AtthesametimeAdamSmithresentsstronglythedoctrinethatreligiousprinciplesaretheonlylaudablemotivesofaction,thedoctrine,\"thatweoughtneithertorewardfromgratitudenorpunishfromresentment,thatweoughtneithertoprotectthehelplessnessofourchildren,noraffordsupporttotheinfirmitiesofourparents,fromnaturalaffection;butthatweoughttodoallthingsfromtheloveoftheDeity,andfromadesireonlytorenderourselvesagreeabletoHim,andtodirectourconductaccordingtoHiswill。\"ItshouldnotbethesolemotiveandprincipleofourconductintheperformanceofourvariousdutiesthatGodhascommandedustoperformthem,thoughthatitshouldbeourrulingandgoverningprincipleisthepreceptofphilosophyandcommonsensenolessthanitisofChristianity。
InthesamewaythatAdamSmithregardsreligionasanadditionalsanctiontothenaturalrulesofmorality,doesheregarditastheonlyeffectualconsolationinthecaseofamanunjustlycondemnedbytheworldforacrimeofwhichheisinnocent。Tosuchanone,thathumblephilosophywhichconfinesitsviewtothislifecanaffordbutlittlecom-fort。Deprivedofeverythingthatcouldmakeeitherlifeordeathrespectable,condemnedtodeathandtoeverlastinginfamy,theviewofanotherworld,wherehisinnocencewillbedeclaredandhisvirtuerewarded,canalonecompensatehimforthemiseryofhissituation。
\"Ourhappinessinthislifeisthus,uponmanyoccasions,dependentuponthehumblehopeandexpectationofalifetocomeahopeandexpectationdeeplyrootedinhumannature,whichcanalonesupportitsloftyideasofitsowndignity,canaloneilluminethedrearyprospectofitscontinuallyapproachingmortality,andmaintainitscheerfulnessunderalltheheaviestcalamitiestowhich,fromthedisordersofthislife,itmaysometimesbeexposed。Thatthereisaworldtocome,whereexactjusticewillbedonetoeveryman……isadoctrine,ineveryrespectsovenerable,socomfortabletotheweakness,soflatteringtothegrandeurofhumannature,thatthevirtuousmanwhohasthemisfortunetodoubtofitcan-notpossiblyavoidwishingmostearnestlyandanxiouslytobelieveit。\"
Thisdoctrine,AdamSmiththinks,couldneverhavefallenintodisrepute,hadnotadoctrinebeenassertedofafuturedistributionofrewardsandpunishments,attotalvariancewithallourmoralsentiments。Thepreferenceofassiduousflatterytomeritorservice,whichisregardedasthegreatestreproacheventotheweaknessofearthlysovereigns,isoftenascribedtodivineperfection;\"andthedutiesofdevotion,thepublicandprivateworshipoftheDeity,havebeenrepresented,evenbymenofvirtueandabilities,asthesolevirtueswhichcaneitherentitletoreward,orexemptfrompunishment,inthelifetocome。\"
Thereisthesameabsurdityinthenotion,whichhadevenitsadvocateinaphilosopherlikeMassillon,thatonehourordayspentinthemortificationsofamonasteryhasmoremeritintheeyeofGodthanawholelifespenthonourablyintheprofessionofasoldier。Suchadoctrineissurelycontrarytoallourmoralsentiments,andtheprinciplesbywhichwehavebeentaughtbynaturetoregulateouradmirationorcontempt。\"Itisthisspirit,however,which,whileithasreservedthecelestialregionsformonksandfriars,orforthosewhoseconductorconversationresembledthoseofmonksandfriars,hascondemnedtotheinfernalalltheheroes,allthestatesmenandlawyers,allthepoetsandphilosophersofformerages;allthosewhohaveinvented,improved,orexcelledintheartswhichcontributetothesubsistence,totheconveniency,ortotheornamentoflife;allthegreatprotectors,instructors,andbenefactorsofmankind;allthosetowhomournaturalsenseofpraiseworthinessforcesustoascribethehighestmeritandthemostexaltedvirtue。Canwewonderthatsostrangeanapplicationofthismostrespectabledoctrineshouldsometimeshaveexposedittoderisionandcontempt?\"
Although,then,AdamSmithconsidersthatreasoncorroboratestheteachingofnaturalreligionregardingtheexistenceofGodandthelifehereafter,henowhererecognizesanymoralobligationinthebeliefofoneortheother;andtheyoccupyinhissystemaverysimilarpositiontothatwhichtheyoccupyinKant\'s,whotreatsthebeliefintheexistenceofGodandinimmortalityasPostulatesofthePracticalReason,thatistosay,asassumptionsmorallynecessary,howeverincapableofspeculativeproof。
AdamSmith,however,doesnotapproacheithersubjectatallfromthespeculativeside,butconfineshimselfentirelytothemoralbasisofboth,totheargumentsintheirfavourwhichthemoralphenomenaoflifeafford,suchashavebeenalreadyindicated。
ButbesidestheargumentinfavouroftheexistenceofGodderivedfromourmoralsentiments,theonlyargumentheemploysisderived,notfromthelogicalinconceivabilityofacontrarybelief,butfromtheincompatibilityofsuchacontrarybeliefwiththehappinessofthemansobelieving。A
manofuniversalbenevolenceorboundlessgoodwillcanenjoynosolidhappinessunlessheisconvincedthatalltheinhabitantsoftheuniverseareundertheimmediatecareofthatall-wiseBeing,whodirectsallthemovementsofnature,andwhoiscompelled,byHisownunalterableperfections,tomaintaininitatalltimesthegreatestpossiblequantityofhappiness。
Toamanofuniversalbenevolence,\"theverysuspicionofafatherlessworldmustbethemostmelancholyofallreflections;fromthethoughtthatalltheunknownregionsofinfiniteandincomprehensiblespacemaybefilledwithnothingbutendlessmiseryandwretchedness。Allthesplendourofthehighestprosperitycanneverenlightenthegloomwithwhichsodread-
fulanideamustnecessarilyovershadowtheimagination;nor,inawiseandvirtuousman,canallthesorrowofthemostafflictingadversityeverdryupthejoywhichnecessarilyspringsfromthehabitualandthoroughconvictionofthetruthofthecontrarysystem。\"
Itwasawell-knowndoctrineoftheStoicphilosophy,thatamanshouldresignallhiswishesandinterestswithperfectconfidencetothebenevolentwisdomwhichdirectstheuniverse,andshouldseekhishappinesschieflyinthecontemplationoftheperfectionoftheuniversalsystem。WiththisconceptionofresignationAdamSmithverycloselyagrees,inhisdescriptionofthesentimentswhichbecomethewiseandvirtuousmanwithregardtohisrelationtothegreatsumofthings。Justasheshouldbewillingtosacrificehisowninteresttothatofhisownorder,andthatofhisownorderagaintothatofhiscountry,soheshouldbewillingtosacrificeallthoseinferiorinterests\"tothegreaterinterestoftheuniverse,totheinterestofthatgreatsocietyofallsensibleandintelligentbeings,ofwhichGodHimselfistheimmediateadministratoranddirector。Ifheisdeeplyimpressedwiththehabitualandthoroughconvictionthatthisbenevolentandall-wiseBeingcanadmitintothesystemofHisgovernmentnopartialevilwhichisnotnecessaryfortheuniversalgood,hemustconsiderallthemisfortuneswhichmaybefallhimself,hisfriends,hissociety,orhiscountry,asnecessaryfortheprosperityoftheuniverse,andthereforeaswhatheoughtnotonlytosubmittowithresignation,butaswhathehimself,ifhehadknownalltheconnexionsanddependenciesofthings,oughtsincerelyanddevoutlytohavewishedfor。\"
Awisemanshouldbecapableofdoingwhatagoodsoldierisalwaysreadytodo。Forthelatter,whenorderedbyhisgeneral,willmarchwithalacritytotheforlornstation,knowingthathewouldnothavebeensenttherebutforthesafetyofthewholearmyandthesuccessofthewar,andhewillcheerfullysacrificehisownlittlesystemtothewelfareofagreater。But\"noconductorofanarmycandeservemoreunlimitedtrust,moreardentandzealousaffection,thanthegreatCon-ductoroftheuniverse。
Inthegreatestpublicaswellasprivatedisasters,awisemanoughttoconsiderthathehimself,hisfriendsandcountrymen,haveonlybeenorderedupontheforlornstationoftheuniverse;thathaditnotbeennecessaryforthegoodofthewhole,theywouldnothavebeensoordered;andthatitistheirduty,notonlywithhumbleresignationtosubmittothisallotment,buttoendeavourtoembraceitwithalacrityandjoy。\"
Tothequestion,howfaramanshouldseekhishighesthappinessinthecontemplationofthesystemoftheuniverse;or,inotherwords,whetherthecontemplativeorthepracticallifeisthehigherandbetter,AdamSmithreplieshesitatinglyinfavourofthelatter。Themostsublimeobjectofhumancontemplationis\"theideaofthatDivineBeing,whosebenevolenceandwisdomhavefromalleternitycontrivedandconductedtheimmensemachineoftheuniverse,soasatalltimestoproducethegreatestpossiblequantityofhappiness。\"Amanbelievedtobechieflyoccupiedinthissublimecontemplationseldomfailsofthehighestveneration;andeventhoughhislifeshouldbealtogethercontemplative,isoftenregardedwithasortofreligiousrespectfarhigherthanisgenerallybestowedonthemostusefulandactivecitizen。MarcusAntoninushas,perhaps,receivedmoreadmirationforhismeditationsonthissubjectthanforallthedifferenttransactionsofhisjustandbeneficentreign。
Nevertheless,thecareoftheuniversenotbeingtheconcernofman,butonlythecareofhisownhappiness,orthatofhisfamily,friends,orcountry,hecanneverbejustifiedinneglectingthemorehumbledepartmentofaffairsbecauseheisengagedinthecontemplationofthehigher。HemustnotlayhimselfopentothechargewhichwasbroughtagainstMarcusAntoninus,thatwhilsthewasoccupiedincontemplatingtheprosperityoftheuniverselieneglectedthatoftheRomanempire。\"Themostsublimespeculationofthecontemplativephilosophercanscarcecompensatetheneglectofthesmallestactiveduty。\"
CHAPTERIX。THECHARACTEROFVIRTUE。
Thescienceofethics,accordingtoAdamSmith,dealsmainlywithtwoprincipalquestions,thefirstconcerningthenatureofmoralapprobation,ortheoriginofourfeelingsofrightandwrong,andthesecondconcerningthenatureofvirtue,orthemoralelementsofwhichvirtueconsists。Thefirstquestionisthattowhichtheanswerhasalreadybeengiven;thesecondquestiontowhichtheansweryetremainstobegiven,is\"Whatisthetoneoftemper,andtenorofconduct,whichconstitutestheexcellentandpraiseworthycharacter,thecharacterwhichisthenaturalobjectofesteem,honour,andapprobation?\"Doesvirtueconsistinbenevolence,assomehavemaintained,orisitbutaformofself-love,asothershavemaintained;ordoesitconsistinsomerelationofthebenevolentandselfishaffectionstooneanother?
ThegeneralanswerwhichAdamSmithmakestothisquestionis,thatvirtueconsistsinacertainrelationtooneanotherofourselfishandunselfishaffections,notexclusivelyinapredominanceofeitherofthem。
\"Themanofthemostperfectvirtue,\"hesays,\"themanwhomwenaturallyloveandreverethemost,ishewhojoins,tothemostperfectcommandofhisownoriginalandselfishfeelings,themostexquisitesensibilitybothtotheoriginalandsympatheticfeelingsofothers。\"Itisthemanwhounitesthegentlervirtuesofhumanityandsensibilitywiththeseverervirtuesofself-controlandself-denial。\"Tofeelmuchforothers,andlittleforourselves,torestrainourselfish,andtoindulgeourbenevolentaffections,constitutestheperfectionofhumanity。\"
Consequentlyanyman\'scharacterforvirtuemustdependuponthosetwodifferentaspectsofhisconductwhichregardbothhimselfandothers;
andacharactercompletelyvirtuouswillconsistinacombinationofthosequalitieswhichhaveabeneficialeffectalikeonanindividual\'sownhappinessasonthatofhisfellow-men。ThesequalitiesarePrudence,JusticeandBeneficence;and\"themanwhoactsaccordingtotherulesofperfectprudence,ofstrictjustice,andofproperbenevolence,maybesaidtobeperfectlyvirtuous。\"
1。ThequalityofPrudenceisthatsideofaman\'scharacterwhichconcernsonlyhisownhappiness,andithasforitsobjectthecareofhispersonalhealth,fortune,rank,andreputation。Thefirstlessonsinthisvirtuearetaughtus\"bythevoiceofnatureherself,\"whodirectsusbytheappetitesofhungerandthirst,andbyagreeableordisagreeablesensations,toprovideforourbodilypreservationandhealth。Aswegrowolderwelearnthatonlybypropercareandforesightwithrespecttoourexternalfortunecanweensurethemeansofsatisfyingournaturalappetites,andwearefurtherledtoadesireoftheadvantagesoffortunebyexperience,thatchieflyontheirpossessionorsupposedpossessiondependsthatcreditandrankamongourequalswhichisperhapsthestrongestofallourdesires。
Securitythereforeofhealth,fortune,andrank,constitutestheprincipalobjectofPrudence。
Thisoutlineofthesubject-matterofPrudence,AdamSmithproceedstofillupwithasketchofthecharacterofthePrudentMan,whichmodelled,asitappearstobe,onAristotle\'sdelineationofimaginarytypesofthedifferentvirtues,issocharacteristicanillustrationofourauthor\'sstyleandthought,thatitisbestpresentedtothereaderinthefollowingextractsfromtheoriginal:——
\"Theprudentmanalwaysstudiesseriouslyandearnestlytounderstandwhateverheprofessestounderstandandnotmerelytopersuadeotherpeoplethatheunderstandsit;andthoughhistalentsmaynotalwaysbeverybrilliant,theyarealwaysperfectlygenuine。Heneitherendeavourstoimposeuponyoubythecunningdevicesofanartfulimpostor,norbythearrogantairsofanassumingpedant,norbytheconfidentassertionsofasuperficialandimpudentpretender;heisnotostentatiousevenoftheabilitieshereallypossesses。Hisconversationissimpleandmodest,andheisaversetoallthequackishartsbywhichotherpeoplesofrequentlythrustthemselvesintopublicnotice……
\"Theprudentmanisalwayssincere,andfeelshorrorattheverythoughtofexposinghimselftothedisgracewhichattendsuponthedetectionoffalsehood。Butthoughalwayssincere,heisnotalwaysfrankandopen;
andthoughhenevertellsanythingbutthetruth,hedoesnotalwaysthinkhimselfbound,whennotproperlycalledupon,totellthewholetruth。
Asheiscautiousinhisactions,soheisreservedinhisspeech,andneverrashlyorunnecessarilyobtrudeshisopinionconcerningeitherthingsorpersons。
\"Theprudentman,thoughnotalwaysdistinguishedbythemostexquisitesensibility,isalwaysverycapableoffriendship。Buthisfriendshipisnotthatardentandpassionatebuttoooftentransitoryaffectionwhichappearssodelicioustothegenerosityofyouthandinexperience。Itisasedate,butsteadyandfaithfulattachmenttoafewwell-chosencompanions;
inthechoiceofwhomheisnotguidedbythegiddyadmirationofshiningaccomplishments,butbythesoberesteemofmodesty,discretion,andgoodconduct。Butthoughcapableoffriendship,heisnotalwaysmuchdisposedtogeneralsociality。Herarelyfrequents,andmorerarelyfiguresin,thoseconvivialsocietieswhicharedistinguishedforthejollityandgaietyoftheirconversation。Theirwayoflifemighttooofteninterferewiththeregularityofhistemperance,mightinterruptthesteadinessofhisindustry,orbreakinuponthestrictnessofhisfrugality。
\"Butthoughhisconversationmaynotalwaysbeverysprightlyordiverting,itisalwaysperfectlyinoffensive。Hehatesthethoughtofbeingguiltyofanypetulanceorrudeness;heneverassumesimpertinentlyoveranybody,anduponalloccasionsiswillingtoplacehimselfratherbelowthanabovehisequals。Bothinhisconductandconversationheisanexactobserverofdecency,andrespectswithanalmostreligiousscrupulosityalltheestablisheddecorumsandceremonialsofsociety……
\"Themanwholiveswithinhisincomeisnaturallycon-tentedwithhissituation,whichbycontinualthoughsmallaccumulationsisgrowingbetterandbettereveryday。Heisenabledgraduallytorelaxbothintherigourofhisparsimonyandintheseverityofhisapplication;……Hehasnoanxietytochangesocomfortableasituation,anddoesnotgoinquestofnewenterprisesandadventureswhichmightendanger,butcouldnotwellincrease,thesecuretranquillitywhichheactuallyenjoys。Ifheentersintoanynewprojects,theyarelikelytobewellconcertedandwellprepared。
Hecanneverbehurriedordrivenintothembyanynecessity,buthasalwaystimeandleisuretodeliberatesoberlyandcoollyconcerningwhatarelikelytobetheirconsequences。
\"Theprudentmanisnotwillingtosubjecthimselftoanyresponsibilitywhichhisdutydoesnotimposeuponhim。Heisnotabustlerinbusinesswherehehasnoconcern;isnotameddlerinotherpeople\'saffairs;isnotaprofessedcounsellororadviser,whoobtrudeshisadvicewherenobodyisaskingit;heconfineshimselfasmuchashisdutywillpermittohisownaffairs,andhasnotasteforthatfoolishimportancewhichmanypeoplewishtoderivefromappearingtohavesomeinfluenceinthemanagementofthoseofotherpeople;heisaversetoenterintoanypartydisputes,hatesfaction,andisnotalwaysveryforwardtolistentothevoiceevenofnobleandgreatambition。Whendistinctlycalleduponhewillnotdeclinetheserviceofhiscountry;buthewillnotcabalinordertoforcehimselfintoit,andwouldbemuchbetterpleasedthatthepublicbusinesswerewellmanagedbysomeotherpersonthanthathehimselfshouldhavethetroubleandincurtheresponsibilityofmanagingit。Inthebottomofhishearthewouldprefertheundisturbedenjoymentofsecuretranquillity,notonlytoallthevainsplendourofsuccessfulambition,buttotherealandsolidgloryofperformingthegreatestandmostmagnanimousactions。\"
SuchisAdamSmith\'saccountofthecharacterofthePrudentMan,acharacterwhichhehimselfadmitscommandsratheracoldesteemthananyveryardentloveoradmiration。Hedistinguishesitfromthathigherformofprudencewhichbelongstothegreatgeneral,statesman,orlegislator,andwhichistheapplicationofwiseandjudiciousconducttogreaterandnoblerpurposesthanthemereobjectsofpersonalinterest。Thissuperiorprudencenecessarilysupposestheutmostperfectionofalltheintellectualandallthemoralvirtues;itisthemostperfectwisdomcombinedwiththemostperfectvirtue;itisthebestheadjoinedtothebestheart。
2。JusticeandBenevolencethedispositioneithertorefrainfrominjuringourneighbour,orelsetobenefithimarethetwoqualitiesofavirtuouscharacterwhichaffectthehappinessofotherpeople。Asacredandreligiousregardnottohurtordisturbthehappinessofothers,evenincaseswherenolawcanprotectthem,constitutesthecharacteroftheperfectlyinnocentandjustman,andisacharacterwhichcanscarcelyfailtobeaccompaniedbymanyothervirtues,suchasgreatfeelingforothers,greathumanity,andgreatbenevolence。Butwhilstbenevolenceisapositivemoralfactor,justiceisonlyanegativeone;benevolence,therefore,requiresthegreaterconsiderationofthetwo。
3。Benevolencecomprisesallthegoodofficeswhichweowetoourfamily,ourfriends,ourcountry,andourfellow-creatures。ThisistheorderinwhichtheworldisrecommendedtoourbeneficentaffectionsbyNature,whohasstrictlyproportionedthestrengthofourbenevolencetothedegreeinwhichitisnecessaryorlikelytobeuseful。
Thuseverymanisfirstandprincipallyrecommendedtohisowncare,beingbetterabletotakecareofhimselfthanofanyotherperson。Afterhimself,themembersofhisownfamily,thosewhousuallyliveinthesamehousewithhimhisparents,children,orbrothersandsistersarenaturallytheobjectsofhiswarmestaffections。Theearliestfriendshipsarethoseamongbrothersandsisters,whosepowerforgivingpleasureorpaintooneanotherrenderstheirgoodagreementsomuchthemorenecessaryforthehappinessofthefamily。Thesympathybetweenmoredistantrelations,beinglessnecessary,isproportionatelyweaker。
Here,again,maybenoticedtheinfluenceofcustomoverourmoralsentiments。
Affectionisreallyhabitualsympathy;and,fromourgeneralexperiencethatthestateofhabitualsympathyinwhichnearrelationsstandtooneanotherpro-ducesacertainaffectionbetweenthem,weexpectalwaystofindsuchaffection,andareshockedwhenwefailtodoso。Hencethegeneralruleisestablished,fromagreatnumberofinstances,thatpersonsrelatedtooneanotherinacertaindegreeoughttobeaffectedtowardsoneanotherinacertainmanner,andthatthehighestimproprietyexistsintheabsenceofanysuchaffectionbetweenthem。
Thisdispositiontoaccommodateandassimilateoursentimentsandprinciplestothoseofpersonswelivewithorseeoftenadispositionwhicharisesfromtheobviousconvenienceofsuchageneralagreementleadsustoexpecttofindfriend-shipsubsistingbetweencolleaguesinoffice,partnersintrade,orevenbetweenpersonslivinginthesameneighbourhood。Therearecertainsmallgoodofficeswhichareuniversallyregardedasduetoaneighbourinpreferencetoanyotherperson;andacertainfriendlinessisexpectedofneighbours,fromthemerefactofthesympathynaturallyassociatedwithlivinginthesamelocality。
Butthesesortofattachments,whichtheRomansexpressedbythewordnecessitudoasiftodenotethattheyarosefromthenecessityofthesituation,areinferiortothosefriendshipswhicharefoundednotmerelyonasympathy,renderedhabitualforthesakeofconvenience,butonanaturalsympathyandapprobationofaman\'sgoodconduct。Suchfriendshipcansubsistonlyamongthegood。\"Menofvirtueonlycanfeelthatentireconfidenceintheconductandbehaviourofoneanother,whichcanatalltimesassurethemthattheycannevereitheroffendorbeoffendedbyoneanother。Viceisalwayscapricious,virtueonlyisregularandorderly。
Theattachmentwhichisfoundedupontheloveofvirtue,asitiscertainlyofallattachmentsthemostvirtuous,soitislikewisethehappiest,aswellasthemostpermanentandsecure。Suchfriendshipsneednotbeconfinedtoasingleperson,butmaysafelyembraceallthewiseandvirtuouswithwhomwehavebeenlongandintimatelyacquainted,anduponwhosewisdomandvirtuewecan,uponthataccount,entirelydepend。\"
Andthesameprincipleswhichdirecttheorderofourbenevolentaffectionstowardsindividuals,likewisedirecttheirordertowardssocieties,recommendingtothembeforeallothersthosetowhichtheycanbeofmostimportance。
Ournativecountryisthelargestsocietyuponwhichourgoodorbadconductcanhavemuchinfluence。Itisthattowhichaloneourgood-willcanbedirectedwitheffect。Accordingly,itisbynaturemoststronglyrecommendedtous,ascomprehendingnotonlyourownpersonalsafetyandprosperity,butthatofourchildren,ourparents,ourrelations,andfriends。Itisthusendearedtousbyallourprivatebenevolent,aswellasbyourselfishaffections。Henceitsprosperityandgloryseemtoreflectsomesortofhonouruponourselves,and\"whenwecompareitwithothersocietiesofthesamekind,weareproudofitssuperiority,andmortified,insomedegree,ifitappearsinanyrespectbelowthem。\"
Butitisnecessarytodistinguishtheloveofourowncountryfromafoolishdisliketoeveryotherone。\"Theloveofourownnationoftendisposesustoview,withthemostmalignantjealousyandenvy,theprosperityandaggrandizementofanyotherneighbouringnation。Independentandneighbouringnations,havingnocommonsuperiortodecidetheirdisputes,allliveincontinualdreadandsuspicionofoneanother。Eachsovereign,expectinglittlejusticefromhisneighbours,isdisposedtotreatthemwithaslittleasheexpectsfromthem。Theregardforthelawsofnations,orforthoseruleswhichindependentstatesprofessorpretendtothinkthemselvesboundtoobserveintheirdealingswithoneanother,isoftenverylittlemorethanmerepretenceandprofession。Fromthesmallestinterest,upontheslightestprovocation,weseethoseruleseverydayeitherevadedordirectlyviolatedwithoutshameorremorse。Eachnationforesees,orimaginesitforesees,itsownsubjugationintheincreasingpowerandaggrandizementofanyofitsneighbours;andthemeanprincipleofnationalprejudiceisoftenfoundedonthenobleoneoftheloveofourowncountry……
FranceandEnglandmayeachofthemhavesomereasontodreadtheincreaseofthenavalandmilitarypoweroftheother;butforeitherofthemtoenvytheinternalhappiness`andprosperityoftheother,thecultivationofitslands,theadvancementofitsmanufactures,theincreaseofitscommerce,thesecurityandnumberofitsportsandharbours,itsproficiencyinalltheliberalartsandsciences,issurelybeneaththedignityoftwosuchgreatnations。Thesearetherealimprovementsoftheworldwelivein。Mankindarebenefited,humannatureisennobledbythem。Insuchimprovementseachnationoughtnotonlytoendeavouritselftoexcel,but,fromtheloveofmankind,topromote,insteadofobstructing,theexcellenceofitsneighbours。Theseareallproperobjectsofnationalemulation,notofnationalprejudiceorenvy。\"
ThispassageisofinterestascomingfromthefutureauthoroftheWealthofNationsthefuturefounderofthedoctrineoffreetrade;
andofhistoricalinterest,asreflectingcultivatedopinionatatimewhenEnglandwasjustinthemiddleoftheSevenyears\'war,istheremarkthatthemostextensivepublicbenevolenceisthatofthestatesmenwhoprojectorformalliancesbetweenneighbouringornotverydistantnations,\"forthepreservationeitherofwhatiscalledthebalanceofpower,orofthegeneralpeaceandtranquillityofthestateswithinthecircleoftheirnegotiations。\"