eachofwhichmaybedesirableintherightplace——butthewayinwhichtheyarecombinedintheconcreteBarnwell。Noquality，therefore，canbetakenassimplyself-regarding，foritispreciselythewholecharacterwhichistheobjectofmymoraljudgmentoftheindividual。IhavespokenoftheinadequaterecognitionofthistruthbyBenthamandJamesMill。ItmakesJ。
S。Mill’scriterioninapplicabletothequestionofmoralinterference。lf，asheargues，wearetoimpressourmoralstandarduponothers，wecannotmakethedistinction；forourstandardimpliesessentiallyanestimateofthebalanceofalltheman’squalities，thosewhichprimarilyaffecthimselfasmuchasthosewhichprimarilyaffectothers。Hereisthevitaldistinctionbetweenthelegalandthemoralquestion，andthecharacteristicdefectoftheexternalviewofmorality。Keeping，however，tothepurelylegalquestion，wherethecriterioniscomparativelyplain，wehaveotherdifficulties。WeareonlytopunishBarnwellasanactual，notasapotential，murderer。Weshouldletamantryany’experimentinliving’solongasitsfailurewillaffecthimselfonly，or，rather，himselfprimarily，fornoactionisreally’isolated。’Weare，saysMill，toputupwith’contingent’or’constructive’injuryforthesakeof’thegreatergoodofhumanfreedom。’57*’Society，’heurges，cannotcomplainoferrorsforwhichitisresponsible。Ithas’absolutepower’overallitsmembersintheirinfancy，andcouldalwaysmakethenextgenerationalittlebetterthanthelast。Why，then，interferebythecoarsemethodsofpunishmenttosuppresswhatisnotdirectlyinjurioustoitself？Thestrongest，however，ofallreasonsagainstinterference，accordingtohim，isthatitgenerallyinterfereswronglyandinthewrongplace。Inproofofthishereferstovariouscasesofreligiouspersecution：toPuritanicallawsagainstharmlessrecreation：toSocialistlawsagainstthefreedomtolabour：tolawsagainstintemperanceandonbehalfofSundayobservance：and，generally，tolawsembodyingthe’tyrannyofthemajority。’Wemayadmitthebadnessofsuchlegislation；butwhatisthecriterionbywhichwearetodecideitsbadnessorgoodness？Isitthatinsuchcasesthelegislatorisusurpingtheprovinceofthemoralist？thatheistryingtosuppresssymptomswhenthecausesarebeyondhispower，andenforcingnotvirtuebuthypocrisy？Orisitthathereallyoughttobeindifferentinregardtothemoralruleswhichareprimarilyself-regarding——toleaveprudence，forexample，totakecareofitselfortobeimpressedbypurelynaturalpenalties；andtobeindifferenttovice，drunkenness，orsexualirregularities，exceptbysuppressingthecrimeswhichincidentallyresult？Millendeavourstoadheretohiscriterion，buthassomedifficultyinreconcilingittohispracticalconclusions。
Millholds’society’tobeomnipotentovertheyoung。Ithasnorighttocomplainofthecharacterswhichithasitselfconcurredinproducing。lfthisbeso，canitbeindifferenttomorality？Indeed，Milldistinguisheshimselffromothersofhisschoolpreciselybyemphasisingtheeducationalefficiencyofthestate。Institutions，accordingtohim，arethetoolsbywhichthehumanwill——thewillofthesovereign——mouldsthecharacteroftherace。Mill’swholeaimineconomicquestionsistoencourageprudence，self-reliance，andenergy。Hewishesthestatetointerferetostrengthenandenlighten；andtopromoteanequalityofpropertywhichwillraisethestandardoflifeanddiscouragewastefulluxury。Whatisthisbuttostimulatecertainmoralcreedsandtodiscouragecertain’experimentsinliving’？
Howcansopowerfulanagencyaffectcharacterwithoutaffectingmorals——self-regardingorextra-regarding？Thedifficultycomesoutcuriouslyinhislastchapter。Hehasrecoursetoadexterouscasuistrytojustifymeasureswhichhaveanobviousmoralsignificance。Arewetolegislatewithaviewtodiminishingdrunkenness？No：butwemayputdrunkardsunderspecialrestrictionswhentheyhaveoncebeenledtoviolence。Weshouldnottaxstimulantssimplyinordertosuppressdrunkenness；but，aswehavetotaxinanycase，wemaysoarrangetaxationastodiscouragetheconsumptionofinjuriouscommodities。Maywesuppressgamblingorfornication？No：butwemayperhapsseeourwaytosuppressingpublicgambling-housesorbrothels，becausewemayforbidsolicitationstothatwhichwethinkevil，thoughwearenotsoclearoftheevilastosuppresstheconductitself。
Wemayenforceuniversaleducation，thoughhemakestheconditionthatthestateisonlytopayforthechildrenofthepoor，nottoprovidetheschools。And，oncemore，wearenotforbiddenbyhisprincipletolegislateagainstimprudentmarriages；forthemarriageclearlyaffectstheoffspring，and，moreover，affectsalllabourersinanover-populatedcountry。Yet，whatinterferencewithprivateconductcouldbemorestringentormoredirectlyaffectmorality？
Aprinciplerequiringsuchdelicatehandlingisnotwellsuitedtoguidepracticallegislation。Thistimidadmissionofmoralconsiderationsbyaback-dooristhemorecuriousbecauseMillnotonlywishestohaveamoralinfluence，buthasthespecialmerit，ineconomicalandinpurelypoliticalquestions，ofsteadilyandconstantlyinsistingupontheirmoralaspect。Heholds，andisjustifiedinholding，thattheultimateendofthestateshouldbetoencourageenergy，culture，andastrongsenseofresponsibility。Itistruethat，thoughheexaggeratestheinfluenceofinstitutions，heinsistschieflyuponthenegativeside，uponthatkindof’education’whichconsistsinleavingamantoteachhimself。Yethispoliticaltheoryimpliesawidereducationalinfluence。Everycitizenistohaveasharebothinthelegislativeandadministrativefunctionsofthegovernment。
Suchaneducationmusthaveastronginfluenceuponthemoralcharacteristics。Itmaypromoteordiscourageonemoralityoranother，butitcannotbeindifferent。AndthisimpressesitselfuponMillhimself。Theprinciplesof’contradiction’inspeculationandof’antagonism’inpolitics；thedoctrinesthateachmanistoformhisownopinionsandregulatehisownlife，implyasocietyofapproximatelyequaland，asfaraspossible，independentunits。This，ifitmeans’liberty，’alsomeansamosteffective’educational’process。Onelessontaughtmaybethat’anyonemanisasgoodasanyother。’Millseesthisclearly，anddeclaresthatthis’falsecreed’isheldinAmericaand’nearlyconnected’withsomeAmericandefects。58*HepersuadeshimselfthatitmayberemediedbyHare’sscheme，andbydevicesforgivingmorevotestoeducated’persons。Onecanonlyreply，sanctasimplicitas！Infact，the’educational’influencewhichimplieslevellingandequalisingisnotlesseffectivethanthatwhichmaintainsranksoratraditionalorder。Itonlyactsinadifferentdirection。Here，oncemore，Mill’sargumentseemstorecoiluponhisownposition。When，intheLiberty，hesumsuptheinfluenceshostiletoindividuality，includingallthesocialandintellectualmovementsoftheday，heisdescribingtheforceswhichwilldrivehispoliticalmachinery。Thepoliticalchangeswhicharetobreakuptheoldstructure，tomakesocietyanaggregateofunitsapproximatelyequalinwealthandpower，willinevitablyfacilitatethedeeperandwiderinfluencesofthesocialchanges。If，infact，’individuality’inagoodsenseisbeingcrushedbythewholedemocraticmovement——wheredemocracymeansthewholesocialchange——itwillcertainlynotbeprotectedbythepoliticalchangestobemadeinthenameofliberty。Eachmanistohavehisownlittlesphere；buteachmanwillbesoinfinitesimalapowerthathewillbemorethanevermouldedbytheaverageopinions。IntheLiberty59*Millputshiswholehopeinthepossibilitythatthe’intelligentpartofthepublic’maybeledtofeeltheforceofhisargument。TobelievethatatendencyfosteredbyeverysocialchangecanbecheckedbythejudiciousreasoningofUtilitariantheorists，impliesatouchingfaithinthepowerofphilosophy。
Mill’sdoctrines，Ibelieve，aimatmostimportanttruths。
’Energy’is，letusagree，acardinalvirtueandessentialconditionofprogress。Itrequires，undoubtedly，asphereofindividualfreedom。Withoutfreedom，amanisatool——
transmittingforcemechanically，nothimselfco-operatingintelligentlyororiginatingspontaneously。Everycitizenshouldbeencouragedtobeanactiveaswellasapassiveinstrument。
Freedomofopinionisabsolutelyessentialtoprogress，socialaswellasintellectual，andthereforethoughtshouldbeabletoplayfreelyupontheswayofirrationalcustom。Thetyrannyofthecommonplace，ofamentalatmospherewhichstiflesgeniusandoriginality，isadangertosocialwelfare。ThatMillheldsuchconvictionsstronglywasthesourceofhispower。Thatheheldtothem，evenwhentheycondemnedsomepartydogma，washonourabletohissincerity。Thathefiledtomakethemintoasatisfactoryorconsistentwholewasduetopreconceptionsimbibedfromhisteachers。Perhapsitistruertosaythathecouldnotaccuratelyformulatehisbeliefsintheolddialectthanthathisbeliefswereintrinsicallyerroneous。
Uponhistermsacleardemarcationofthesphereoffreeactionisimpossible。Mill，asan’individualist，’tooksocietytobean’aggregate’insteadofan，organism。’ToMillsuchphrasesas’organic’savouredof’mysticism’；theytreatedaclassnameasmeaningsomethingmorethantheindividuals，andthereforemeantmereabstractionsparadingasrealities，60*andencouragedthefallaciescurrentamongIntuitionistsandTranscendentalists。Andyettheypointattruthswhichareanythingbutmystical。Itisaplainfactthatsocietyisacomplexstructureuponwhicheverymanisdependentinhiswholelife；andthatheisaproduct，mouldedthroughandthroughbyinstinctsinheritedorderivedfromhissocialposition。
Conversely，itistruethatthesocietyisthroughoutdependentuponthecharacterortheconvictionsandinstinctsofitsconstituentmembers。Tooverlookthereciprocalactionandreaction，andthestructurewhichcorrespondstothem，isnecessarilytomakearbitraryandinaccurateassumptionsandtoregardfactorsinasingleprocessasindependententities。ThetendencyoftheUtilitarianwastoregardsocietyasanumberofindependentbeings，simplyboundtogetherbythelegalorquasi-legalsanctions。Moralityitselfwastreatedasacaseofexternal’law。’Theindividual，again，wasabundleofideas，boundtogetherby’associationswhichcouldbeindefinitelymodified。’Inbothcases，theunitywasimposedbyaforceinsomesense’external，’andthereforethewholesocialstructureofindividualcharacterbecameinsomesense’artificial。’ItistheacceptanceofsuchassumptionswhichhindersMillinhisattempttomarkouttheindividualsphere。
Wehaveseenthedifficulties。Inmorality，itisimpossibletodividethe’extra-regarding’fromthe’self-regarding’
qualities，becausemoralityisafunctionofthewholecharacterconsideredasaunit。Mill，therefore，hastoconcedeaconsiderablespheretomoralpressure。Thefactthatinpositivelawitisnotonlypossiblebutnecessarytodistinguish’self-regarding’actionsfrom’extra-regarding’actionsmarksthespherewithinwhichlegislationcanworkefficiently。Butthesamefactprovesalsothatthedirectlegalcoercionisonlyasubordinateelementinthewholesocialprocess。Thoughitisonlycalledintoplaytosuppresscertainovertactions，itindirectlyaffectsthewholecharacter：itmayhelptostimulateallthequalities，’self-regarding’orotherwise，whichformagoodcitizen；andtoarguethatitshouldbeindifferenttothesebroaderresultsistoomitareferencetothewider’utility’
whichisidenticalwithmorality。Millisthusdriventoawkwardcasuistrybytryingtoexcludethemoralconsiderationswheretheyareobviouslyessential，ortoadmitthemundersomeingeniouspretext。Ineconomicproblemsthedifficultyismoreconspicuous；forwehavetheretodowiththewholeindustrialstructure，whichisaffectedthroughoutbyinstitutionscreatedorconfirmedbylaw。Itis，again，impossibletodistinguishthespheresofthe’natural’andthe’artificial’——orofindividualandstateaction。Theindustrialstructureisaproductofboth。
Considerallstateactiontobebadbecause’artificial，’andyouareledtosuchanisolationofthe’individual’asreducesallresponsibilitytoanameforselfishness。Youaretoteachmentobeprudentsimplybyleavingtheimprudenttostarvation。Mill，revoltedbythisconsequence，admitsthatthestatemusthaveregardtotheinjusticeforwhichitis，atleastindirectly，responsible。Hetheninclinestoexaggeratethepowerofthe’artificial’factorbecauseitembodieshuman’volition’andleanstowardsthecrudeSocialismwhichassumesthatallinstitutionscanbearbitrarilyreconstructedbylegislativeinterference。Hencewhenwecometothepoliticalproblem，totheorganbywhichthelegalbondisconstructed，Millexaggeratesthepowerof’making’ascontradistinguishedfromthe’growing。’