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　　change，thegovernmentshavejoinedheartily。Awishtoextendtheauthorityandprotectionofthegeneralgovernmentover

　　themassofcultivators，andtoincreasetheirefficiency，andthroughthatthewealthandfinancialresourcesofthestate，has

　　ledthedifferentsovereignsalwaystoco-operate，andoftentotakethelead，inputtinganendtothepersonaldependenceof

　　theserf；andmodifyingthetermsofhistenure。Tothesereasonsofthesovereignsandlandlords，dictatedbyobvious

　　self-interest，wemustaddothermotiveswhichdohonortotheircharactersandtotheage，theexistenceofwhichitwould

　　beamereaffectationofhard-heartedwisdomtodoubt；namely，apaternaldesireonthepartofsovereignstoelevatethe

　　condition，andincreasethecomforts，ofthemostnumerousclassofthehumanbeingscommitted

　　totheircharge；anda

　　philanthropicdislikeonthepartoftheproprietorstobesurroundedbyaraceofwretcheddependents，whosedegradation

　　andmiseryreflectdiscreditonthemselves。Thesefeelingshaveproducedthefermentationonthesubjectoflaborrents，

　　whichisatthismomentworkingthroughoutthelargedivisionofEuropeinwhichtheyprevail。Fromthecrownlandsin

　　Russia，throughPoland，41Hungary，andGermany，therehavebeenwithinthelastcentury，orarenow，plansandschemes

　　onfoot，eitheratonceorgraduallytogetridofthetenure，orgreatlytomodifyitseffects，andimproveitscharacter；andif

　　thewishes，ortheauthority，ofthestate，oroftheproprietors，couldabolishthesystemandsubstituteabetterinitsplace，it

　　wouldvanishfromthefaceofEurope。Theactualpovertyoftheserfs，however，andthedegradationoftheirhabitsof

　　industry，presentaninsurmountableobstacletoanygeneralchangewhichistobecompleteandsudden。Intheirimperfect

　　civilizationandhalfsavagecarelessness，thenecessityoriginatedwhichforcedproprietorsthemselvestoraise，theproduce

　　onwhichtheirfamiliesweretosubsist。Thatnecessityhasnotceased；thetenantryarenotyetripeinsomeinstances，not

　　riperthantheywere1000yearsagotobeentrustedwiththeresponsibilityofraisingandpayingproducerents。Butasthe

　　pastprogressandactualcircumstancesofdifferentdistrictsarefoundunlike，sotheircapacityforpresentchangediffersin

　　kindanddegree。Hencethegreatvarietyobservableinplansforalteringtherelationsbetween

　　theserftenantryandtheir

　　landlords。SuchavarietyisexhibitedintheUrbariumofMariaTheresa，intheedictbywhichtheviewsoftheLivonian

　　nobilityweremadelaw；intheconstitutionofPoland，andinthedecreesofthesovereignsofsmallerdistricts。The

　　ameliorationsproducedbythesestepsarevaluable，if，afterhavingworkedsuccessfullyforsometime，theypreparetheway

　　fortwogreatmeasureswhicharetheaimofallpartiesinamoreadvancedstateofsociety，thatis，first，thegeneral

　　commutationoftherevenuederivedfromtheallotmentsoftheserfsintoproducerents，andthen，theestablishmentonthe

　　domainsheldbytheproprietorsthemselvesofaraceoftenantryabletorelievethemfromthetask

　　ofcultivation，andtopay

　　eitherproduceormoneyrents。Buttheseresultsaredifficultanddistant。Themannerinwhichsuchachangewaseffectedin

　　England，isthatinwhichitismosteasyandsafe。Itwasthegrowthofcenturies；ittookplaceinsensibly:thevilleinswe

　　knowgraduallyassumedthecharacterofcopyholderspayingfixeddues，whichagainwereslowlycommutedformoney:in

　　themeantime，thegrowthofthefreepopulationmultipliedthenumbersofhiredlaborers，bywhoseassistancethe

　　proprietorsmightcultivatetheirdomains，withoutserflabor；andtheincreaseandprogressiveprosperityofanintermediate

　　classofagriculturalcapitalistssupplied，afteralonginterval，araceofmenfittedtorelievetheproprietorsfromthecharge

　　ofagriculturealtogether，andenabledtopaytheirrentsinmoneyfromtheincreaseofinternalcommerce，andofthemarket

　　providedbynon-agriculturalclassesfortheirproduce。Aprocesssimilartothishasbeengoingoninthewesternpartof

　　Germany，thoughitisyetfarindeedfrombeingcompletethere。TheenslavedserfhasbecomeafreeLeibeigenerwithfixed

　　services:theLeibeigenerischanginggraduallyintoameyer，whoseservicesarecommutedforproduceormoney；some

　　few42freelaborersexist，andarehiredbytheproprietorswhofarmtheirdomains；andofthesedomainsanewraceof

　　tenantryareinsomeinstancesbeginningtotakepossession，advancingthenecessarycapital，payingmoneyrents，anddischargingtheland-ownersfromallshareinthetaskofcultivation。Inthemeantime，itisnotsurprisingthatthesovereignsandproprietorsofcountriesfurthereast，whoseethisprocess

　　hardlybegunamongstthemselves，andknowthatitmaytakecenturiestocompleteitself，shouldfeelimpatientofsuchdelayinthecareeroftheirimprovement，anddetermineforciblytoanticipatetheslowadvanceofunpurposedchange。ThePrussiangovernmenthastakenthemostdecisiveandextensivemeasuresinthisspirit。Throughoutagreatpartof

　　Prussia，theserfshadacquiredprescriptiverights，eithertothehereditarypossessionoftheirallotments，ortothe

　　occupationofthemforlife；rights，whichthoughimperfect，madeanymarkedchangedifficult。Todeclaretheserfsmere

　　tenantsatwill，wouldhavehadtheappearanceofgreatharshness，andcouldnotprobablyhavebeen

　　attemptedonalarge

　　scale，withoutviolenceandconvulsion。Todeclarethemproprietorsofthesoiltheyoccupied，wasnotdoingjusticetothe

　　fairclaimsofthelandowners。Thegovernmentsteeredamiddlecourse。In1811laborrentstotheeastoftheElbewere

　　suppressed，anditwasdecided，thatthepeasantswhohadacquiredanhereditaryrighttotheirallotmentsshouldpaythe

　　proprietorsathirdoftheproduce:thatthosewhohadonlyaclaimtoalifeholdpossessionshouldpayhalftheproduce:thepeasantsweretofindallcapitalandtopayallexpencesandtaxes。43Theserentsareheavy:halftheproduce，thetenantsprovidingcapitalandpayingallexpences，istheheaviestrentknownin

　　Europe，。withtheexceptionofthosepaidbytheNeapolitanmetayers，whosesoilwillbearnocomparisonwiththePrussian

　　sands，andisinfactunrivalledforproductivenessandeasytillage。Itisnotsurprisingthatsomeoftheserfsshouldhave

　　declinedtoaccedetothearrangement，althoughitdeliveredthemfromastateofvirtual44bondage，andguaranteedtheirrighttopossession。Twogreatobjectsweresoughtbythisarrangement；theimprovementoftheconditionofthepeasantry，andthepromotion。

　　ofgoodagricultureamongtheproprietors。Itsimmediateeffectshavebeentodividethesurfaceofthecountrybetweena

　　raceofsmallproprietorssubjecttoaheavyrentcharge，andabodyoflargelandholdersfarmingtheirowndomains。That

　　theconditionofthepeasantswillbeatfirstimproved，supposingthemnottobeweigheddownbytherents，issufficiently

　　clear；theirfutureprogress，however，justifiessomeapprehensions:theyareexactlyintheconditioninwhichtheanimal

　　disposition45toincreasetheirnumbersischeckedbythefewestofthosebalancingmotivesanddesireswhichregulatethe

　　increaseofsuperiorranksorofmorecivilizedpeople，andifthetoogreatsubdivision

　　oftheirallotmentsisnotguarded

　　againstintime，theywillprobably，inthecourseofaveryfewgenerations，bemoremiserablethantheirancestorswereas

　　serfs，andwillcertainlybemorehopelessandhelplessintheirmisery，sincetheywillhavenolandlordtoresortto。Inthe

　　meantimearaceoffreelaborerswilldoubtlessspringup，withwhoseassistancetheproprietorsmayinstituteabetter

　　courseofhusbandryontheirdomains，buttheywillstillhavetoprovidecapital，attention，andscience，andinthetwofirstof

　　theseitistobefearedthat，asabody，theywillalwaysbedeficient。Moreadvancesmustbemadebytheminmoneythan

　　whentheycultivatedwiththeassistanceoftheirserfs，andthiscircumstancewillincreasetheirdifficultiesandmultiplythe

　　chancesoftheirfailure。Afterall，thetaskofcultivationisungenialtothem。Theirobjectswithneverbefullyattainedtilla

　　raceoftenantryappears，abletoadvancethenecessarycapitalandundertakeforamoneyrent。Thesearelikelytoappear

　　slowlyinPrussia，eventhoughtheyshouldappeartheremuchlessslowlythaninsomeofthesurroundingnations。Thebody

　　ofthepeasants，itistolerablyevidentalready，willnotgrowrichenoughtosupplythem，andtheymustspringoutofthe

　　bosomofotherclasses。Thecomparativenumbers，andthereforejointwealthofthese，aresmall，andtheprocess，bywhichtheycanbecomethefarmersofallthedomainsofanextensivecountry，mustbeslowindeed。Inthemeantime，therewillbegreatdifferencesinthisrespectbetweendifferentpartsofGermany。Amtmen，whooccupy

　　theland，notasagents，buttenants，arealreadycommoninsomestates:inothersalmostunknown。Thosedistrictsofcourse

　　willprofitthemostrapidlyandlargelybythelatechanges，whichwereapproachingthemselvestotheconditioninwhich

　　theyarenowplaced，andwereprovidedwithsomeoftheelementsofanewandbetterstateofthings。Thoseinwhichthe

　　actualchangeswerepreparedbynospontaneousadvances，willforsometimedisappoint，itistobefeared，inagreat

　　degree，thebenevolentimpatienceofthosestatesmen，whowishedtospeedthemforciblyinpathsofimprovement，whichtheyarenotfullgrownandstrongenoughtotreadsteadily。Leavinghoweverindividualinstances，andsurveyingthewholebroadmassoflaborrentsthroughoutthatlargerdivisionof

　　Europeinwhichtheystillpreponderate，eitherentire，orindifferentstagesofdecomposition，itwillbesufficientlyobvious，

　　thatsomeagesmustelapse，beforethosenewelementsofsocietyareperfected，andthatbetterstateofthingsmatured，in

　　whichthismodeoftenureisdestinedfinallytomerge。Foralongandindefiniteperiodnowbeforeus，therefore，theancient

　　systemofserfrents，modifiedinitsforms，butenduringinitseffects，willimprintmuchoftheircharacteronthoseimperfect

　　institutionswhichareslowlyspringingupfromitsdecay。ThefutureprogressofeasternEurope，thesourcesofitswealth，

　　andstrength，andalltheelementsofitssocialandpoliticalinstitutions，willcontinuetobemainlyinfluencedbytheresultsof

　　thegradualalterationsnowtakingplaceinthoserelationsbetweentheproprietorsandcultivatorsofthesoil，whichhave

　　hithertoformedtherudebondbywhichsocietyhasbeenheldtogether。Theprogress，however，ofthis，thelargerpartofthe

　　mostimportantdivisionoftheglobe，mustforsomegenerationsbeaspectacleofdeepinteresttous，totheirimmediate

　　westernneighbours，andtoallthenations，infact，whohavehithertokepttheleadinthecareerofEuropeancivilization。We

　　seethemassesofpeople`whooccupytheeasternandnortherndivisionofourquarteroftheearth，stirringandinstinctwith

　　anewspiritoflifeandpower，beginningtoacquirefreshintellectandalessshackledindustry，andtounfoldmoreefficiently

　　themoralandphysicalcapabilitiesoftheirhugeterritories。TheyalreadyassumeastationinEuropesomewhatproportioned

　　totheextentoftheirnaturalresources；andthefateofthosenationswhichhavehithertobeenthedepositariesofthecivilizationofthemodernworld，isforthefutureinseparablyconnectedwithevents，whichthecareerofthesepowerfulneighboursmustengender。Wecannotbutseehowintimatelythecourseofthatcareerisdependentonpresentandfuture

　　changesinthesystemoflaborrents，andforthiscausesurely，iffornoother，thatsystemdeservesthecarefulattentionofall

　　whomayapplythemselvestothetaskofexplainingthenatureoftherentofland，andexaminingitsinfluenceonthecharacterandfortunesofdifferentnations。Thoseindeed，whovaluewhatiscalledpoliticaleconomy，chieflybecauseitleadstoaninsightintothemannerinwhichthe

　　physicalcircumstances，whichsurroundmanonearth，developeorswayhismoralcharacter，willfeelinterestedonyet

　　highergroundsintracingtheeffectsofasystem，springingoutofthatcommonnecessity，which，foralongperiodinthe

　　growthofnations，bindsthemajorityoftheirpopulationtotheearththeytill；asystem，whichhascontinuedforaseriesof

　　agestostampitspeculiarimpressonthepolitical，theintellectual，andmoralfeaturesofsolargeadivisionofthehuman

　　race。46

　　1。AppendixIII。2。SwedenandNorwaymustbeexcepted。Noinformation，writtenorverbal，whichIhavebeenabletocollect，hasmademe

　　feelsatisfiedthatIunderstandtherealhistoryofthechangesinthetenure，orinthemodeofoccupyingthesoil，whichhave

　　takenplaceinthosecountries。IcanonlysuspectthattheprogressofSwedenintheserespectshasresembled，insome

　　measure，thatoftheGermannations:whilethatofNorwayhasbeendistinctandverypeculiar。Laborrents，however，undervariousmodificationshavebeen，andarenow，knowninbothcountries。3。SeeBrightsdescriptionofwhattakesplaceinHungaryevennow，althoughtheAustriangovernmenthasinterposedtoprotect，toacertainextent，therightofthepeasantry。Bright\'sHungary。p。114。AppendixIV4。GeneralBoltinwasencouragedbyCatharineIItopublishinRussiasomeresearchesontheoriginofslaveryinRussia，

　　andassuchwashisconclusion，itrestscertainlyonnomeanauthority。BeforethetimeofBorisGodounoff，GeneralBoltin

　　asserts，thattheonlyrealslavesinRussiawereprisonerstakenfromanenemy，andthatthepeasantswerereducedto

　　slaveryasservisafterthatepoch。Storch，Vol。VI。p。310。

　　5。SeeGamba，Voy。danslaRuss。Tom。II。p。84。6。HeberlateBishopofCalcuttaquotedbyClarke，Travels，Vol。I。p。165。Thepeasantsbelongingtothenobles，have

　　theirabrockregulatedbytheirmeansofgettingmoney；atanaveragethroughouttheempireofeightortenroubles。Itthen

　　becomesnotarentforland，butadownrighttaxontheirindustry。Eachmalepeasantisobligedbylawtolaborthreedaysin

　　eachweekforhisproprietor。Thislawtakeseffectonhisarrivingattheageoffifteen。Iftheproprietorchoosestoemploy

　　himontheotherdayshemay；as，forexample，inamanufactory；buthethenfindshiminfoodandclothing。Mutual

　　advantagehowevergenerallyrelaxesthislaw；andexceptingsuchasareselectedfordomesticservants，or，asabove，are

　　employedinmanufactories，theslavepaysacertainabrockorrent，tobeallowedtoworkalltheweekonhisownaccount。Themasterisboundtofurnishhimwithahouseandacertainportionofland。7。Thisprivilegewasgivenin1801，andin1810thepeasantsofthecrownhadpurchasedlandstothevalueoftwomillions

　　ofroublesinBankassignations。Duringthesameperiod，alltheotherclassesnotbeingnoblehadonlypurchasedtothe

　　amountof3……611……000roublesinthesamepapermoney。

　　8。Foramoredetailedaccountofthesealterations，seeStorch，Vol。VI。Notexix。p。266。

　　9。Storch，Vol。IV。p。299。

　　10。Storch，Vol。IV。P。296。

　　11。Bright\'sHungary，p。110。ThepopulationofHungaryamountsbythelastreturnstonearlytenmillions。12。Intheyear1777，thewholenumberofhandicraftsmen，theirservants，andapprentices，inHungary，amountedto30，921；

　　andthisnumberdoesnotseem，bymorerecentpartialcalculations，tohavebeenmuchincreased。Bright，p。205。

　　13。Ibid。p。118。14。ThesizeofthesesessionsseemstohavedifferedindifferentpartsofHungary，probablyinproportiontothefertilityofthesoil。15。Besidesthishemustgive4fowls，12eggs，andapfundandahalfofbutter；andeverythirtypeasantsmustgiveonecalf

　　yearly。Hemustalsopayaformforhishouse；mustcutandbringhomeaklafterofwood；mustspininhisfamilysixpfund

　　ofwoolorhemp，providedbythelandlord:andamongfourpeasants，theproprietorclaimswhatiscalledalongjourney，

　　thatis，theymusttransport20centners，each100Frenchpoundsweight，thedistanceoftwoday\'sjourneyoutandhome:

　　andbesidesallthis，theymustpayone-tenthofalltheirproductstothechurch，andone-ninthtothelord。

　　16。Bright，p。115。

　　17。Storch，Vol。VI。p。308。Bright。

　　18。SeeBright。

　　19。Storch。Vol。VI。p。308。20。Schmalz，Econ。Polit。Frenchtranslation，Vol。II。p。109。Sansdoute，cesontlesproprietaireseux-m&ecirc；mes，quiont

　　donn&eacute；lieu&agrave；ladefensequileura&eacute；t&eacute；faitedereprendreleursfermesdesmainsdeleurpaysans，parcequ\'ilsontcherch&eacute；，et

　　qu\'ilssontparvenus，Asefaired&eacute；greverdesimp&ocirc；tsquelespaysanspaient&agrave；l\'&eacute；tat，etqu\'encons&eacute；quence，l\'&eacute；tatainter&ecirc；t&agrave；

　　s\'opposer&agrave；cequelesfermesenm&eacute；tairiesnesoientpasreuniesaubiennobleduseigneurfoncier，etaffranchiesparl&agrave；delaperceptiondel\'impot。21。TillthereignofCasimirtheGreat，aboutthemiddleofthe14thcentury，thePolishnoblesexercisedovertheirpeasants

　　theuncontrouledpoweroflifeanddeath。Threedays\'labourwastheirusualrentBURNETT\'sView，ofpresentStateofPoland，p。102。22。SeeMr。Jacob\'sFirstReport，p。27。TheAppendixtothisReportcontainssomedetailedreturnsfromthemanagersof

　　Polishestates，andtakenwithMr。Bright\'sbook，presentsaperfectpictureofthepracticalworkingofthesystemoflabor

　　rentsinPolandandinHungary。Foragraphicsketchofthestateofmannersandmoralsithasproduced，thereadermay

　　consultBurnett。InPoland，inAustria，andotherpartsofGermany，theproprietor\'sdomain，withhisimplements，animals，

　　andcapitalofallsorts，aresometimesletatalowmoneyrenttoatenant，togetherwiththe

　　rightofexactingandusingthe

　　laborduefromtheserfs。Thesuperiortenantis，inPoland，veryoftenayoungerbranchofthefamily，occasionallya

　　stranger。Thissubstitutionofanotherpersonascultivatorofthedomain，leaves，however，thelaborrentsoftheserfsour

　　presentobjectpreciselywheretheywere。Itisconsideredaverydisastrousmodeofdisposingofthedomain:thestockand

　　capitalareusually，asmightbeexpected，ruinedattheexpirationofthelease；itisnotnowpractisedextensively；thoughit

　　appearsfromMr。Jacob\'sSecondReport，tobenowspreadingintheNorth-westofGermany。Itmay，however，possibly

　　provehereafter，onestepping-stonetoadifferentsystem；andifthedilapidationofthestockcouldbeeffectuallyguardedagainst，itmostprobablywoulddoso。23。Foraninstanceofthebadresultsofabenevolentbutill-judgedattemptatahastyandcompleteemancipation，seeBurnett，page106。24。NarrativeofDonJuanVonHalen，&amp；c。Vol。II。p。88。DonJuanwasmistakenastothedateofthedecree，whichhad

　　beenissuedsince1804bytheEmperorAlexander，forpartlyemancipatingsomeoftheLivonianserfs。

　　25。Eden，Vol。I。p。7。AppendixV。

　　26。See12thCharlesII。c。24。

　　27。Hodgskin，Vol。11。p。5。\"TheAmtmanfrequentlyunites，\"&amp；c。

　　28。Hodgskin，Vol。II，p。90。

　　29。Schmalz，Vol。I。p。104。

　　30。OntheverypoorsoilsintheGermanprovinceswestoftheRhine，laborrentsstill，Iamtold，prevail。31。ThosewhowishthoroughlytounderstandthespiritandeffectsoftheoldHighlandmodesofdividingandcultivatingthe

　　soil，andtheconsequencesoftheviolentchangeeffectedsince1745，mayconsulttheworkofLordSelkirk，publishedin

　　1805，entitled\"ObservationsonthepresentstateoftheHighlandsofScotland，withaviewofthecausesandprobable

　　consequencesofEmigration；\"itwillberoundable，interesting，andinstructive。

　　32。Schmalz，EconomiePolit。Frenchtranslation。Vol。I。p。66。

　　33。Schmalz，Vol。II。p。103。

　　34。Vol。II。p。107。

　　35。Schmalz，Vol。II。p。107。

　　36。Jacob\'sGermany，p。235。37。TheRussiangovernment，hopingtoremedythislastdefect，establishedabankfortheexpresspurposeofadvancing

　　loanstothenoblestobeemployedinimprovingthecultivationoftheirestates。Theexperimentdidnotsucceed。Thenobles

　　wereobservedtogrowsuddenlymoreexpensive，buttheirestatesremainedastheywere。Storch，Vol。IV。p。288。

　　38。Jacob\'sFirstReport。39。SeeJacob\'sGermany，p。342，foraninstanceofthemannerinwhichtherightsoftheproprietorsarefrustratedwhen

　　theyarebychancedriventothetribunals。TheSaxoncourtsofjusticeseemtobeactuated，whentheyhaveanopportunity

　　tointerferebetweenproprietorandtenant，bythesamebiastowardsfreedomwhichdidhonortothoseofEngland，andseemtootoapproachtheirobjectwithmuchoftheastutenesswhichsuggestedsomeofourownlegalproceedings。40。Hodgskin，Vol。II。p。6。InHanover，someoftheseminutepatrimonialcourtshavebeenabolished；buttherearestill，or

　　were，solateas1819，nolessthan160localtribunalsontheroyaldomain，besidesallthosebelongingtoindividualproprietorsandtotowns。41。IntheworkseveraltimesbeforequotedofMr。Burnett，ofBaliolCollege，Oxford，entitled\"AView，ofthepresent

　　StateofPoland，\"thereaderwillfindsomecuriousdetailsofthestateofloathsomemoraldegradationtowhichthePolish

　　peasantsarereduced。TheauthorwasforsometimeprivatetutorinaPolishfamily。

　　42。Theyareveryfew。43。Differentstatementshavebeenpublishedastothetermsofthisgeneralcommutation。Schmalz，however，whowas

　　\"conseillerintime\"oftheKingofPrussia，andProfessor\"dudroitpublic\"atBerlin，mustbeconsideredunquestionable

　　authority。Schmalz，Vol。II。p。105。

　　44。Personalbondagehadlegallyceasedtoexistfromthe10thNovember，1810。Schmalz，Vol。II。p。103。45。Theactualdispositionofthepopulationtoincreasewithextremerapidityshewsthattheseapprehensionsarefarfromfanciful。SeeJacob\'sSecondReport。46。Whenthesepageswerefirstwritten，IhadnotseentheSecondReportofMr。Jacob，whichhassincebeenpublishedina

　　formsuitedtogeneralcirculation。Thatgentlemanhaslatelybeenonthespot，andhascasthisextremelyacuteandpractised

　　eyeupontheactualconditionandprobableprogressoftheagriculturalportionofeasternEurope。Hehascometoresults

　　remarkablysimilartothosewhichIhadventuredtosuggestfromamoredistantandgeneralknowledgeoftheir

　　circumstances。Thestillpredominantinfluenceoflaborrentsthegeneralwantofcapital

　　amongtheproprietors:therapid

　　increaseinthenumbersofthepeasantcultivatorswhichhasbeentakingplacesincetheirdependenceonthelandlordshas

　　beenlessservile:thefeeblebeneficialeffectsonagricultureandonthegeneralcompositionofsocietywhichintwentyyears

　　havesprungfromthestrongmeasuresofthePrussiangovernment:thedifficultieswhicheverywhereopposethemselvesto

　　allsuddenchangesintheoldsystemofcultivation:thestrongapparentprobabilitythatthefutureprogressintheeasterndivisionofEuropewillnot，withalltheeffortsthataremaking，bemuchmorerapidthanthatofthiscountrywhenemergingfromasimilarstateofthings；allthesearepointsonwhichIcannowreferwithverygreatsatisfactiontothelocal

　　knowledgeandauthorityofMr。Jacob，insupportofthesuggestionsIhaveherethrownout。SeeSecondReportpassim，but

　　moreespecially140andthefollowingpages。

　　CHAP。III。

　　SECT。I。

　　MetayerRents。TheMetayerisapeasanttenantextractinghisownwagesandsubsistencefromthesoil。Hepaysaproducerenttothe

　　owneroftheland，fromwhichheobtainshisfood。Thelandlord，besidessupplyinghimwiththelandonwhichhelives，

　　supplieshimalsowiththestockbywhichhislaborisassisted。Thepaymenttothelandlordmaybeconsidered，therefore，toconsistoftwodistinctportions:oneconstitutestheprofitsofhisstock，theotherhisrent。Thestockadvancedisordinarilysmall。Itconsistsofseed；ofsomerudeimplements；ofthematerialsofotherswhichthe

　　peasantmanufactures；andofsuchmaterialsforhisotherpurposesasthelanditselfaffords；buildingtimber，stone，&amp；c。and

　　occasionallyofsomedraftanimals。Ifnotassistedbytheproductivepowersofthesoil，bythemachineryoftheearth，this

　　stockwouldeitherbewhollyinsufficientforthepermanentmaintenanceofanylaborers，or，turnedintosomeothershape，it

　　wouldprovideforthetemporarysupportofaverysmallnumber。Whenapplied，however，toassistthepeculiarpowersof

　　theearth，thissmallstockisfoundsufficienttoenableanumerousbodyoflaborerspermanentlytomaintainthemselves；and

　　intheproduceoftheirindustrythelandlordshares。Theproducewhichthepossessionoflandhasthusenabledhimto

　　acquire，andwhichwithoutthelandhecouldnothaveacquired，isthatportionoftheannualproduceofthelaborofthe

　　countrywhichfallstohisshareasaland-holder。Itisrent。Therestisprofits。Inthemoreadvancedstagesofcivilization，it

　　iseasytodecideineachparticularcase，whatproportionofthelandlord\'srevenuefromametayerfarmisrent，andwhatproportionprofits。Intheruderstages，itismoredifficult；butweshallhaveoccasiontoadverttothishereafter。Theexistenceofsucharaceoftenantryindicatessomeimprovementinthebodyofthepeople，comparedwiththestateof

　　thingsinwhichserfrentsoriginate。Theyareentrustedwiththetaskofprovidingthefoodandannualrevenueoftheproprietor，withouthissuperintending，orinterferingwith，theirexertions。Themetayer，then，mustbesomewhatsuperiorinskillandcharactertotheserfs，whoseindustrycanbesafelydependedon

　　bytheproprietor，onlywhileexercisedunderhisdirectcontrol，andwhoserentsarethereforepaid，notinproduce，butin

　　labor。Butstilltheadvanceofstockbytheproprietor，andtheabandonmentofthemanagementofcultivationtotheactual

　　laborers，indicatethecontinuedabsenceofanintermediateclassofcapitalists；ofmenabletoadvancefromtheirown

　　accumulationsthefoodofthelaborerandthestockbywhichheisassisted；andthustotakeuponthemselvesthedirection

　　ofagriculture。Themetayersystemindicates，therefore，astateofsociety，advanced，whencomparedwiththatinwhichserfrentsprevail；backward，whencomparedwiththatinwhichrentspaidbycapitalistsmaketheirappearance。Itisfoundspringingupinvariouspartsoftheworld，engraftedoccasionallyontheserfrentswehavebeenreviewing，and

　　moreoftenonthesystemofryotrentswehaveyettoexamine。ButitisinthewesterndivisionofcontinentalEurope，in

　　Italy，Savoy，Piedmont，theValteline，France，andSpain，thatthepuremetayertenantryarethemostcommon，anditisthere

　　thattheyinfluencemostdecidedlythesystemsofcultivationandthoseimportantrelationsbetweenthedifferentordersof

　　society，whichoriginateintheappropriationofthesoil。Intothosecountries，onceprovincesoftheRomanEmpire，they

　　wereintroducedbytheRomans，and，todiscovertheirorigininEurope，wemustturnbackoureyesforaninstantonthe

　　classicalnationsofantiquity。

　　SECTIONII。

　　OfMetayerRentsinGreece。Greece，whenitfirstpresentsmaterialsforauthentichistory，was，forthemostpart，dividedintosmallpropertiescultivated

　　bythelaboroftheproprietors，assistedbythatofslaves。Butbeforeweobservehowthisstateofthingsledthewaytothe

　　establishmentofmetayerrents，itshouldberemarked，thatrelicsofasystemwhicheveninthosedaysborethemarksofantiquity，andwasbecomingobsolete，werestilltobeseeninmanydistrictsofGreece。Irruptionsfromothercountries，astothedetailsofwhichthelearneddisputeinvain，had，previoustotheaeraofhistorical

　　certainty，filledseveralprovincesofGreecewithforeignmasters。Thesepeople，insomeinstancesatleast，foundtheoriginal

　　inhabitantsacquaintedwithagriculture，thetoilsofwhichtheyhadnoinclination，perhapsnotsufficientskill，toshare。They

　　convertedthereforethehusbandmenintoapeculiarspeciesoftenantry，differingfromtheserftenantryofmodemEuropein

　　this，thatthoughattachedtothesoil，andasortofpredialbondsmen，theypaid，not

　　labor，butproducerents，andbelonged，

　　insomeremarkableinstances，nottoindividuals，buttothestate。ThesetenantswerecalledinCretePeriaeci，Mnotae，

　　Aphamiotae；inLaconiaPeriaeciandHelots；inAtticaThetesandPelatae；inThessalyPenestae，andinotherdistrictsbyothernames。1Theproducerents，whichthistenantrywereboundinCretetopaytothegovernment，enabledthelegislatorsofthatisland

　　toestablishpublictablesinthedifferentdistricts，atwhichthefreemenandtheirfamilieswerefed。2Thisinstitution

　　LycurgusestablishedorrenewedatLacedaemon，wherethetablesweresuppliedbytheproduceoftheindustryofthe

　　Helots；andwhereverSyssitiaeorcommontablescanbetraced，itisatleastprobable，thattheyweresuppliedbyasimilarraceoftenants。InAttica，theexistenceoftheThetesorPelataeasthistenantryweretherecalledexercisednosuchinfluenceonthe

　　generalhabitsofthecitizensasitdidinCrete，inSparta，andinotherDorianstates；andwhentheywererestoredbySolontopersonalfreedom，thoughnottothepoliticalrightsofcitizens，thealterationledtonostrikingresults。3ItrequiresindeedsomelittleattentiontodiscerntheirpastexistenceamongtheAthenians；andthedetailsoftheircondition

　　arenowperhapsoutofthereachofresearch。wasthenameappliedindifferently，itshouldseem，bothtotheshare

　　paidasrentandthatretainedbytheThetes。Therentusuallyconsistedofasixthoftheproduce，hencetheirnameof？sometimesitwasafourth，andthenthePelataeweresaid。ThePenestaeofThessalywerea

　　bodyofsimilartenantry。Withtheexceptionofthedistrictsoccupiedbythispeculiarspeciesoftenantry，4andofthelands

　　belongingtotownswhichseemoftentohaveletfortermsofyearsatmoneyrents，thelandsofGreecewereverygenerallyinthepossessionoffreemen，cultivatingsmallpropertieswiththeassistanceofslaves。Slaveswereverynumerous。MendistributedliketheGreeksintosmalltribesofrudefreemen，surroundedbysimilartribes，

　　probablyexhibitthepugnaciousqualitiesofhumannatureinthehighestdegreeknown。Ithasoftenbeenobservedwith

　　truth，thatinsuchastateofsocietytheappearanceofdomesticslaveryindicatesaconsiderablesofteningofthemanners。

　　Whenwarriornationshavefoundoutthemeansofmakingthelaborofcaptivescontribute

　　totheirownease，theypreserve

　　them。Beforetheyhavemadesuchadiscoverytheyputthemtodeath。AmongtheNorthAmericanIndians，thelaborofno

　　manwilldomorethanmaintainhimself；noprofitistobemadeofaslave；hence，unlessthecaptiveisselectedtotakeupon

　　himselfinthecharacterofasonorhusbandthetaskofprotectingandprovidingfoodforafamilydeprivedofitschief，heis

　　invariablyslaughtered。SometribesofTartarsonthebordersofPersiamassacreallthetruebelieverswhofallintotheir

　　hands，butpreserveallhereticsandinfidels；becausetheirreligionforbidsthemtomakeslavesoftruebelievers，andallowsthemtouseorsellallothersattheirpleasure。TheGreeksusedtheslaves，withwhichtheirfrequentwarssuppliedthem，inallkindsofmeniaandlaboriousoccupations，

　　andanotionthatsuchoccupationscouldnotbefilledwithoutslaves，becamesofamiliar，thateventheiracutest

　　philosophersseemnevertohavedoubteditsaccuracyorjustice。Acommonwealth，saysAristotle，consistsoffamilies，anda

　　familytobecompletemustconsistoffreemenandslaves，5andinfixingontheformofgovernment，whichaccordingtohim

　　wouldbemostperfect，andconducethemosttothehappinessofmankind，herequiresthathisterritoryshouldbecultivated

　　byslavesofdifferentracesanddestituteofspirit，thatsotheymaybeusefulforlabor，andthattheabsenceofany

　　dispositiontorevoltmaybesecurelyreliedon。6TheconditionofAfricaisnowinthisparticular，muchlikethatofGreece

　　then。OneofthelatetravellerswasexplainingtoanAfricanchiefthattherearenoslavesinEngland。\"Noslaves，\"exclaimedtheirauditor，\"thenwhatdoyoudoforservants？\"InGreecethelaborofcultivationwasatfirstsharedbetweenthemasterandslave。Thismustalwaysbewhilepropertiesare

　　small；andaccordinglyitwassoinLatium。Cincinnatuswouldhavestarvedonhisfouracres，hadhetrustedtotheproduce

　　slavescouldextractfromit，andneglectedtolayhisownhandsontheplough。ButascivilizationwentforwardinGreece，

　　propertiesbecameenlarged。Theproprietorsclungtocities；wherepopulargovernmentsofferedtotheactivedutiesto

　　perform，andobjectsofambitiontoaspireto，andtotheindolentandvoluptuouseveryspeciesofpleasure，mademore

　　seducingbyalltheembellishmentsthatcouldbecreatedbyatasteandfancy，whichseemtohavebelongedtothosetimes

　　andtothatpeoplealone。BysuchoccupationsandamusementsmanyoftheleadingGreciansweresoengrossed，thatthey

　　refusedtogiveupeventhetimeandattentionnecessarytocommandtheirhouseholdslaves。7Thosewhostillattendedto

　　themanagementoftheirfarmsmusthavefoundthetaskdifficultandhazardous。Xenophonhas

　　leftanaccuratepictureof

　　themodeinwhichtheGrecian，gentlemenofhisdayconductedthecultivationof，theirestates。Inoneofthedialoguesof

　　theMemorabilia，Socratesrelatesaconversationhehadhad，withIschomachus，whowasbytheconfessionofall，menand

　　women，foreignersandcitizens，，anaccomplishedandgoodman。Ischomachusdetailsthoseparticulars

　　ofhisdomesticeconomywhichhadprincipallyearnedforhimthisgeneralpraise，andexplainsatlargehismanagementof

　　hishousehold，hiswife，andfinallyhisestate。Itappearsintheprogressofthedialogue，thattheestateofIschomachuswas

　　withinashortdistanceofAthens，thatherodetoitveryfrequently，paiditmuchpersonalattention，andsuperintendedallits

　　arrangementswithgreatcare。Whilecultivationwascarriedonunderthesuperintendanceofsuchmen；whileproprietors

　　freedfromallnecessityofpersonallabor，liberal，learned，andwealthy，sedulouslyappliedthepowersoftheirmindsto

　　agriculture，theartmaderapidprogress，andasuccessionofwritersonthesubjectappearedinvariouspartsofGreece，

　　whoseworksevidencedboththequantityofintellectappliedtotheunfoldingtheresourcesofthesoil，andtheactualprogressofcultivation。Butcauseswhichdestroyedthissystemofmanagingthelandweresilentlyatwork。EvenIsehomachuswasobligedtorely

　　muchonhisoroverseers；slaveswhowereverycarefullytrainedasbailiffs，liketheRomanvillici。Allestates，

　　however，couldnotbelikehiswithinarideofthecapital；themoredistantwerenecessarilyconfidedalmostwhollytothese

　　managingslaves；andtheirmanagement，unlesstheydifferedutterlyfromallotherslavessimilarlytrusted，musthavebeen

　　verygenerallycarelessandbad。AsGreecetoobecameconsolidated，firstbytheMacedonian，thentheRomaninfluence，the

　　possessionsofindividualproprietorsnaturallyextendedthemselvesoveralargerspace，andprofitablemanagementbyslave

　　agentsmusthavebecomemoreandmoreimpracticable。Atlastatenantwasintroducedwho，receivingfromthelandowner

　　hislandandstock，becameresponsibletohimforacertainproportion，usuallyhalf，oftheproduce:andtheproprietorsgave

　　upfinallyallinterferencewiththetaskofcultivation。Thesenewtenantswerecalledmortitae，andtheyarecalledsostillinGreece。Theprecisedateatwhichtheybegantosupersedethecultivationbyproprietorsisnotknown。Itissupposedbysomethat

　　thishappenedaftertheirconnectionwithRome，andthat？whichisnotawordofancientorclassicalGreek，wasa

　　translationoftheLatinphrasecolonuspartiarius。Butwecanseesodistinctlythesameinternalcauseswhichledtothe

　　creationoftheRomantenantryactinginGreece，thatitisprobablethemnortitaeappearedthereassoon，ifnotsooner，than

　　thecolonipartiariiamongtheRomans，andthattheword？wassuggestedby？whichwehaveseenwasthe

　　nameoftheproducerentpaidbytheancientThetesofAttica。Howeverthismightbe，bysuchatenantrythesurfaceof

　　Greecewasgraduallyoccupied；theysurvivedtheMahometanconquest，andthelandsoftheTurkishAgaswerevery

　　generallycultivated，beforethepresentdisturbances，byGrecianmortitaeormetayers。8

　　SECTIONIII。

　　OnMetayersamongtheRomans。ThecauseswhichintroducedmetayersintoItalywerepreciselysimilartothosewhichultimatelyestablishedtheminGreece。

　　TheRomansbeganbysharingwiththeirslavesthetoilsofcultivation。As:thesizeofestatesenlarged，theirownersbecame

　　thesuperintendantsofthelabortheybeforeassisted。InthisstagetheartofagriculturewasdeeplystudiedinRome，asithad

　　beeninasimilarstageinGreece，byaclassofmenwellqualifiedtocarryitfartowardsperfection。TheworksoffiftyGreek

　　writersonagriculturewereknowntotheRomans，9andthoseofseveralCarthaginians。Oftheselast，one，Mago，was

　　markedbythehonorabledistinctionofhavinghisworkstranslatedintoLatininobediencetoaformaldecreeofthe

　　Senate。10RomanworksonagriculturewerelessnumerousthantheGreek，buttheyweretheproductionsofeminentmen，

　　beginningwithCatothecensorquieamlatin&egrave；loquiprimusinstituit，Col。andincludingVarroandVirgil。Thegreatpoet

　　wasfarfrombeingthelastamongthecultivatorsofhisday，andhaseven，inafewremarkablelines，recommendedthat

　　alternatehusbandry，andsubstitutionofpulseandgreencropsforfallows，whichisthemainbasisofthemostimportant

　　improvementsofourowntimes。

　　Alternisidemtonsascessarenovales，Etsegnempatieresitudurescerecampum；

　　Autibiflavaseres，mutatosidere，farra，Undepriusbetumsiliqu&acirc；quassantelegumenAuttenuisfetusviciae，tristisquelupiniSustulerisfragilescalamossilvamquesonantem。

　　Geor。Lib。I。1。71。Astheempirebecamelarger，thesizeofestatesincreased；andwhentheywerescatteredoverprovinceswhichreached

　　fromBritainandSpain，toAsiaMinorandSyria，thesuperintendanceofthehnsbandrycarriedonuponthembecame

　　burthensomeandinefficient，11andeventhetaskoftrainingproperlythevilliciormanagerswasabandoned，andthelands

　　givenupinsomemeasuretothediscretionofaninferiorclassofslaves。Theimmediateconsequencewassuchadeficiency

　　intheproduce，thatsomestrangeandunknowncausewassupposedtobeenfeeblingthefecundityoftheearthitself。

　　AmongeventhemoreeminentRomans，whilesometalkedofalongcontinuedunwholesomenessintheseasons，others

　　wereinclinedtoasuperstitiousbelief，。thattheworldwaswaxingold，anditspowers

　　decayingthattheexuberantcrops

　　reapedbytheirforefathersbadbeentheproduceofitsyouthfulstrength；andthatthesterilitywhichthenafflicteditwasa

　　symptomofitsdecrepitude。12Columellasawmoredistinctlytherealcauseofthefallingoff；hedescribesinapassage

　　whichhasbeenoftenquoted，themalpracticesoftheslavesonthosedistantfarms，whichitwasnoteasyfortheproprietor

　　oftentovisit；andthoughhimselfanindignantadvocateforthemoregeneralpracticeofagriculture，asthemostliberaland

　　usefulofarts，heconcludesbyrecommendingthatallsuchestatesshouldbelet。\"Itafitutetactoretfamiliapeccent，etagersaepiusinfametur:quaretalisgenerispraedium，si，utdixi，dominipraesenti&acirc；cariturumest，censeolocandum。\"13AraceoftenantsthengraduallyacquiredpossessionofthesurfaceofItalyandtheprovinces。Theywereofvariousclasses，

　　butthecolonipartiariiormedietarii，metayers，seemalwaystohavebeenfavorites，andthetermsonwhichtheycultivated

　　tohaveappearedthemostjustandexpedient。Pliny，havingtried，itseems，someotherformofcontractwithhistenantry，

　　andfindingitanswerill，announcesinoneofhislettershisdeterminationtoadoptthemetayersystemasthebestremedy。

　　\"Theonlyremedy，\"hesays，\"Icanthinkofis，nottoreservemyrentinmoneybut

　　inkindpartibus，andtoplacesomeof

　　myservantstooverlookthetillage，andtotakecareofmyshareoftheproduce，asindeedthereisnosortofrevenuemorejustthanthat，whichisregulatedbythesoil，theclimate，andtheseasons。\"14Thesystemthuspraised，ultimatelyprevailedthroughouttheprovincesoftheempire；andinthewesternpartofEurope，

　　wasneverwhollyextirpatedbytheconvulsionswhichaccompanieditsdownfall。Inmanyinstancesindeedthefirstviolence

　　ofthebarbariansputtoflightallregularindustry，andintothewildernesswhichtheycreatedtheywereobligedtointroduce

　　laborrentsandaraceofserfs。Thefeudalsystemtoo，andthenumerousbodyofarri&egrave；revassalsitgavebirthto，changedthe

　　occupationofmuchofthecountry。Butstill，thickasthedarknesswas，whichcoveredforatimetheremainsofRoman

　　civilization，itseffectswereneverwhollylost。Thelanguage，thecustoms，thelawsoftheprovincialsstillsurvived，and

　　sting。lingatlastintoinfluencetheycommunicatedmuchoftheircharactertothatmixedracewhichhasariseninwestern

　　Europe:indifferentdegreesindifferentcountries，butenoughinalltheprincipalkingdomstodistinguishtheirinhabitantsbroadlyfromthemoreprimitiveracetotheeastwardoftheRhine。Theclassofmetayerswasprobablyneveranywherewhollydestroyed，andastimesoftenedthecharacteroftheconquerors，

　　andintroducedsomedegreeofconfidenceandsecurityintotheirrelationswiththesubjectcultivators，industrybeganto

　　returntoitsoldemployments。Itwasalwaysanobjectgainedbythelandlord，ifhecouldsubstituteaproducerent，anda

　　tenantwhomhecouldtrustwiththewholetaskofcultivation，forarudeserfliketheGermanorSlavonicboor，whoselabor

　　hecouldrelyon，onlywhilehehimselfenforcedandsuperintendedit。Metayersthereforespreadthemselves:thedomain

　　landsoftheproprietorsfellgenerallyintotheirhands，andtheyre-acquiredthatgeneral，thoughnotcomplete，possessionof

　　theagricultureofwesternEurope，whichweseetheminagreatmeasurestillretaining。

　　SECTIONIV。

　　OnMetayerRentsinFrance。TheprovinceofGaulwasviolentlyaffectedinallitssocialrelations，bythevariousirruptionsandfinalpredominanceofthe

　　barbarians。Thegradualestablishmentoffeudaltenures，andtheintroductionofserfsandlaborrents，weretwoofthemost

　　importanteffectsofthechangeofmasters。Thenumberandspeciesoffeudaltenures，weremultipliedtoastrangeextentin

　　Francebythepracticeofsubinfeudation；whichhadbeencheckedinEngland，butprevailedwidelyonthecontinent。The

　　seignoralrights，andtherentsandservicestowhichtheygaverise，wererangedbytheFrenchlawyersunder300heads，thesubdivisionsofwhichtheystatetobeinfinite。15Someofthesemultipliedrightsnodoubtwereengraftedonthemoresimplerelationoftheserfstotheirlandlords；forasthe

　　feudalsystembecamefamiliartothepeople，thenotionsandphraseologytowhichitgavebirth，extendedthemselvestoa

　　multitudeofrelationsandobjects，quiteforeigntotheoriginalaimofthesystemitself。Thusonthecontinentannuitiesin

　　moneyorcornweregrantedasfeuds，andoccasionallyeventheuseofsumsofmoney，16andinEnglandthecopyholder，

　　whomwecandistinctlytracetothevilleinorslave，wasadmittedtoswearfealtyanddohomagetohislordmuchinthe

　　mannerofthemilitarytenants；apracticewhichstillcontinues。Thusalso，thoseadmittedtodegreesatourUniversitiesdo

　　feudalhomagetotheVice-Chancellor。Byasimilarabuseoffeudalforms，someoftheserfsinFrancenodoubtrankedatlastamongstthemanorialtenantryoftheSeigneur，andtheirrelationwasconsideredtobeafeudalone。Butbesidestheserfsthusgraduallyassimilatedtovassals，therewereotherserfswhosestateofslaverywasasdistinctand

　　undisguisedasthatoftheRussiancultivatorsisnow:theyexistedforsometimeinconsiderablenumbers，andcontinuedto

　　existinseveralprovincesuptotheeraoftherevolution。Wewillsaysomethingofthesebeforeweproceedtothemetayers。

　　Theywerefoundontheestatesofthecrown，oflayindividuals，andofecclesiastics，underthenameofmainmortables，

　　whichwasusedindifferentlywiththatofserf，andappearstohavebeenconsideredsynonymouswithit。Theywereattached

　　tothesoil，andiftheyescapedfromit，wererestoredbytheinterferenceofthetribunalstotheirowners，towhomtheir

　　personsandthoseoftheirposteritybelonged。Theywereincapableoftransmittingproperty:iftheyacquiredany，their

　　ownersmightseizeitattheirdeath:theexerciseofthisrightwasinfullvigor，andsomestartlinginstancesledLouisXVI。

　　tomakeafeebleattemptatapartialemancipation。Proprietors，exercisingtheirdroitdesuiteasitwascalled，hadforcedthe

　　reluctanttribunalsofthekingtodeliverintotheirhandsthepropertyofdeceasedcitizenswhohadbeenlongsettledas

　　respectableinhabitantsindifferenttownsofFrance，someeveninParisitself；butwhowereprovedtohavebeenoriginally