66。Essay，i，75bk。
i，ch。v。
67。Ibid。，bk。ii，ch。vi。
68。Essay，ii，318
bk。iv，ch。vi。
69。Essay，ii，315
bk。iv。ch。v。
70。Ibid。，ii，326bk。iv，ch。vi。
71。Ibid。，ii，78bk。iii，ch。v。
72。Essay，ii，454
Appendix。
73Ibid。，ii，82bk。iii，ch。vi。
74。Ibid。，ii，90bk。iii，ch。vi。
75。Senior’sThreeLectures，p。86。
76。Senior’sThreeLectures，p。60。
77。Essay，i，534
bk。ii，ch。xiii。
78。Smith’sWorks1859，i，295。
79。ObservationsontheEffectsoftheCorn-Laws，1814；InquiryintotheNatureandProgressofRent，1815；andTheGroundsofanOpiniononthePolicyofrestrictingtheImportationofForeignCorn，intendedasanappendixtotheObservationsontheCorn-Laws。
80。InquiryintoRent，p。1。
81。Ibid。，p。16。
82。Essay，ii，35
bk。iii，ch。ii。
83InquiryintoRent，p。20。
84。Ibid。，p。18。
85。Ibid。，p。38。
86。InquiryintoRent，p。
20。
87。Ibid。，p。37。
88。EssaysontheApplicationofCapitaltoLand，byaFellowofUniversityCollege，Oxford，1815。
89。Essay，p。19。
90。InAnInquiryintotheNatureoftheCorn-Laws，andagain1801inObservationsonAgriculture，etc。，vol。v，401-51。
91。PoliticalWorks，i，485，etc。Inthispaper，Imayadd，Cobbett，notyetaRadical，acceptsMalthus’sviewofthetendencyofthehumanspeciestomultiplymorequicklythanitssupport。HedoesnotmentionMalthus，butspeaksofthebeliefasuniversallyadmitted，andafterwardsillustratesitamusinglybysayingthat，inhisploughboydays，heusedtowonderthattherewasalwaysjustenoughhayforthehorsesandenoughhorsesforthehay。
Chapter5：RicardoI。Ricardo’sStarting-PointDavidRicardo，1born19thApril1772，wasthesonofaDutchJewwhohadsettledinEngland，andmademoneyupontheStockExchange。Ricardohadadesultoryeducation，andwasemployedinbusinessfromhisboyhood。Heabandonedhisfather’screed，andmarriedanEnglishwomansoonafterreachinghismajority。Hesetupforhimselfinbusiness，and，atatimewhenfinancialtransactionsuponanunprecedentedscaleweregivinggreatopportunitiesforspeculators，hemadealargefortune，andabout1814boughtanestateatGatcombePark，Gloucestershire。Hewithdrewsoonafterwardsfrombusiness，andin1819
becamememberofparliament。Hisdeathon11thSeptember1823cutshortapoliticalcareerfromwhichhisperhapstoosanguinefriendsanticipatedgreatresults。Hisinfluenceinhisowndepartmentofinquiryhadbeen，meanwhile，ofthegreatestimportance。Hehadshowninhisyouthsomeinclinationforscientificpursuits；heestablishedalaboratory，andbecameamemberofscientificsocieties。TheperusalofAdamSmith’sWealthofNationsin1799gavehimaninterestintheapplicationofscientificmethodstothequestionswithwhichhewasmostconversant。AcceptingAdamSmithastheleadingauthority，heproceededtothinkoutforhimselfcertaindoctrines，whichappearedtohimtohavebeeninsufficientlyrecognisedbyhisteacher。
Thefirstresultofhisspeculationswasapamphletpublishedin1809uponthedepreciationofthecurrency。Uponthattopichespokeasanexpert，andhismaindoctrineswereacceptedbythefamousBullionCommittee。Ricardothusbecamearecognisedauthorityononegreatsetofproblemsofthehighestimmediateinterest。Malthus’sInquiryintoRentsuggestedanotherpamphlet；andin1817，encouragedbythewarmpressureofhisfriend，JamesMill，hepublishedhischiefbook，thePrinciplesofPoliticalEconomyandTaxation。ThisbecametheeconomicBibleoftheUtilitarians。
Thetaskofacommentatororinterpreteris，forvariousreasons，adifficultone。
ThereisacertainanalogybetweenRicardoandaverydifferentwriter，BishopButler。Eachofthemproducedagreateffectbyashorttreatise，andineachcasethebookowedverylittletotheordinaryliterarygraces。Ricardo’swantofliterarytraining，orhisnaturaldifficultyofutterance，madehisstylestillworsethanButler’s；but，likeButler，hecommandsourrespectbyhisobvioussincerityandearnestness。Heiscontentwhenhehassoexpressedhisargumentthatitcanbeseizedbyanattentivereader。Heisincapableof，orindifferentto，clearandorderlyexpositionofprinciples。Thelogicisthere，ifyouwilltakethetroubletolookforit，Perhapsweoughttobeflatteredbythistacitrelianceuponourpatience，’You，’Ricardo，likeButler，seemstosaytous，’areanxiousfortruth：youdonotcareforornament，andmaybetrustedtoworkoutthefullapplicationofmyprinciples。’
Inanotherrespectthetwoarealike。Butler’sargumenthasimpressedmanyreadersasademolitionofhisowncase。Itprovokesrevoltinsteadofadhesion。Ricardo，anorthodoxeconomist，laiddownprincipleswhichwereadoptedbySocialiststoupsethisownassumptions。SuchaGodasyouworship，saidButler’sopponents，isanunjustbeing，andthereforeworsethannoGod。Suchasystemasyoudescribe，saidRicardo’sopponents，isanembodimentofinjustice，andthereforetoberadicallydestroyed。Admittingthelogic，theargumentmaybereadasareductioadabsurduminbothcases。
Ricardohasinvolvedhimselfincertainspecialdifficulties。Inthefirstplace，hepresupposesfamiliaritywithAdamSmith。ThePrinciplesisarunningcommentuponsomeofSmith’stheories，andnoattemptismadetoreducethemtosystematicorder。
Hestartsbylayingdownpropositions，theproofofwhichcomesafterwards，andisthenratherintimatedthanexpresslygiven。HeadoptstheterminologywhichSmithhadacceptedfrompopularuse，2andoftenappliesitinaspecialsignificance，whichisatleastliabletobemisunderstoodbyhisreaders，orforgottenbyhimself。Itisdifficult，again，tofeelsurewhethersomeofhisstatementsaretobetakenaspositiveassertionsoffact，ormerelyasconvenientassumptionsforthepurposesofhisargument。
Ricardohimself，asappearsinhisletters，waspainfullyawareofhisownawkwardnessofexpression，anduponthatpointaloneallhiscriticsseemtobeintolerableagreement。Happily，itwillbeenoughformypurposeifIcanlaydownhisessentialpremiseswithoutfollowinghimtotheremoterdeductions。
Ricardo’spamphletuponMalthus1815givesastarting-point。RicardocordiallyadoptsMalthus’stheoryofrent，butdeclaresthatitisfataltosomeofMalthus’sconclusions。
Malthus，wehaveseen，wishedtoregardrentasinsomesenseagiftofProvidence——apositiveblessingduetothefertilityofthesoil。Ricardomaintains，onthecontrary，that’theinterestofthelandlordisnecessarilyopposedtotheinterestofeveryotherclassinthecommunity。’3Thelandlordisprosperouswhencornisscarceanddear；allotherpersonswhenitisplentifulandcheap。ThisfollowsuponMalthus’sownshowing。
Asmenareforcedtohaverecoursetoinferiorsoils，thelandlordobtainsalargershareofthewholeproduce；and，moreover，sincecornalsobecomesmorevaluable，willhavealargershareofamorevaluableproduct。Thequestionapparentlyindispute——whetherweshouldbegladthatsomelandisbetterthantheworst，orsorrybecauseallisnotequaltothebest——seemsratheridle。Therealquestion，however，iswhetherrent，beingablessing，shouldbekeptupbyprotection，4or，beingacurse，shouldbebroughtdownbycompetition?Whatistherealworkingofthesystem?Setthetradefree，saysRicardo，andthecapitalwillbewithdrawnfromthepoorlandandemployeduponmanufactures，tobeexchangedforthecornofothercountries。5Thechangemustcorrespondtoamoreadvantageousdistributionofcapital，oritwouldnotbeadopted。
Theprincipleinvolvedinthislastpropositionis，headds，oneofthe’bestestablishedinthescienceofpoliticaleconomy，andbynooneismorereadilyadmittedthanbyMr。Malthus。’Toenforceprotectionwouldbe，onMalthus’sillustration，tocompelustousethe’worstmachines，when，atalessexpense，wecouldhiretheverybestfromourneighbours。’6Briefly，then，thelandlord’sinterestisopposedtothenationalinterest，becauseitenforcesaworsedistributionofcapital。Hecompelsustogetcornfromhisworstland，insteadofgettingitindirectly，butingreaterquantity，fromourspinning-jennies。
ForRicardo，asforMalthus，theultimatedrivingforceisthepressureofpopulation。Themassofmankindisalwaysstrugglingtoobtainfood，andisabletomultiplysorapidlyastoexhaustanyconceivableincreaseofsupplies。Thelandlordclassaloneprofits。Thegreaterthestruggleforsupplythegreaterwillbetheshareofthewholeproducewhichmustbesurrenderedtoit。Beyondthis，however，liesthefurtherproblemwhichspeciallyoccupiedRicardo。