6。Bentham’sWorks，x，p。574。
7。Brougham’sSpeeches1838，ii。287-486。
8。AninterestingsummaryoftheprogressoflawreformsandofBentham’sshareinthemisgiveninSirR。K。Wilson’sHistoryofModernEnglishLaw1875。
9。Bentham’sWorks，x，571。
10。InCambridgePrymewasthefirstprofessorin1828，buthadonlythetitlewithoutendowment。
Theprofessorshipasonlysalariedin1863。
11。Ricardo’sWorks1888，p。407。
12。PrintedinPorter’sProgressoftheNationandelsewhere。
13。SeesixthvolumeofHistoryofPricesbyTookeandNewmarch，andprivatelyprintedMinutesofPoliticalEconomyClub1882。
14。Speeches，3vols。
8vo，1831。
15。Ibid。，ii，465-530。
16。Ibid。，ii，477。
17。Bentham’sWorks，ii，459。WemayrememberhowJ。S。Millinhisboyhoodwasabashedbecausehecouldnotexplaintohisfathertheforceofthedistinction。
18。Speeches，ii，246，332。
19。Ibid。，i，102-108Currency-Pamphletof1810。
20。Ibid。，ii，397。
21。Speeches，iii，257。
22。Ricardoindeedmadeareservationastothenecessityofcounterbalancingbyamoderatedutythespecialburthensuponagriculture。
23。IntheHistoryofTrades-UnionismbySidneyandBeatriceWebb1894，pp。88-98。ThehistoryofPlace’sagitationisfullygiveninMrGrahamWallas’sLife，chap。viii。
24。Wallas’sFrancisPlace，p。217。
25。Firstpublishedin1807-8。
26。Letteriii。
27。Ibid。，vi。
28。SydneySmithputveryingeniouslytheadvantagesofwhathecalledthe’lottery’system：ofgiving，thatis，afewgreatprizes，insteadofequalisingtheincomesoftheclergy。
Thingslooksodifferentfromoppositepointsofviews。
29。ChurchofEnglandism，ii，199。
30。SeeespeciallyhisreviewofSouthey’sBookoftheChurch。
31。Romilly’sMemoirs，iii，33。
32。57GeorgeIII，caps。
60-67。
33。Editionof1828，p。24。
34。Ibid。，p。10。
35。AMrGrayproposedatacountymeetingin1816thatthecryof’retrenchmentandreform’shouldberaisedineverycorneroftheislandHenryJephson’Platform，p。378。Idonotknowwhetherthiswasthefirstappearanceoftheformula。
36。HumehadbeenintroducedtoPlacebyJamesMill，whothoughthimworth’nursing’。Placefoundhimatfirst’dullandselfish’，but’nursedhim’sowellby1836hehadbecomethe’manofmen。’——Wallas’sFrancisPlace，p。181，182。
37。Torren’sLifeofGraham，i，250-72，wherehisgreatspeechof14thMay1830isgiven。
38。2and3WilliamIV，cap。
111passed15August1832。
39。4and5WilliamIV，cap。
15。
40。ThePlatform，itsOriginandProgress，byHenryJephson1892，givesaveryinterestinghistoricalaccountoftheprocess。
41。57GeorgeIII，cap。19
and60GeorgeIII，cap。6。
42。SeeJephson’sPlatform，pp。167-70。
43。SeeJephson’sPlatform，i，348，455，517。
44。SeeIbid。，ii，129-40
forsomeinterestingpassagesastothis。
45。OfficialCorrespondence1887，308。
46。Greville’sGeorgeIV，andWilliamIV，iii，155，167-69，171。
47。Bentham’sWorks，x，571。
48。Romilly’sMemoirs，ii，67，222。
Chapter3：PoliticalTheoryI。MillonGovernmentInowturntothegeneralpoliticaltheoryofwhichMillwastheauthoritativeexponent，theEncyclopaediaarticleupon’Government’1820givesthepithoftheirdoctrine，itwas，asProfessorBain1thinks，an’impellingandaguidingforce’
inthemovementwhichculminatedintheReformBill，theyoungerUtilitariansregardedit，saysJ。S。Mill，as’amasterpieceofpoliticalwisdom’；2whileMacaulay3tauntsthemforholdingittobe’perfectandunanswerable。’ThisfamousarticleisaterseandenergeticsummaryofthedoctrineimpliedinBentham’sWorks，butthereobscuredunderelaborationofminutedetails。Itisrathersingular，indeed，thatsovigorousamanifestoofUtilitariandogmashouldhavebeenacceptedbyMacveyNapier——asoundWhig——forapublicationwhichprofessedscientificimpartiality。Ithas，however，inthehighestdegree，themeritsofclearnessandcondensationdesirableinapopularexposition。Thereticenceappropriatetotheplaceexcusestheomissionofcertainimplicitconclusions。Millhastogiveacompletetheoryofpoliticsinthirty-two8vopages。Hehasscantyroomforqualifyingstatementorhistoricalillustration，Hespeaksasfromthechairofaprofessorlayingdowntheelementaryprinciplesofademonstratedscience。4
Millstartsfromthesacredprinciple，theendofgovernment，astheendofallconduct，mustbetheincreaseofhumanhappiness，theprovinceofgovernmentislimitedbyanotherconsideration。Ithastodealwithoneclassofhappiness，thatis，withthepainsandpleasures’whichmenderivefromoneanother，’Bya’lawofnature’labourisrequisiteforprocuringthemeansofhappiness，Now，if’nature’producedallthatanymandesired，therewouldbenoneedofgovernment，fortherewouldbenoconflictofinterest，But，asthematerialproducedisfinite，andcanbeappropriatedbyindividuals，itbecomesnecessarytoinsuretoeverymanhispropershare，What，then，isaman’spropershare?Thatwhichhehimselfproduces；for，ifyougivetoonemanmorethantheproduceofhislabour，youmusttakeawaytheproduceofanotherman’slabour。Thegreatesthappiness，therefore，isproducedby’assuringtoeverymanthegreatestpossiblequantityoftheproduceofhisownlabour。’Howcanthisbedone?Willnotthestrongesttaketheshareoftheweakest?Hecanbepreventedinoneandapparentlyonlyinoneway。Menmustuniteanddelegatetoafewthepowernecessaryforprotectingall。’Thisisgovernment。’5
Theproblemisnowsimple。
Governmentisessentiallyanassociationofmenfortheprotectionofproperty。
Itisadelegationofthepowersnecessaryforthatpurposetotheguardians，and’allthedifficultquestionsofgovernmentrelatetothemeans’ofpreventingtheguardiansfromthemselvesbecomingplunderers。
Howisthistobeaccomplished?
Thepowerofprotection，saysMill。followingtheoldtheory，maybeintrustedtothewholecommunity，toafew，ortoone；thatis，wemayhaveademocracy，anaristocracy，oramonarchy。Ademocracy，ordirectgovernmentofallbyall，isfortheordinaryreasonspronouncedimpracticable。Buttheobjectionstotheothersystemsareconclusive。Theneedofgovernment，hehasshown，dependsupon’thelawofhumannature’6that’aman，ifable，willtakefromothersanythingwhichtheyhaveandhedesires。’Theveryprinciplewhichmakesgovernmentnecessary，therefore，willpromptagovernmenttodefeatitsownproperend。Mill’sdoctrineissofaridenticalwiththedoctrineofHobbes；menarenaturallyinastateofwar，andgovernmentimpliesatacitcontractbywhichmenconferuponasovereignthepowernecessaryforkeepingthepeace。Buthere，thoughadmittingtheforceofHobbes’sargument，hedivergesfromitsconclusion。Ifademocracybeimpossible，andanaristocracyormonarchynecessarilyoppressive，itmightseem，headmits，asitactuallyseemedtoHobbesandtotheFrencheconomists，thatthefewertheoppressorsthebetter，andthatthereforeanabsolutemonarchyisthebest。Experience，hethinks，is’onthesurface’ambiguous。EasterndespotsandRomanemperorshavebeentheworstscourgestomankind；yettheDanespreferredadespottoanaristocracy，andareas’wellgovernedasanypeopleinEurope。’InGreece，democracy，inspiteofitsdefects，producedthemostbrilliantresults。7Hence，heargues，wemustgo’beyondthesurface，’and’penetratetothespringswithin。’Theresultofthesearchisdiscouraging。Thehopeofgluttingtherulersisillusory。
Thereisno’pointofsaturation’8withtheobjectsofdesire，eitherforkingoraristocracy。Itisa’grandgoverninglawofhumannature’
thatwedesiresuchpoweraswillmake’thepersonsandpropertiesofhumanbeingssubservienttoourpleasures。’9Thisdesireisindefinitelygreat。Tothenumberofmenwhomwewouldforceintosubservience，andthedegreeinwhichwewouldmakethemsubservient，wecanassignnolimits。
Moreover，aspainisamorepowerfulinstrumentforsecuringobediencethanpleasure，amanwilldesiretopossess’unlimitedpowerofinflictingpainuponothers。’Willhealsodesire，itmaybeasked，tomakeuseofit?The’chainofinference，’hereplies，inthiscaseiscloseandstrong’toamostunusualdegree。’Amandesirestheactionsofotherstobeincorrespondencewithhisownwishes。’Terror’，willbethe’grandinstrument。’10Itthusfollowsthattheveryprincipleuponwhichgovernmentisfoundedleads，intheabsenceofchecks，’notonlytothatdegreeofplunderwhichleavesthemembersofacommunity……Thebaremeansofsubsistence，buttothatdegreeofcrueltywhichisnecessarytokeepinexistencethemostintenseterror。’AnEnglishgentleman，hesays，isafavourablespecimenofcivilisation，andyetWestIndianslaveryshowsofwhatcrueltyhecouldbeguiltywhenunchecked。Ifequalcrueltyhasnotbeenexhibitedelsewhere，itis，heseemstothink，becausemenwerenot’thesameassheepinrespecttotheirshepherd，’11andmaythereforeresistifdriventoofar。Thedifficultyuponthisshowingistounderstandhowanygovernment，exceptthemostbrutaltyranny，everhasbeen，orevercanbe，possible。
Whatisthecombiningprinciplewhichcanweldtogethersuchamassofhostileandmutuallyrepellentatoms?Howtheycanevenformthenecessarycompactisdifficulttounderstand，andtheviewseemstoclashwithhisownavowedpurpose。ItisMill’saim，asitwasBentham’s，tosecurethegreatesthappinessofthegreatestnumber；andyetheseemstosetoutbyprovingasa’lawofhumannature’thatnobodycandesirethehappinessofanyoneexcepthimself。HequotesfromMontesquieuthesaying，whichshowsan’acutesenseofthisimportanttruth，’’thateveryonewhohaspowerisledtoabuseit。’12Ratheritwouldseem，accordingtoMill，allpowerimpliesabuseinitsveryessence。Theproblemseemstobehowtomakeuniversalcohesionoutofuniversalrepulsion。
Millhashisremedyforthisdeeplyseatedevil。Heattacks，asBenthamhadalreadydone，theold-fashionedtheory，accordingtowhichtheBritishConstitutionwasanadmirablemixtureofthethree’simpleforms。’Twoofthepowers，heargues，willalwaysagreeto’swallowupthethird。’13’Themonarchyandaristocracyhaveallpossiblemotivesforendeavouringtoobtainunlimitedpoweroverthepersonsandpropertyofthecommunity，’thoughthedemocracy，ashealsosays，haseverypossiblemotiveforpreventingthem。AndinEngland，ashenodoubtmeanthisreaderstounderstand，themonarchyandaristocracyhadtoagreatextentsucceeded。Where，then，arewetolook?Tothe’granddiscoveryofmoderntimes，’namely，therepresentativesystem。Ifthisdoesnotsolvealldifficultiesweshallbeforcedtotheconclusionthatgoodgovernmentisimpossible。Fortunately，however，therepresentativesystemmaybemadeperfectlyeffective。Thisfollowseasily。Itwould，ashehassaid，14bea’contradictioninterms’tosupposethatthecommunityatlargecan’haveaninterestoppositetoitsinterest。’