seriesofarticlescalled，TheSpiritoftheAge，inthispaperledtohisacquaintancewithCarlyle，whotookhimtobea’newMystic。’24*In1830and1831hewrotehisessaysonSomeUnsettledQuestionsofPoliticalEconomy，thefruitofthediscussionswithGrahamnotpublishedtill1844，andin1832
wrotearticlesuponfoundationsanduponthe’currencyjuggle，’
whicharethefirstofhiscollecteddissertations。
IhavenowfollowedMill’smentalhistoryuntiltheperiodatwhichthefollowerwasfullycompetenttobecometheguide。Itwouldbedifficulttomentionanythinkerwhohasgonethroughamorestrenuousandcontinuousdiscipline。Fromhisearliestinfancytillthefulldevelopmentofhispowershehadbeengoingthroughakindoflogicalmill。Nostudentintheoldschoolsemployingeverywakinghourin，syllogising，couldhavebeenmoreassiduouslytrainedtotheuseofhisweapons。Ifhisboyishyearshadbeenpassedinakindofintellectualgymnasium，hehadasayouthprovedandperfectedhisskillilltheopenarena。Hisofficialpositionwasmakinghimfamiliarwithbusinessandwiththeordinarystateofmindofthecommonplacepolitician。HehadbeeninterestedinfreshlinesofthoughtthroughthewritingsofFrenchLiberals，andespeciallytheSt。Simonians，andthroughhisargumentswiththeSocialistswhofollowedOwen，andwiththeyoungmenwholookeduptoColeridgeastheirgreatteacher。HisownexperiencehadbroughthometohimthesenseofacertainnarrownessandrigidityintheUtilitarians；hisfriendlycontroversieshadledhimtoregardopponentswithmoretolerationthanhispartygenerallydisplayed，andhewassincerelyanxioustowidenthefoundationsofhiscreed，andtoassimilatewhateverwasvaluableinconflictingdoctrines。
Meanwhilehispracticeasawriterhadbythistimeenabledhimtoexpresshimselfwithgreatclearnessandvigour；andyoungashestillwas，hewasbetterqualifiedthananyofhiscontemporariestoexpoundtheviewsofhisparty。
Onepoint，however，mustbemarked。Mill’strainingleftnothingtobedesiredasasystemofintellectualgymnastics。Itwasbynomeanssowellcalculatedtowidenthementalhorizon。
Hisphilosophicalreadingwasnottobecomparedtothat，forexample，ofSirWilliamHamilton，whowasatthistimeaccumulatinghisgreatstoresofknowledge。HelearnedGerman，aspeoplewerebeginningtolearnit，buthedidnotmakehimselffamiliarwithGermanthought。On13thMarch1843，havingjustsentacopyofhisLogictoComte，heobservesthatheowesmuchtoGermanphilosophyasacorrectivetohisexclusiveBenthamism。
Hehasnot，headds，readKant，Hegel，oranychiefoftheschool，butknowsofthemfromtheirFrenchandEnglishinterpreters——presumablyCousin，Coleridge，andSirW。
Hamilton。Hetriedsomeoftheoriginalsafterwards，butfoundthathehadgotallthatwasusefulinthem，andtheremainderwassofastidieuxthathecouldnotgoonreading。25*
Consideringallhisoccupations，hisofficialduties，hiseditingofBentham，hismanycontributionstojournalism，andthetimetakenupbythelittlesocietiesofcongenialminds，thewonderfulthingisthathereadsomuchelse。HekepthimselfwellinformedontheintellectualmovementofFrance；hehadmadeaspecialstudyoftheFrenchrevolution；andwasfairlyfamiliarwithmanyotherprovincesofhistoricalinquiry。Itwasimpossible，however，thatheshouldbecomelearnedinthestrictsense。Hisstudies，thatis，weremoreremarkableforintensitythanforextent。Thevigorousdiscussionswithhisfriendsuponpoliticaleconomy，logic，andpsychology，whileimplyinganadmirabletraining，impliedalsoalimitationofstudy；theydidnotgetbeyondtheschoolofRicardoinpoliticaleconomy，norbeyondtheschoolofJamesMillinpsychology，norbeyondafewtextbooksinformallogic。Theyarguedthequestionsraisedthoroughly，anduntiltheyhadfullysettledtheirowndoubts。
ButitwouldbeaninevitableresultthattheywouldgenerallybesatisfiedwhentheyhaddiscoverednotsomuchathoroughsolutionasthebestsolutionwhichcouldbegivenfromtheUtilitarianpointofview。Themorefundamentalquestionsastothetenabilityofthatviewwouldhardlyberaised。Therefore，thoughMilldeservesallthecreditwhichhehasreceivedforcandour，andwas，infact，mostanxioustoreceivelightfromoutside，itisnotsurprisingthathewillsometimesappeartohavebeenblindtoargumentsfamiliartothinkersofadifferentschool。ThefaultiscertainlynotpeculiartoMill；indeed，itishisgenuinedesiretoescapefromitwhichmakesitnecessarytoaskwhytheescapewasnotmorecomplete。Briefly，atany，rate，Mill，likemostotherpeople，continuedthroughlifetobepenetratedbytheconvictionsinstilledinearlyyouth。
III。THEPHILOSOPHICALRADICALS
TheperiodwhichfollowedtheReformBillshowedagreatchangeinMill’spersonalposition。TheUtilitarianshadtakentheirpartintheagitation，andexpectedtoshareinthefruitsofvictory。Severalofthemweremembersofthefirstreformedparliament，especiallyGroteandRoebuck，whonowenteredtheHouseforthefirsttime。CharlesBuller1806-1848andSirWilliamMolesworth1810-1855werealsonewmembers，andbothwereamongtheyoungestrecruitsoftheUtilitarianpartyBullerhadbeenapupilofCarlyle，andafterwardsoneoftheCambridgeorators。Hewasevidentlyamanofveryattractivenature，thoughheseemstohavebeentoofondofajoke——theonlyUtilitarian，probably，liabletothatimputation——andwasgainingahighreputationbythetimeofhisearlydeath。Molesworth，afteradesultoryeducation，whichincludedabriefstayatCambridgeaboutBuller’stime，andsomestudyonthecontinent，becameafriendofGroteuponenteringparliament。Hewasamanofmanyintellectualinterests，andanardentUtilitarian。Theseandafewmoreformedthepartyknownas’thephilosophicalRadicals。’
Mill，whosepositionwasincompatiblewithparliamentaryambition，wastobetheexponentoftheirprinciplesinthepress。Whatevertheirfailings，theycertainlyformedanimportantsectionofthemostintelligentpoliticiansofthetime。Millbecametheirchiefexponentinthepress，andbeganoperationsbyarticlesintheExaminerandtheMonthlyRepositoryeditedbyW。J。Fox。Hesays26*thathiswritingsbetween1832and1834wouldfillalargevolume。Molesworththenproposedtostartanewquarterly，tobecalledtheLondonReview，whichshouldrepresentthetruecreedmorefaithfullythantherecreantWestminster。HestipulatedthatMillshouldbethevirtual，thoughhecouldnot，onaccountofhisofficialposition，betheostensible，editor。ThefirstnumberoftheLondonaccordinglyappearedinApril1835。AyearlaterMolesworthboughttheWestminster，andthereviewwasnowcalledtheLondonandWestminster。Molesworth，havingbecometiredofcarryingonareviewwhichdidnotpay，handeditovertoMillin1837，whocontinuedittill1840，whenhetransferredittoMrHickson。27*Thevitalityofunprofitablereviewsisoneofthemysteriesofliterature。Milllostmoneyandspentmuchtimeinthisdiscouragingwork；buthewoulddoubtlesshavegrudgedneitherhadhesucceededindoingarealservicetohisparty。
The’philosophical’Radicals，however，weredoomedtofailure。Oneamongmanyobviousreasonsissuggestedbythename。
PhilosophicalinEnglishissynonymouswithvisionary，unpractical，orperhaps，simplyfoolish。Thephilosophersseemedtobemenofcrotchets，fitterforthestudythantheplatform。
Theyhad，asMillsays，littleenterpriseoractivity，andlefttheleadtothe’oldhands，’HumeandO’Connell。About1838，indeed，Millappearstohavebecomequitealienatedfromthem。Hethoughtthem’craven，’andtheythoughthim’mad。’28*Headmits，indeed，thatthemenwerelesstoblamethanthetimes。
Mill，however，heldthen，andseemstohavealwaysbelieved，thatwhatwaswantingwasmainlyaworthyleader。Hisfather，hethinks，mighthaveforcedtheWhigstoaccepttheRadicalpolicyhadhebeeninparliament。Forwantofsuchaleader，thephilosophicalRadicalsbecameamereleftwingoftheWhigs。Foratime，MillhadsomehopesofLordDurham，whorepresentedRadicalleaningsintheuppersphere。Durham’sdeathin1840putanendtoanysuchhopes；andthephilosophicalRadicalshadprettywellceasedbythattimetorepresentanyrealpoliticalforce。Intruth，however，itisdifficulttobelievethatanyleadercouldhavemademuchoutofthematerialsathisdisposal。
TheReformBillhadtransferredpowertothemiddleclasses。Theyhadresentedtheirownexclusionfrominfluence，andithadbeenimpossibletopreventthegreattownsfromacquiringashareintherepresentationwithoutriskofviolentrevolution。Butitdidnotatallfollowthatthemajorityofthenewconstituentsacceptedtheprogrammeoftheextremereformers。Theyhadforcedthedoorsforthemselves，buthadnodesiretoadmitthecrowdstillleftoutside。OnlyasmallminoritydesiredthemeasureswhichtheRadicalshadcontemplated，whichinvolvedorganicconstitutionalchanges，andwouldpossiblyleadtoconfiscation。
WhentheChartistsproposedasweepingreformthemiddleclasseswerefrightenedbytheprospectofrevolution。Theywerequitewillingtoleavetheoldaristocraticfamiliesinpower，ifonlythepolicyweremodifiedsoastobemorecongenialtotheindustrialinterests。Statesmenbroughtupundertheoldsystemwerestilltheofficeholders，andwereonlyanxioustosteeramiddlecourse。Allthisisnowobviousenough；anditmeantatthetimethatthephilosophicalRadicalsfoundthemselves，totheirsurprise，withoutanygreatforcebehindthem，andwereonlyabletocomplainofthehalf-heartedpolicyoftheWhigs，andtoweakentheadministrationuntiltheConservativesunderPeelcouldtakeadvantageofasituationwhichhadbecomeintolerable。ThefavouritemeasureofthephilosophicalRadicalswastheballot。TheyattributedtheslackeningofzealforRadicalismtothefactthatthearistocracyweretryingtomaintaintheiroldpowerbybriberyandintimidation。Theballotwouldbethemostobviouschecktothispolicy。
UndertheseconditionsMill’spositionischaracteristic。Hewrotemuchandforcibly。SomeofhisarticlesofthisperiodintheWestminsterarecollectedinthefirstvolumeofthedissertations。Heomittedotherswhichrefertomattersofmoreephemeralinterest。Theyshowgreatpower，buttheyalsoindicatetherealdifficulty。Millwritesasaphilosopherandanexpounderofgeneralideas。Buthealsowritesasapartisan——
insisting，forexample，upontheballotofwhichheafterwardscametodisapprove——anditisalwaysaverydifficultmattertoreconciletherequirementsimposedbythesedifferentpointsofview。Millwasscarcelyimmersedenoughinthecurrentofpoliticalagitationtoplanttellingpersonalblows；and，ontheotherhand，histheoriesseemtobecrampedbythenecessityofsupportingaplatform。Heaimed，hesays，attwopoints。Hetried，and，hethinks，withpartialsuccess，tosupplyaphilosophyofRadicalism，widerthanBentham’s，andyetincludingwhatwaspermanentlyvaluableinBentham。Hetriedalso，andthisaimwas，fromthefirstchimerical，’torousetheRadicalstotheformationofapowerfulparty。ThearticlesuponDurhamwerepartlypromptedbythispurpose；and，thoughunsuccessfulinthatrespect，hespoke，hethinks，the’wordinseason，’whichatacriticalmomentdirectedpublicopiniontowardstheconcessionofself-governmenttotheColonies。29*
ThearticlesintheWestminstershow，nowthatwecanseelaterdevelopments，howclearlyhesawtherealdifficulty，andyethowfarhewasfromestimatingitsfullsignificance。Theyareofessentialimportancetoanunderstandingofhiswholecareer。30*Inthearticlewhichwashisfarewelltopoliticsforthetime，heelaboratelystatestheproblem。Heconsiderswhatareaman’s，natural，politics。Heclaimsmorethantheusualfaithintheinfluenceofreasonandvirtueovermen’sminds；butthenitisintheinfluence’ofthereasonandvirtueupontheirownsideofthequestion。’AmanismadeaLiberaloraConservativeontheaveragebyhisposition；heismadeaLiberaloraConservativeofaparticularkindbyhis’intellectandheart。’Inotherwords，parties，inthemain，representclasses；andthefundamentaloppositionisbetweenthe，privileged，andthe，disqualified，classes。Theline，then，aswiththeoldRadicals，isdrawnbetweentheprivileged，whoarechieflythelandownersandtheiradherents，clerical，legal，andmilitary，andthe，disqualified，’whoarechieflythelowermiddleclassesandtheworkingclasses。Now，theRadicalpartyoughttocombinethewholestrengthofthedisqualifiedagainsttheprivileged。Whydotheynot？Amongthesuperficialreasonsisthatwantofaleader，whichMillhopedtosupplybyDurham。