，areofvarioussizes；
thechainofwellsissaidtobeoccasionallythirty-sixmilesinlength，andacannautisspokenofinChorassan，intowhichahorsemanmayridewithhislanceuponhisshoulder；7moreordinarily，thechannelsaresmall，andthechainofwellsdoesnotexceedtwomilesinlength。Whenever，bytheseorothermeans，waterisbroughttothesurface，scenesoforiental
vegetationspringuprapidlyandluxuriantly。Iffromwar，oroppression，oraccident，ortime，theworksofmanare
destroyedorneglected，thesceneoffertilityvanishes，andthedesertresumesitsdomain。
TheplainofYezid-Khaustinthe
routefromShiraztoTeheran，wasoncecelebratedforitsbeautyandfertility:Mr。Frazerpassedoveritin1821，andthus
describesit。\"TheplainofYezid-Khaust，whichextendsinthelineofourrouteallthewaytoKomaishah，presented，
towardsthelatterplace，atrulylamentablepictureofthegeneraldeclineofprosperityinPersia。Ruinsoflargevillages
thicklyscatteredabout，withtheskeleton-likewallsofcaravanseraisandgardens，alltellingofbettertimes，stoodlike
mementomoristokingdomsandgovernments；andthewholeplainwasdottedoverwithsmallmounds，whichindicatethe
courseofcannauts，oncethesourceofrichesandfertility，nowallchokedupanddry，forthereisneithermannbrcultivation
torequiretheiraid。\"8ThedistrictofNishaporewasanothercelebratedseatofPersiancultivation。\"Itwasadded，\"saysMr。
Frazer，speakingoftheinformationhereceivedconcerningthisplace；\"thatinthedifferentdepartmentsofNishaporethey
reckon14000distinctvillages，allinhabited，andirrigatedby12000cannautsand18smallriversfromthemountains。This
magnificentdetailisnodoubtgreatlyexaggerated，beingbutareiterationofthetraditionalaccountofthisplaceinitsdays
ofhighprosperity:nosuchvastpopulationorcultivationnowexists；mostofthevillagesareruinous；thecannauts，the
remainsofwhich，coveringtheplain，mayservealmosttoattestthetruthoftheabovestatement，arenowchokedupanddry。\"9NowtheprincipalrevenueofthemonarchsofPersiaisderivedfromtheproduceoftheearth，ofwhichtheyarethesupreme
owners。Itcouldnotescapeeventheireyes，blinded。astheyarebygreedinessandhabitsofrapine，thatthecostofthus
wrestingcultivatedspotsfromthedesert，andmaintainingtheminfruitfulness，wouldneverbeincurred，unlessthe
undertakersfeltreallysecurethattheirpropertyinthemwouldbesubsequentlyrespected。BythelawsofPersia，therefore，
hewhobringswatertothesurface，whereitneverwasbefore，isguaranteedbythesovereigninthehereditarypossessionof
thelandfertilizedbyhim，andwhileareservedrentofone-fifthoftheproduceispaidtotheShah，thepossessordisposesof
itashepleases，andiseffectuallyitsproprietor，subjecttoarentcharge。Ifhechoosestoletoutthewater，atmoneyrents，
tootherpersonswhohavelands，whichalreadypaytheroyalrentinproduce，thentherentofthewaterishisown:the
crownprofitsonlybyadditionalfertilitythusbestoweduponspots，intheproduceofwhichitshares。AmongthePersiansof
property，mostusuallythoseinoffice，makingcannautsisafavoritespeculation；thevillagers，too，oftenjoinandconstructthem，andthesearethebestproofsthatthisguaranteeofthesovereignisfaithfullyobserved。Makingproperallowances，however，forthemoresteadyrespectforsubordinateinterests，whichtheoutlayforartificial
irrigationmakesnecessaryonthepartofthePersiansovereigns，theirmanagementoftheterritorytheyownisverysimilar
towhatwehaveseenprevailsinIndia。Theryotsinhabitingvillagescultivatethesoilincommon，orinallotments
determinedamongthemselves；theirinterestinthelandishereditary。\"Theoriginalcustomarylawconcerningproperty，\"
saysMr。Frazer，\"clearlyprovidedwithmuchconsiderationforthesecurityoftheryot。Therightsofthevillagerwere
guardedatleastascarefullyastheseofhislord:histitletocultivatehisportionoflanddescendstohimfromtheoriginal
commencementofthevillagetowhichhebelongs，andcanneitherbedisputedorrefusedhim，norcanheforfeitit，norcanthelordofthevillageejectanyryotwhileheconductshimselfwellandpayshisportionoftherent。\"10Therentatpresentexactedfromtheryotisone-fifthpertoftheproduce；ithasvariedandbeendifferentlyamusedatthe
discretionofdifferentPrinces，moreparticularlyNushirvanandThour。ThePersian。nowstatethatbyancientcustomonly
one-tenthwasdue:thattheothertenthwasagreedtobepaidonapromisethatthesaadurautorirregulartaxesshouldcease；butthatthoughtheadditionaltenthhasbeenexacted，thetaxesremainatleastasoppressiveasbefore。11Abovethesehereditarycultivatorsisasubordinateproprietor，oftencalledbyFraserthelordofthevillage，whoisentitled
toone-tenthofthecrop。InthismantheIndianZemindarisimmediatelyrecognised:butthoughthewordZemindarwas
originallyPersian，itdoesnotappeartobeinfamiliaruseinPersiaatpresent。Therightofhereditarysuccessiontothis
intermediateinterestcannothavebeenfullyrecognisedforanyverylongperiod。Chardinstatesthatinhistimethepractice
oftakingleasesfor99yearsfromthecrownwasonlybeginningtoestablishitself。Bernierdistinctlydeniesthatsuchathing
asprivatepropertyinlandwasknowninPersia。Theinterestsofthisclassofmenhavenaturallygatheredstrengthand
permanenceinPersia。evenmorerapidlythaninIndia，fromthenecessityofadvancesforthepurposesofirrigation，which
wereusuallymadebythem。Theirrighttothetenthoftheproduceseemstobenowsocompletelyseveredfromtheduties
ofcollection，thatthejealousyofthePersianmonarchsforbidsthemsometimeseventoresideintheirvillages，toprevent，it
issaid，theirtyrannizingovertheryots，12moreprobablytogetridoftheirinterferenceinresistingtheexactionsofthegovernmentofficers，whichitisfoundtheycandomoreeffectuallythantheryotsthemselves。13TherearepersonsinPersiawhoboast，perhapswithtruth，thattheseestates，astheycallthem，havebeeninthehandsof
theirfamilyforalongsuccessionofyears。DidthereexistarealbodyoflandedproprietorsinPersia，assecureinthe
possessionoftheirheritageasthesemenareintheirlimitedinterests，thedespotismoftheShahwouldatoncebeshackled。
Butmenentitledtocollectone-tenthoftheproducefromtenantshereditarylikethemselves，whilethegreatsovereign
proprietoriscollectingafifthatthesametime，arelittlelikelytoacquireaninfluenceinthecountry，sufficienttoprotect
eitherthesubordinateryotsorthemselves；andaccordinglythechiefweightofwhatisprobablyoneoftheworst
governmentsintheworld，restsuponthenecksofthecultivators。\"ThereisnoclassofmensaysFraserwhosesituation
presentsamoremelancholypictureofoppressionandtyrannythanthefarmersandcultivatorsofthegroundinPersia。They
livecontinuallyunderasystemofextortionandinjustice，fromwhichtheyhavenomeansofescape，andwhichisthemore
distressing，becauseitisindefinitebothinformandextent，fornomancantellwhen，
how，ortowhatamountdemandsupon
himmaywithoutwarningbemade。Itisuponthefarmersandpeasantrythatthewholeextortionpractisedinthecountry
finallyalights。Thekingwringsfromhisministersandgovernors；theymustprocurethesumsrequiredfromtheheadsof
districts，whointheirturndemanditfromthezabutsorketkhodahsofvillages，andthesemustatlastsqueezeitfromthe
ryots；eachoftheseintermediateagentsmustalsohavetheirprofits，sothatthesumreceivedbythekingbearssmall
proportiontothatwhichispaidbytheryots。Everytax，everypresent，everyfine，fromwhomsoeverreceivedordemanded
inthefirstinstance，ultimatelyfallsonthem，andsuchisthecharacteroftheirrulers，thattheonlymeasureofthesedemands
isthepowertoextortontheonehand，andtheabilitytogiveorretainontheother。\"14
SECTIONIV。
OnRyotRentsinTurkey。WhentheTurks，aftersubduingtheprovincesoftheGreekEmpire，finallyquarteredthemselvesuponitsruins，the
foundationoftheirsystemofrevenueandgovernment，likethatofotherTartartribes，resteduponanassumptionthattheirleaderhadbecomethelegitimateproprietoroftheconqueredsoil。Therentimposeduponthecultivatorsappearstohavebeenoriginallycalculatedatone-tenthofthegrossproduce；andthe
estimatedvalueofeachdistrict，atthatrate，wasataveryearlydateregisteredinthetreasury。Theregistersarestillused，in
accountingwiththePachasofthedifferentprovinces。Butastherentpaidbyeachdistrictnevervaries，whateverchanges
takeplaceinitscultivation，thedecayofagricultureandpopulationhasloadedmanyofthepeasantswithmuchheavier
burthensthantheyatfirstbore。One-seventhoftheproducewherethecultivatorisaTurk，onefifthwhereheisaChristian，
haveappearedtolatertravellersinGreecetobeabouttheaverageactualpaymenttothecrown。
TheviolencewithwhichtheTurksexemplifiedinpracticetheirAsiaticnotionsofthesupremerightoftheirleadertothesoil，willbebestjudgedofbytheirnextmeasure。TheSultangrantedaconsiderableportionofhisproprietaryrightstoothers，forthepurposeofformingasortoffeudal
militia。Theofficersofrankreceivedallotmentsoflandcalledziametsandtimars，inwhichtheirrightsrepresentthoseofthe
sovereign，andthenumbercreatedoftheseexceeded50，000。Theziametdifferedfromthetimarsonlyinbeinglarger。For
thesegrantstheywereboundtoperformmilitaryservices，withaspecifiednumberofmen。Theirforcesconstituted，tillthe
riseoftheJanissaries，themainforceoftheEmpire，andamounteditissaidto150，000men。Similargrantsareknownin
IndiabythenameofIaghires，inPersiabythatofTeecools，buttheywereestablishedlesssystematicallyinthosecountries
thaninTurkey。Theretheselandshaveneverbecomehereditary。Theyarestillstrictlylifehold。Intheearlydaysoftheir
institution，usewasmadeofthemtoexcitemilitaryemulation。Onthedeathofthepossessor，oneofthebravestofhis
comradeswasimmediatelyappointedtohisestate，andonetimarhasbeenknowntobethusgrantedeighttimesinasingle
campaign。15Thedisposalofthem，however，haslongbecomewhollyvenal。AnAganotunfrequentlypurchasesduringhis
lifethegrantofthereversiontohisfamily；butifheneglectstodothis，hisrelativesaredispossessedathisdeath，unless
theyoutbidallotherapplicants。16Withtheexceptionoftheseinterestsforlife，andoftheestatesvestedintheUlemaor
expoundersofMohammedanlaw，therearenodistinctlyrecognizedproprietaryrightsinTurkey。Althoughthere，asamong
theryotsofIndiaandPersia，andelsewherethroughouttheeast，thereexistclaimstothehereditarypossessionofland。
WhilethepeasantpaystotheSultan，ortotheAgatowhoseZaimorTimarhebelongs，thelegalportionofhisproduce，his
righttooccupyandtransmithislandsisnotcontested，andissecure，asfarasanythingissecurethere。InGreecethelands
were，beforethepresentconvulsion，verygenerallycultivatedbytheancientmortitaeormetayertenants，whopaidtothe
Agashalfoftheirproduce。WhetherthelandsthuscultivatedconsistexclusivelyofthedomainlandsattachedtotheAga\'s
Timar，orwhetherthisrentispaidinconsiderationofstockadvancedtotherayah。toenablehimtocultivatebetterthelands
ofwhichbeishimselfthehereditarytenant，Ihavenomaterialsforjudging。Itisprobablethatmortitaearefoundofbothdescriptions。ThereareevidentlysomeadvantagesintheTurkishsystemcomparedwiththoseofIndiaorPersia。Thepermanenceand
moderationofthemiriorlandrent，isaverygreatone。Ifcollectedonanequitablesystem，thatrentwouldbenomorethan
areasonablelandtax，andtheuniversalproprietorshipoftheSultanwouldbereducedtoamerenominalorhonorary
superiority，likethatclaimedbymanyoftheChristianmonarchsofEurope。Wemayadd，thattheTurkishgovernmenthas
neverbeensowhollyunequaltothetaskofcontrollingitsofficers，asthefeebledynastiesofDelhiintheirdecline:norso
rapaciousandcapriciousinitsownexactionsastheShahsofPersia:butitscomparativemoderationandstrengthhave
remaineduselesstoitsunhappysubjects，fromadegreeofsupinenessandindifferenceas
tothemalversationsofitsdistant
officers，whichmaybetraced，partlyperhapstothebigotrywhichhasmadethecommanderofthefaithfulcarelessaboutthe
treatmenthisChristiansubjectsreceivedfromMahometanofficers:andpartlytoanobstinateignoranceoftheordinaryarts
ofcivilizedgovernments，whichthevanityoftheOttomanshascherishedasifitwereamerit，andwhichtheirbigotryhas
alsohelpedtorecommendtotheirgoodopinion。Nearthecapital，andinthecountrieswheretheTurksthemselvesare
numerous，therearesomeboundstotheoppressionofthePachasandAgas。TheTurks，secureofjusticeiftheycancontrive
tobeheardbythesuperiorauthorities，havefoundthemeansofprotectingtheirpersonsandproperties，bybelongingto
societies，whichareboundasbodies，toseekjusticeforthewrongsofindividualmembers。
Butinthedistantprovincesno
sectissafe。Thecryoftheoppressediseasilystifled，andiffaintlyheard，seemshabituallydisregarded。TheSultanindeed
abstains，withsingularforbearance，fromanyattemptstoraisetherevenuepaidtohimself；butprovideditisregularly
transmittedbythePachasoftheprovinces，hecareslittlebywhatmeans，orwithwhatadditionalextortions，itiswrung
fromthepeople。Theconsequencesaresuchasmightbeexpected。ThejealousyofthegovernmentallowsthePachasto
remaininofficebutashorttime，theknowledgeofthisinflamestheircupidity，andthewretchedcultivatorsareallowedto
existinpeaceuponthesoil，onlywhiletheysubmittoexactionswhichhavenootherlimitthanthephysicalimpossibilityofgettingmorefromthem。VolneyhasaccuratelydescribedtheeffectofthisstateofthingsinSyriaandEgypt。\"TheabsolutetitleoftheSultantothe
soilappearstoaggravatetheoppressionofhisofficers。Thesonisnevercertainofsucceedingtothefather，andthe
peasantryoftenflyindesperationfromasoilwhichhasceasedtoyieldthemthecertaintyofevenabaresubsistence。
Exactions，undiminishedinamount，aredemanded，andasfaraspossibleextorted，fromthosewhoremain；depopulation
goeson，thewasteextendsitself，anddesolationbecomespermanent。\"Itisthusthatascantyandmostmiserableremnantof
thepeoplearefoundoccupyingtracts，whichwerethegloryofancientcivilization；andofwhichtheclimateandthesoilare
such，thatmenwouldmultiplyandwouldenrich，almostwithouteffort，themselvesandtheirmasters；didthegeneral
governmentthinkfittoprotectitssubjectswithhalftheenergyitsometimesexerts，toforcethespoilerstodisgorgea
miserablepittanceofplunderintotheimperialtreasury。
SECTIONV。
OfRyotRentsinChina。WeknowenoughofChinatobeaware，thatthesovereignisthere，aselsewhereinAsia，thesoleproprietorofthesoil:but
wehardlyknowenoughtojudgeaccuratelyofthepeculiarmodificationswhichthissystemofimperialownershiphas
receivedinthatcountry。ThemannerinwhichtheChinesegovernmentassumespossessionoftheland，andimposesarent
uponitinthecaseofnewconquests，iscuriouslyillustratedbyaletterofavictoriousChinesecommandertotheEmperor，
publishedbyMr。Patton。17Althoughone-tenthoftheproduceisthenominalrentinChina，itisnotunlikelythatavery
differentportionisactuallycollected。Itwouldbeveryinterestingtohavemoremultipliedanddetailedobservationsonthe
practicaleffectsofthesystemamongtheChinese，thanthejealousyofthegovernmentislikelysoontogiveopportunityforobtaining。TheprogressandeffectsofryotrentsinChina，mustalmostnecessarilyhavebeenverydifferentfromthoseexhibitedby
India，Persia，orTurkey。Intheselastcountries，thevicesofthegovernment，andtheoppressionanddegradationresulting
fromthem，haveleftuslittlemeansofjudgingwhatmightbetheresultsofthesystemitself，ifconductedforany
considerableperiodbyanadministrationmoremildandforbearing，andcapableofgivingsecuritytothepersonsand
propertyofthecultivators。InChinathisexperimentseemstohavebeenfairlytried。Theartsofgovernmentare，toacertain
extent，understoodbythelaboriouslyeducatedcivilians，bywhosehandstheaffairsoftheEmpirearecarriedon；thecountry
has，tillverylately，beenremarkablyfreefromintestineconvulsionorseriousforeignwars，andtheadministrationhasbeen
wellorganized，pacificandefficient。ThewholeconductindeedoftheEmpire，presentsastrikingcontrasttothatofthe
neighbouringAsiaticmonarchies，thepeopleofwhich，accustomedtoseeviolenceandbloodshed
thecommoninstruments
ofgovernment，expressgreatwonderatthespectacleoftheChinesestatesmenupholdingtheauthorityofthestateratherby
thepenthanthesword。18Oneeffectweknowtohavefollowedfromthepublictranquillity:thespreadofagriculture，and
anincreaseofpeoplemuchbeyondthatoftheneighbouringcountries。WhilenotonehalfofIndiahaseverbeenreclaimed，andlessstillofPersia，Chinaisasfullycultivated，andmorefullypeopledthanmostEuropeanmonarchies。Whetheranyclassofsubordinateproprietorsexistsbetweenthecrownandthepersonspayingproducerentsliketothe
Zemindars，ofIndia；whetherthepersonsactuallyliableforthepro。ducerents，arethecultivatingpeasantsthemselves，ora
classabovethem，wehavenosufficientdatatodetermine。Insomecases，atleast，theactualcultivatorsarepersonshiringthegroundfromthoseliableforthecrown，andpayingthemhalftheproduce。ThereareabundantindicationsthattheChinesepopulationhas，insomepartsoftheEmpire，increasedbeyondthenumber
forwhichtheterritorycanproduceaplentifulsubsistence，andthattheyareinastateofthemostwretchedpenury。Thevery
facilitiesforincreasewhichgoodgovernmentgivestoaryotpopulation，willusuallybefollowedbysuchaconsequence，if
intheprogressoftheirmultiplicationacertainadvancehasnottakenplaceinthehabitsandcivilizationofthemassofthe
people。Theabsenceofthatimprovementmayflowfromvariouscauses，whichinunfoldingthesubjectofpopulation，itwill
bepartofourbusinesstodistinguish。WeknowenoughofChinatobesure，thatobstaclestothe
ameliorationofthehabits
andcharacterofthemassofthepeople，existinabundancethere，andthereforetherapidspreadofpopulation，uptoa
certainpoint，wouldcertainlybethefirsteffectofamildadministration。AccordingtoKiaproth，thenumberofryots
paysanscontribuablesatthetimeoftheMantchouconquestin1644，wasregisteredastwenty-sixmillions，whileallother
classeswereestimatedatelevenmillions。Andsincethattimehecalculatesthatthewholepopulationhasquadrupled。
TherevenueofChinaamountstoabouteighty-fourmillionsofouncesofsilver。Ofthisrevenue，aboutthirty-threemillions
ispaidinmoney，andaboutfifty-onemillionsingrains，rice，&；c。，consumedforthemostpartbythelocaladministrationof
theprovinces。Aportiononly，ofthevalueofaboutsixmillionsofounces，isannuallyremittedtoPekin。Thereceiptofthis
hugerevenue，intheprimitiveshapeofagriculturalproduce，isastrikingproofthatthepowerandmeansoftheEmperorof
China，likethoseofothereasternsovereigns，areintimatelyconnectedwith，orratherfoundedon，hisrightsasuniversalproprietorofthesoil。19ThereareotherconsiderablecountriesinAsiainwhichwehavegoodreasontoconclude，thatryotrentsprevail；consisting，
first，ofthecountriesbetweenHindostanandChina，theBirmanEmpire，anditsdependencies，CochinChina，&；c。；and，
secondly，ofthestatesinhabitedbyagriculturalTartars，northoftheHimalayamountainsandeastofPersia，Samarcan，
Bokhara，andthestatesofLittleBucharia:butthepeculiarmodificationsthesystemmayreceiveinthesecountries，andthe
detailsoftherelationstherebetweenlandlordandtenant，areatpresentevenmoreoutofourreachthaninthecaseof
China。
SECTIONVI。
MixtureofotherRentswithRyot。Onexamining，whereweareabletodoitminutely，thestateofthecountriesinwhichryotrentsprevail，weareimmediately
struckwiththefact，thattheyaresometimesmixedupwithbothlaborrentsandmetayerrents。Thelandthenpresentsa
strangecomplicationofinterests。Thereisanhereditarytenant，liabletoaproducerenttothecrown，andbycustomand
prescriptionirremoveablewhilehepaysit。Thissametenant，receivingsomeassistanceinseedandimplements，paysa
secondproducerenttoanotherperson，whosecharacterfluctuatesbetweenthatofanhereditaryofficerofthecrown，and
thatofasubordinateproprietor；andsometimesathirdrentispaidtothissubordinateproprietor，inlabor，exertedonlandcultivatedforhisexclusivebenefit。Tobeginwiththelaborrents，thusengraftedonryotrents。TheRyotofBengaloftengrantsaplotofhisgroundtoa
ploughmanwhoassistshim。Thisisapurelaborrent，paidbytheunder-tenant。TheZemindarsoftendemandfromtheryots
themselves，acertainquantityoflabor，tobeperformedontheirdomainlands。Thisdemandisoftenexcessive，andisthe
sourceofgrievousoppressionandfrequentcomplaint，bothinIndiaandPersia。Whenmoderatehowever，itisconsidered
legal，andthenformsanotherlaborrent，paidbytheryothimself。TheAgasofTurkeyoftenforcetherayahsoftheirZaims
orTimars，toperformacertainnumberofdays\'workontheirownprivatefarms。Thisisunquestionablyaltogetheranillegalexaction；butissocustomarythatitmustbecountedinpracticeasanadditionalrent。MetayerrentstoohaveaconstanttendencytospringupandengraftthemselvesonryotrentsthroughoutAsia，whereverthe
moderationandefficiencyofthegovernmentissuchastoensureprotectiontothepropertyadvancedtothecultivator，or
wherevertherelationofthepartyadvancingstocktothecultivator，issuchastogiveapeculiarpowerofenforcing
payment，andapeculiarinterestinassistingcultivation。BoththegovernmentandtheZemindarsinIndiaoccasionally
advanceseedandstocktotheryot。Thegovernmentreluctantly，andonlywhenitcannotavoidit:thelandsthuscultivated
onthepartofgovernment，arecalledcossandcomar；andtogetthemintothehandsofryots，whocancultivatethemselves，
seemstohavebeenalwaysanobjectofpolicy。TheZemindarsmorereadilyandhabituallymakesuchadvances，andastheir
shareoftheproduceisthenregulatedwhollybytheirprivatebargainwiththeryot，henodoubtisoccasionallymuch
oppressed:butthisisnotalwaysthecase。InPersiaparticularly，thisarrangementisconsideredthebestforthetenant；
becauseinthatcountry，itisonlyinthiscase，thattheZemindarorsubordinateproprietorundertakestowardoffthe
extortionoftheofficersofthecrown，andtosettlewiththemhimself。
SECTIONVII。
SummaryofRyotRents。Thereisnothingmischievousinthedirecteffectofryotrents。Theyareusuallymoderate；andwhenrestrictedtoatenth，or
evenasixth，fifth，orfourthoftheproduce，ifcollectedpeacefullyandfairly，theybecomeaspeciesoflandtax，andleave
thetenantabeneficialhereditaryestate。Itisfromtheirindirecteffects，therefore，andfromtheformofgovernmentinwhich
theyoriginate，andwhichtheyservetoperpetuate，thattheyarefullofevil，andarefoundinpracticemorehopelesslydestructiveofthepropertyandprogressofthepeople，thananyformoftherelationoflandlordandtenantknowntous。Theproprietaryrightsofthesovereign，andhislargeandpracticallyindefiniteinterestintheproduce，preventtheformation
ofanyreallyindependentbodyontheland。Bythedistributionoftherentswhichhisterritoryproduces，themonarch
maintainsthemostinfluentialportionoftheremainingpopulationinthecharacterofcivilormilitaryofficers。Thereremain
onlytheinhabitantsofthetownstointerposeachecktohispower:butthemajorityofthesearefedbytheexpenditureof
thesovereignorhisservants。Weshallhaveafitteropportunitytopointout，howcompletelytheprosperity，orratherthe
existence，ofthetownsofAsia，proceedsfromthelocalexpenditureofthegovernment。Asthecitizensarethusdestitute
fromtheirpositionofrealstrength，sotheAsiaticsovereigns，havingnobodyofpowerfulprivilegedlandedproprietorsto
contendwith，havenothadthemotiveswhichtheEuropeanmonarchshad，tonurseandfosterthetownsintoenginesof
politicalinfluence，andthecitizensareproverbiallythemosthelplessandprostrateoftheslavesofAsia。Thereexistsnothing
thereforeinthesocietybeneathhim，whichcanmodifythepowerofasovereign，whoisthesupremeproprietorofa
territorycultivatedbyapopulationofryotpeasants。Allthatthereisofrealstrengthinsuchapopulation，lookstohimas
thesolesourcenotmerelyofprotectionbutofsubsistence:heisbyhispositionandnecessarilyadespot。Buttheresultsof
Asiaticdespotismhaveeverbeenthesame:whileitisstrongitisdelegated，anditspowerabusedbyitsagents；whenfeeble
anddeclining，thatpowerisviolentlysharedbyitsinferiors，anditsstolenauthorityyetmoreabused。Initsstrengthandin
itsweaknessitisalikedestructiveoftheindustryandwealthofitssubjects，andalltheartsofpeace；anditisthiswhich
makesthatpeculiarsystemofrents，onwhichitspowerrests，particularlyobjectionableandcalamitoustothecountriesinwhichitprevails。Incountriescultivatedbyryots，thewagesofthemainbodyofthepeoplearedeterminedbytherenttheypay，asisthecase
itwillberememberedunderallvarietiesofpeasantrents。Thequantityofproducebeingdeterminedbythefertilityofthe
soil，theextentofhisallotmentsofland，andtheskill，industry，andefficiencyoftheryot:thedivitionofthatproduceonwhichhiswagesdepend，isdeterminedbyhiscontractwiththelandlord，thatis，bytherenthepays。Inlikemannertheamountofrentinsuchcountriesisdeterminedbytheamountofwages。Theamountoftheproducebeing
decidedasbefore，thelandlord\'sshare，therent，dependsuponthecontracthemakeswiththelaborer，thatis，upontheamountdeductedaswages。Theexistenceandprogressofrentsundertheryotsystemisinnodegreedependentupontheexistenceofdifferentqualities
ofsoil，ordifferentreturnstothestockandlaboremployedoneach。Thesovereignproprietorhasthemeansofenablinga
bodyoflaborerstomaintainthemselves，whowithoutthemachineryoftheearthwithwhichhesuppliesthem，muststarve。Thiswouldsecurehimashareintheproduceoftheirlabor，thoughallthelandswereperfectlyequalinquality。Ryotrentsmayincreasefromtwocauses，fromanincreaseofthewholeproduce，effectedbythegreaterskill，industry，and
efficiencyofthetenant:orfromanincreaseofthesovereign\'sproportionoftheproduce；theproduceitselfremainingthesame，andthetenant\'ssharebecomingless。Whentherentincreasesandtheproduceremainsstationary，theincreaseindicatesnoaugmentationofpublicwealth。There
hasbeenatransferofwealth，butnoincreaseofit；andonepartyisimpoverishedbythepreciseamountthatanotheris
enriched。Butwhenryotrentsincreasebecausetheproducehasbecomelarger，thecountryisenrichedbyanadditionof
wealthtothefullamountoftheincrease。Itspowerofmaintainingfleetsandarmies，andalltheelementsofpublicstrength，
havebeenaugmentedtothatextent；therehasbeenarealincreaseofwealth，notameretransferofwhatbeforeexisted，
fromonehandtoanother。Suchanincreasetooindicatesanaugmentationoftherevenuesoftheryotsthemselves。Ifthetenthorsixthofthesovereignhasdoubled，thenine-tenthsorfive-sixthsoftheryothavedoubledalso。Theincreaseofrentswhichisthusseentogohandinhandwiththe，improvementofthegeneralwealthandstrength，isthat
whichaloneinthelongruncanreallybenefitthelandlord。Whileanincreaseofproducerentshasitssourceingreatercrops，
itmaygoontilltheskillofmanandthefertilityoftheearthhavereachedtheirmaximum，thatis，indefinitely。Asiatic
tenants，cultivatingwiththeirownsoilandclimate，andtheskillandenergyofthebestEuropeanfarmers，mightcreate
producemuchgreaterthananyyetknowninthatquarteroftheglobe，andbegreatlyimprovingtheirownrevenuewhile
theywerepayingincreasedrentstothesovereign。Andwhiletheprosperityoftheryotsthuskeptpacewiththeincreaseof
rents，theresultwouldbe，notmerelyanincreaseofthecropsonthelandsalreadycultivated，buttherapidspreadof
cultivationtootherlands。Aprotectedandthrivingandincreasingpopulationwouldspeedily
reclaimtherichwastesof
TurkeyandIndia，andcallbacktheirvanishedfertilitytothedesertedplainsofPersia，multiplyingateverystepboththe
directrevenueofthesovereignlandlord，andhisresourcesinthegeneralwealthofhispeople。TakingAsiaasawhole，such
aprogressseemsvisionary，butitisoccasionallyexhibited，onasmallerscale，inamannerwhichverydistinctlyprovesit
possible，andindeedeasyonthegreatest。20Anincreaseofrentsderivedfromastationaryproduce，andadiminutionofthe
ryot\'sshare，areunfortunatelymorecommoninAsia，andleadtonosuchresults。Inthestateinwhichtheryotsusually
exist，todecreasetheirrevenueistoinjureifnottodestroytheirefficiencyasagentsofcultivation。Aseriousinvasionofitis
veryusuallyfollowed，andcarriedtoacertainextentitmustbefollowed，bythedesertionofthecultivatorsandthe
abandonmentofcultivation，andatotalcessationofrent。Thegreedinessofeasternrulersordinarilysnatchesatthebaitof
presentgain，andoverlooksordisregardstheverydifferentultimateconsequenceswhichfollowtheaugmentingtheirlanded
revenues，fromtheone，orfromtheother，ofthesesourcesofincrease。HenceinagreatmeasuretheactualstateofAsia，the
miseryofthepeople，thepovertyandfeeblenessofthegovernments。Anexaminationintothenatureandeffectsofryot
rents，receivesarealmostmournfulinterestfromtheconviction，thatthepoliticalandsocialinstitutionsofthepeopleofthis
largedivisionoftheearth，arelikelyformanylongagesyettocome，torestuponthem。Wecannotunveilthefuture，but
thereislittleinthecharacteroftheAsiaticpopulation，whichcantemptuseventospeculateuponatime，whenthatfuture，withrespecttothem，willessentiallydifferfromthepastandthepresent。1。TheyhavebeenintroducedbyAsiaticsintoTurkeyinEurope。TheyexistinEgypt；andmayperhapshereafterbetracedinAfrica。2。Elphinstone\'sCaubul，Vol。II。p。215。Whenthepeoplearecollectedintocamps，theyaregovernedbytheirown
Mooshirs，withoutanyreferencetotheKhaun，andwhentheyarescatteredoverthecountry，theysubsistwithoutany
governmentatall:butwhenamarchiscontemplated，theyimmediatelysubmittotheKhaun，andwheretheyhavetopassan
enemy\'scountry，heisappointedheadoftheChelwashtees，assumesanabsoluteauthority，andbecomesanobjectofrespect