[89]DufortdeCheverney，\"Mémoires，\"（February26，March31andSeptember6，1797）。\"Thatpoortheoristicimbecile，LaRévellière—
Lepaux，who，joiningBarrasandReubellagainstBarthélémyandCarnot，madethe18thofFructidor，andshuthimselfinhisroomsoasnottowitnessit，himselfavowsthequalityofhisstaff。\"（\"Memoires，\"II。，164。）\"The18thofFructidornecessitatednumerouschangesonthepartoftheDirectory。Insteadofputtingrepublicans，butaboveall，honest，wiseandenlightenedmenintheplaceofthefunctionariesandemployeesdismissedorrevoked，theselectionsdictatedbythenewCouncilsfellforthemostpartonanarchistsandmenofbloodandrobbery。\"
[90]Lacretelle，\"Dixansd’épreuves，\"p。317。AfewdaysafterFructidor，Robert，anoldJacobin，exclaimedwithgreatjoyontheroadtoBrie—Comté，\"Alltheroyalistsaregoingtobedrivenoutorguillotined！\"TheseriesF。7intheArchivesNationales，containshundredsoffilesfilledwithreports\"onthestateofthepublicmind，\"ineachdepartment，townorcantonbetweentheyearsIII。andVIII。Ihavegivenseveralmonthstotheirexaminationand，forlackofspace，cannotcopyanyextracts。TherealhistoryofthelastfiveyearsoftheRevolutionmaybefoundinthesefiles。Mallet—Dupangivesacorrectimpressionofitinhis\"CorrespondanceaveclacourdeVienne，\"alsointhe\"MercureBritannique。\"
[91]Sauzay，X。，chaps。8oand90。—LudovicSciout，IV。，ch。17。
（SeeespeciallyinSauzay，X。，pp。170and281，theinstructionsgivenbyDuval，December16，1796，andthecircularsofFran？oisdeNeufchateaufromNovember20，1798，downtoJune18，1798，eachofthesepiecesbeingamasterpieceinitsway。
[92]\"Journald’unBourgeoisd’Evreux，\"p。134。\"June7，1798。\"\"Thedayfollowingthedécade，thegardeners，whoasusualcametoshowthemselvesoffonthemainstreet，werefinedsixlivresforhavingtreatedwithcontemptandbrokenthedécade。\"January21，1799。
\"Thosewhowerecaughtworkingonthedécade，werefinedthreelivresforthefirstoffenceiftheywerecaughtmorethanoncethefinewasdoubledanditwasevenfollowedbyimprisonment\"
[93]LudovicSciout，IV。，160。Examplesof\"individualmotives\"
allegedtojustifythesentenceoftransportation。Onehasrefusedtobaptizeaninfantwhoseparentswereonlymarriedcivilly。Anotherhas\"declaredtohisaudiencethatthecatholicmarriagewasthebest。\"Another\"hasfanaticized。\"Another\"haspreachedperniciousdoctrinescontrarytotheconstitution。\"Another\"may，byhispresence，incitedisturbances，\"etc。Amongthecondemnedwefindseptuagenarians，knownpriestsandevenmarriedpriests。—Ibid。，634，637。
[94]Sauzay，IX。，715……（Listofnames。）
[95]LudovicSciout，IV。，656。
[96]DufortdeCheverney，\"Mémoires，\"September7，1798。—Ibid。，February26，1799。\"InBelgiumpriestsarelodgedintheCarmelites（convent）。\"September9，1799。\"TwomorecartsaresentfullofpriestsfortheislandsofRhéandOléron。\"
[97]Thibaudeau，II……318，321。—Mallet—Dupan，II。，357，368。Theplanwentfarther:\"Allchildrenofemigrants，\"orofthosefalselyaccusedofbeingsuch，\"leftinFrance，shallbetakenfromtheirrelativesandconfidedtorepublicantutors，andtherepublicshalladministertheirproperty。\"
[98]InreadingaboutthisLeninandStalinmusthavebeeninspiredtocreatetheirGoulagstowhichnotonlyRussianandEstonian\"petitBourgeois，\"butalsootherundesirablenationalgroupsweresent。
（SR。）
[99]DecreeofFrimaire9，yearVI。（ExceptionsinfavoroftheactualmembersoftheDirectory，ministers，militarymenonduty，andthemembersofthediverseNationalAssemblies，exceptthosewhointheconstituentAssemblyprotestedagainsttheabolitionofnobility。）
Oneofthespeakers，afuturecountoftheEmpire，proposedthateverynobleclaiminghisinscriptiononthecivicregistersshouldsignthefollowingdeclaration:\"Asmanandasrepublican，Iequallydetesttheinsolentsuperstitionwhichpretendstodistinctionsofbirth，andthecowardlyandshamefulsuperstitionwhichbelievesinandmaintainsit。\"
[100]DecreeofFructidor19，yearII。
[101]Lally—Tollendal，\"DéfensedesEmigrés，\"（Paris。1797，2ndpart，49，62，74。ReportofPortalistotheCouncilofFiveHundred，Feb。
18，1796。\"Regardthatinnumerableclassofunfortunateswhohaveneverlefttherepublicansoil。\"—SpeechbyDubreuil，Aug。26，1796。
\"ThesupplementarylistinthedepartmentofAvignonbears1004or1005names。AndyetIcanattesttoyouthattherearenotsixnamesonthisenormouslistjustlyputdownasveritableemigrants。\"
[102]LudovicSciout，IV。，619。（ReportoftheYonneadministration，Frimaire，yearVI。）\"Thegendarmeriewenttothehouses，inSensaswellasAuxerre，ofseveralofthecitizensinscribedonthelistsofémigréswhowereknownnevertohavelefttheircommunesincetheRevolutionbegan。AstheyhavenotbeenfounditisprobablethattheyhavewithdrawnintoSwitzerland，orthattheyaresolicitingyoutohavetheirnamesstrickenoff。\"
[103]DecreesofVendémiaire20andFrimaire9，yearVI。—DecreeofMessidor10。
[104]DufortdeCheverney，\"Mémoires。\"（BeforetheRevolutionheenjoyedanincomeoffiftythousandlivres，ofwhichonlyfivethousandremain。）\"MadameAmelotlikewisereduced，rentshermansionforaliving。Throughthesamedelicacyasourownshedidnotavailherselfofthefacilityofferedtoherofindemnifyinghercreditorswithassignats。\"Anotherlady，likewiseruined，seeksaplaceinsomecountryhouseinorderthatherselfandsonmaylive。\"—\"StatistiquedelaMoselle，\"byColchen，préfet，yearVI。\"Agreatmanypeoplewithincomeshaveperishedthroughwantandthroughpaymentofinterestinpaper—moneyandthereductionofTreasurybonds。\"—DufortdeCheverney，Ibid。，March，1799。\"Theformernoblesseandevencitizenswhoareatallwell—offneednotdependonanyamelioration……Theymustexpectacompleterescissionofbodiesandgoods……Pecuniaryresourcesarediminishingmoreandmore……
Impositionsarestarvingthecountry。\"—Mallet—Dupan，\"MercureBritannique，\"January25，1799。\"Thousandsofinvalidswithwoodenlegsgarrisonthehousesofthetax—payerswhodonotpayaccordingtothehumorofthecollectors。Theproportionofimpositionsasnowlaidinrelationtothoseoftheancientregimeinthetownsgenerallyisas88to32。\"
[105]DeTocqueville，\"？uvrescomplètes，\"V。，65。（ExtractsfromsecretreportsonthestateoftheRepublic，September26，1799。）
[106]DecreeofMessidor24，yearVI。
[107]DeBarante，\"HistoireduDirectoire，\"III。，456。
[108]A。Sorel，\"RevueHistorique，\"No。1，forMarchandMay，1882。
\"LesFrontièresConstitutionellesen1795。\"Thetreatiesconcludedin1795withTuscany，PrussiaandSpainshowthatpeacewaseasyandthattherecognitionoftheRepublicwaseffectedevenbeforetheRepublicangovernmentwasorganized……thatFrance，whethermonarchicalorrepublican，hadacertainlimitwhichFrenchpowerwasnottooverstep，becausethiswasnotinproportiontotherealstrengthofFrance，norwiththedistributionofforceamongtheotherEuropeangovernments。Onthiscapitalpointtheconventionerred；iterredknowingly，throughalong—meditatedcalculation，whichcalculation，however，wasfalse。andFrancepaiddearlyforitsconsequences。\"—Mallet—Dupan，II。，288，Aug。23，1795。\"ThemonarchistsandmanyofthedeputiesintheConventionsacrificedalltheconqueststohastenonandobtainpeace。ButthefanaticalGirondistsandSiéyès’committeepersistedinthetensionsystem。
Theyweregovernedbythreemotives:1，thedesignofextendingtheirdoctrinealongwiththeirterritory；2，thedesireofsuccessivelyfederalizingtheStatesofEuropewiththeFrenchRepublic；and3，thatofprolongingapartialwarwhichalsoprolongsextraordinarypowersandrevolutionaryresources。\"——Carnot，\"Mémoires，\"I。，476。
（ReporttotheCommitteeofPublicSafety，Messidor28，yearII。）\"Itseemsmuchwisertorestrictourplansofaggrandizementtowhatispurelynecessaryinordertoobtainthemaximumsecurityofourcountry。\"—Ibid。，II。，132，134and136。（LetterstoBonaparte，Oct。
28，1796，andJan。1，1797。）\"ItwouldbeimprudenttofantherevolutionaryflameinItalytoostrongly……TheydesiredtohaveyouworkouttheRevolutioninPiedmont，Milan，RomeandNaples；
Ithoughtitbettertotreatwiththesecountries，drawsubsidiesfromthem，andmakeuseoftheirownorganizationtokeepthemundercontrol。\"
[109]Carnot，ibid。，II。147。\"Barras，addressingmelikeamadman，said，’Yes，itistoyouweowethatinfamoustreatyofLeoben！’\"
[110]AndreLebon，\"L’Angleterreetl’EmigrationFran？aise，\"p。235。
（LetterofWickam，June27，1797，wordsofBarthélemytoM。
d’Aubigny。）
[111]LordMalmesbury，\"Diary，\"III。，541。（September9，1797。）\"TheviolentrevolutionwhichhastakenplaceatParishasupsetallourhopesanddefeatedallourreasoning。Iconsideritthemostunluckyeventthatcouldhavehappened。\"Ibid。，（LetterfromCanning，September29，1797。）\"Wewereinahair’sbreadthofit（peace）。
NothingbutthatcursedrevolutionatParisandthesanguinary，insolent，implacableandignorantarroganceofthetriumviratecouldhavepreventedus。Hadthemoderatepartytriumphedallwouldhavebeenwell，notforusonlybutforFrance，forEuropeandforalltheworld。\"
[112]Carnot，II。，152。\"Doyousuppose，repliedReubell，thatIwanttheCapeandTrinquemalerestoredforHolland？Thefirstpointistotakethem，andtodothatHollandmustfurnishthemoneyandthevessels。AfterthatIwillmakethemseethatthesecoloniesbelongtous。\"
[113]LordMalmesbury，\"Diary，\"III。，526。（LetterfromParis，Fructidor17，yearV。）—ibid。，483。（ConversationofMr。ElliswithMr。Pain。）
[114]Ibid。III。，519，544。（ThewordsofMaretandColchen。）—\"
Reubell，\"saysCarnot，\"seemstobeperfectlyconvincedthatprobityandcivismaretwoabsolutelyincompatiblethings。\"
[115]Mallet—Dupan，II。，49。WordsofSiéyès，March27，1797。Ibid，I。，258，407；II。，4，49，350，361，386。ThisissotruethatthisprevisionactuatestheconcessionsoftheEnglishambassador。（LordMalmesbury，\"Diary，\"III。，519。LettertoCanning。August29，1797。）
\"Iamthemoreanxiousforpeacebecause，inadditiontoallthecommonplacereasons，Iamconvincedthatpeacewillparalyzethiscountrymostcompletely，thatalltheviolentmeanstheyhaveemployedforwarwillreturnuponthemlikeanhumourdriveninandoversetentirelytheirweakandbaselessconstitution。Thisconsequenceofpeaceissomuchmoretobepressed，astheverybestconditionswecouldofferinthetreaty。\"
[116]MathieuDumas，III。，256。—MiotdeMelito，I。，163，191。
（ConversationswithBonaparteJuneandSeptember，1797。）
[117]Mallet—Dupan，\"MercureBritannique，\"No。forNovember10，1798。
Howsupportgiganticandexactingcrimesonitsownsoil？Howcanitflatteritselfthatitwillextractfromanimpoverishedpeople，withoutmanufactures，tradeorcredit，nearlyabillionofdirectandindirectsubsidies？HowrenewthatimmensefundofconfiscationsonwhichtheFrenchrepublichaslivedforthepasteightyears？Byconqueringeveryyearanewnationanddevastatingitstreasuries，itscharacter，itsmonts—de—piété，itsownersofproperty。TheRepublic，fortenyearspast，wouldhavelaiddownitsarmshaditbeenreducedtoitsowncapital。
[118]Mallet—Dupan，\"MercureBritannique，\"Nos。forNovember25，andDecember25，1798，andpassim。
[119]Ibid。，No。forJanuary25，1799。\"TheFrenchRepubliciseatingEuropeleafbyleafliketheheadofanartichoke。\"Itrevolutionizesnationsthatitmaydespoilthem，anditdespoilsthemthatitmaysubsist。\"
[120]LetterofMallet—DupantoadeputyonadeclarationofwaragainstVeniceandontheRevolutioneffectedatGenoa。（The\"Quotidienne，\"Nos。410，413，414，421。）—Ibid。，\"EssaiHistoriquesurladestructiondeleSigneetdeleLibertéHistorique。\"（Nos。I，2，and3ofthe\"MercureBritannique。\"）—Carnot，II。，153。（WordsofCarnotinrelationtotheSwissproceedingsoftheDirectory。）\"ItisthefableoftheWolfandtheLamb。\"
[121]OverhaulingoftheConstitutionorthepurgingoftheauthoritiesinHollandbyDelacroix，January22，1798，inCisalpinebyBerthier，February，1798，byTrouve，August，1798，byBrune，September，1798，inSwitzerlandbyRapinat，June，1798，etc。
[122]Mallet—Dupan，（\"MercureBritannique。\"numbersforNovember26。
December25，1798，March10andJuly10，1799）。DetailsanddocumentsrelatingtopopularinsurrectionsinBelgium，Switzerland，Suabia，Modena，theRomanStates。PiedmontandUpperItaly。—LetterofanofficerintheFrencharmydatedatTurinandprintedatParis。
\"Whereverthecivilcommissionerspassthepeopleriseininsurrection，and，althoughIhavecomenearbeingavictimoftheseinsurrectionsfourtimes，Icannotblamethepoorcreatures；eventhestrawoftheirbedsistaken。MostofPiedmont，asIwrote，hasrisenagainsttheFrenchrobbers，astheycallus。WillyoubesurprisedwhenItellyouthat，sincethepretendedrevolutionofthiscountry，threeorfourmonthsago，wehavedevouredtenmillionsofcoin，fifteenmillionsofpapermoney，withthediamonds，furniture，etc。，oftheCrown？Thepeoplejudgeusaccordingtoouractionsandregarduswithhorrorandexecrations。\"
[123]Mallet—Dupan，Ibid。，numberforJanuary，1799。（Listaccordingtoarticles，withdetails，figuresanddates。）—Ibid。，No。forMay25，1799:detailsofthesackofRomeaccordingtothe\"Journal\"ofM。
Duppa，aneyewitness。—Ibid。，Nos。forFebruary10and25，1799:
detailsofspoliationinSwitzerland，Lombardy，LuccaandPiedmont。—
Thefollowingfiguresshowtherobberiescommittedbyindividuals:InSwitzerland，\"theDirectorialcommissary，Rapinat，themajor—general，Schawembourgandtheordinancecommissary，Rouhière，eachcarriedawayamilliontournois。\"\"Rouhière，besidesthis，levied20percent。oneachcontractheissued，whichwasworthtohim350，000livres。HisfirstsecretaryToussaint，stoleinBernealone，150，000livres。ThesecretaryofRapinat，Amberg，retiredwith300，000livres。\"GeneralLorgecarriedoff150，000livresinspecie，besidesalotofgoldmedalstakenfromtheH？tel—de—VilleatBerne；histwobrigadier—
generals，RamponandPijon，eachappropriated216，000livres。\"Gen。
Duheur，encampedinBrisgav，sentdailytothethreevillagesatoncethebillsoffareforhismealsandorderedrequisitionsforthem；hedemandedofone，articlesinkindand，simultaneously，specieofanother。Hewascontentwith100florinsaday，whichhetookinprovisionsandtheninmoney。\"—\"Massena，onenteringMilanateleveno’clockintheevening，hadcarriedoffinfourhours，withoutgivinganyinventoryorreceipt，allthecash—boxesoftheconvents，hospitalsandmonts—de—piété，whichwereenormouslyrich，takingalso，amongothers，thecasketofdiamondsbelongingtoPrinceBelgiojoso。
ThatnightwasworthtoMassena1，200，000livres。\"（Mallet—Dupan，\"MercureBritannique，\"February10，1799，and\"Journal，\"MS。，March，1797。）OnthesentimentsoftheItalians，cf。theletterofLieutenantDupin，Prairial27，yearVIII。；（G。Sand，\"Histoiredemavie，\"II。251）oneaccountofthebattleofMarengo，lostuptotwoo’clockintheafternoon；\"IalreadysawthatthePo，andtheTessinweretobecrossed，acountrytotraverseofwhicheveryinhabitantisourenemy。\"
[124]Mallet—Dupan，ibid。，numberforJanuary101791。\"December31，1796。MarquisLittahadalreadypaidassessmentsamountingto500，000
livresmilanais，MarquisT。，420，000，CountGrepi900，000，andotherproprietorsinproportion。\"Ransomofthe\"DecurioniofMilan，andotherhostagessentintoFrance，1，500，000livres。\"——ThisisinconformitywiththeJacobintheory。IntheoldinstructionsofCarnot，wereadthefollowingsentence:\"Assessmentsmustbelaidexclusivelyontherich；thepeoplemustseethatweareonlyliberators……Enterasbenefactorsofthepeople，andatthesametimeasthescourgeofthegreat，therichandenemiesoftheFrenchname。\"（Carnot，I。，433。）
[125]LudovicSciout，IV。，776。（ReportsoftheyearVII。，ArchivesNationales，F。7，7701and7718。）\"Outof1，400mencomposingthefirstauxiliarybattalionofconscripts，1087cowardlydesertedtheirflag（Haute—Loire），andoutof900recentlyrecruitedatPuy，toformthenucleusofthesecondbattalion，800againhaveimitatedtheirexample。\"—DufortdeCheverney，\"Mémoires，\"September，1799。\"Welearnedthatoutof400conscriptsconfinedinthe（Blois）chateau，whoweretosetoutthatnight，100haddisappeared。\"—October12，1799:\"Theconscriptsareinthechateautothenumberof5or600。
Theysaythattheywillnotdesertuntiloutofthedepartmentandontheroad，soasnottocompromisetheirfamilies。\"—October14，\"200
havedeserted，leavingabout300。\"—ArchivesNationales，F。7，3267。
（Reportseverytendaysonrefractoryconscriptsordesertersarrestedbythemilitarypolice，yearVIII。DepartmentofSeine—et—Oise。）Inthisdepartmentalone，thereare66arrestsinVendémiaire，136inBrumaire，56inFrimaireand86inPluvi？se。
[126]Mallet—Dupan，No。forJanuary25，1799。（LetterfromBelgium。）
\"To—dayweseearevoltlikethatwhichtheUnitedProvincesmadeagainsttheDukeofAlba。NeverhavetheBelgianssincePhilipII。
displayedsimilarmotivesforresistanceandvengeance。\"
[127]DecreesofFructidor19，yearVI。andVendémiaire27，yearVII。
—Mallet—Dupan，No。forNovember25，1798。）
[128]M。LéoncedeLavergne（\"EconomieruraledelaFrancesince1789，\"p。38）estimatesatamillionthenumberofmensacrificedinthewarsbetween1792and1800。—\"Trustworthyofficials，who，ayearago，havehadtheofficialdocumentsintheirpossession，havecertifiedtomethatthewarstatisticsforthelevyingoftroopsbetween1794andthemiddleof1795hadraised900，000menofwhom650，000hadbeenlostinbattle，inthehospitalsorbydesertion。\"
Mallet—Dupan。（No。forDecember10，1798。—Ibid。（No。forMarch20，1799。）\"Dumasaffirmedthat，intheLegislativeCorps，theNationalGuardhadrenewedthebattalionsofthedefendersofthecountrythreetimes……Thefactoftheshamefuladministrationofthehospitalsisprovedthroughtheadmissionsofgenerals，commissariesanddeputiesthatthesoldiersweredyingforwantoffoodandmedicine。Ifweaddtothistheextravagancewithwhichtheleadersofthearmiesletthemebekilled，wecanreadilycomprehendthistriplerenewalinthespaceofsevenyears。—Asanillustrationtherewasthevillageoffourhundredandfiftyinhabitantsin1789furnished（1792and1793）fiftysoldiers。（\"
HistoireduVillagedeCroissy，Seine—et—OisependantlaRevolution，\"
byCampenon。）。—LaVendéewasabottomlesspit，likeSpainandRussiaafterwards。\"Agoodrepublican，whoentrustedwiththesupplytheVendéearmywithprovisionsforfifteenmonths，assuredmethatoutoftwohundredthousandmenwhomhehadseenprecipitatedintothisgulftherewerenottenthousandthatcameofit。\"（Meissner，\"Voyageà
Paris，\"p。338，latterendof1795）—Thefollowingfigures（\"StatistiquesdesPréfets\"yearsIX。，untilXI。）areexact。Eightdepartments，（Doubs，Ain，Eure，Meurthe，Aisne，Aude，Dr？me，Moselle）
furnishthetotalnumberoftheirvolunteers，recruitsandconscripts，amountingto193，343。Thesethreedepartments（ArthurYoung，\"VoyageenFrance，\"II。，31）had，in1790，apopulationof2，446，000souls:
theproportionindicatesthatoutof26millionFrenchmenalittlemorethan2millionswerecalledupformilitaryservice。—Ontheotherhand，fivedepartments（Doubs，Eure，Meurthe，Aisne，Moselle）
gave，notonlythenumberoftheirsoldiers，131，322，butlikewisethatoftheirdead，56，976，oroutof1000menfurnished435died。
Thisproportionshows870，000deadoutoftwomillionsoldiers。
[129]Thestatisticsoftheprefectsandreportsofcouncil—generalsoftheyearIX。allagreeinthestatementsofthenotablediminutionofthemasculineadultpopulation。—LordMalmesburyhadalreadymadethesameobservationin1796。（\"Diary，\"October21and23，1796，fromCalaistoParis。）\"Childrenandwomenwereworkinginthefields。Menevidentlyreducedinnumber……Cartsoftendrawnbywomenandmostofthembyoldpeopleorboys。Itisplainthatthemalepopulationhasdiminished；forthewomenwesawontheroadsurpassedthenumberofmenintheproportionoffourtoone。\"——Whereverthenumberofthepopulationisfilledupitisthroughtheinfantileandfeminineincrease。Nearlyalltheprefectsandcouncil—generalsstatethatprecociousmarriageshavemultipliedtoexcessthroughconscription。—DufortdeCheverney，\"Mémoires，\"September1st，1800。
\"Theconscriptionhavingsparedthemarried，alltheyoungmenmarriedattheageofsixteen。Thenumberofchildreninthecommuneisdoubleandtriplewhatitwasformerly。\"
[130]Sauzay，X。，471。（SpeechbyRepresentativeBiot，Aug。29，1799。）
[131]AlbertBabeau，II。，466。（LetterofMilany，July1，1798，andreportbyPout，Messidor，yearVI。）
[132]Schmidt，III。，374。（ReportsonthesituationofthedepartmentoftheSeine，Ventose，yearVII。）—DufortdeCheverney，\"Mémoires，\"
October22，1799。\"Thecolumnofmilitiasetsoutto—day；therearenomorethanthirtypersonsinit，andtheseagainareallpaidornotpaidclerks，attachésoftheRepublic，allthesebelongingtothedepartment，tothedirectorofdomains，infine，allthebureaus。\"
[133]Schmidt，III。，374。（ReportsonthesituationofthedepartmentoftheSeine，Ventose，yearVII。）—DufortdeCheverney，\"Mémoires，\"
October22，1799。\"Thecolumnofmilitiasetsoutto—day；therearenomorethanthirtypersonsinit，andtheseagainareallpaidornotpaidclerks，attachésoftheRepublic，allthesebelongingtothedepartment，tothedirectorofdomains，infine，allthebureaus。\"
[134]M。deLafayette，\"Mémoires，\"II。，162。（LetterofJuly22，1799。）\"Theotherday，atthemassinSt。Roch，amanbythesideofourdearGrammont，saidfervently:\"MyGod，havemercyonus，exterminatethenation！\"This，indeed，simplymeant:\"MyGod，deliverusfromtheConventionsystem！\"
[135]Schmidt，298，352，377，451，etc。（Ventose，FrimaireandFructidor，yearVII。）
[136]Ibid。，III。（ReportsofPrairial，yearIII。，departmentoftheSeine。）
[137]M。deLafayette，\"Memoires，\"II。，164。（LetterofJuly14，1799。）—DeTocqueville，\"（？uvrescomplètes，\"V。，270。（Testinonyofacontemporary。）—Sauzay，X。，470，471。（SpeechesbyBriotanddeEchassériaux）:\"Icannotunderstandthefrightfulstateoftorporintowhichmindshavefallen；peoplehavecometobelievingnothing，tofeelingnothing，todoingnothing……Thegreatnationwhichhadovercomeallandcreatedeverythingaroundher，seemstoexistonlyinthearmiesandinafewgeneroussouls。\"
[138]LordMalmesbury’s\"Diary，\"（November5，1796）。\"AtRandonneau’s，whopublishedalltheactsandlaws……Verytalkative，butclever……Tenthousandlawspublishedsince1789，butonlyseventyenforced。\"—LudovicSciout，IV。，770。（ReportsofyearVII。）InPuydeDome:\"Outoftwohundredandeighty—sixcommunestherearetwohundredinwhichtheagentshavecommittedeveryspeciesofforgeryontheregistersoftheEtat—Civilandinthecopyingofitsacts，toclearindividualsofmilitaryservice。Here，youngmenoftwentyandtwenty—fivearemarriedtowomenofseventy—
twoandeightyyearsofage，andeventothosewhohavelongbeendead；then，anextractfromthedeathregisterclearsamanwhoisaliveandwell。\"—\"Forgedcontractsarepresentedtoavoidmilitaryservice，youngsoldiersaremarriedtowomenofeighty；onewoman，thankstoaseriesofforgeries，isfoundmarriedtoeightortenconscripts。\"（LetterofanofficeroftheGendarmerietoRoanne，Ventose9，yearVIII。）
[139]WordsofDeTocqueville。—\"LeDucdeBroglie，\"byM。Guizot，p。16。（WordsoftheDucdeBroglie。）\"ThosewhowerenotlivingatthistimecouldformnoideaoftheprofounddiscouragementintowhichFrancehadfallenintheintervalbetweenFructidor18andBrumaire18。\"
[140]BuchezetRoux，XXXVIII。，480。（MessageoftheDirectory，Floréal13，yearIV。，andreportofBailleul，Floreal18。）\"Whenanelectionofdeputiespresentedabadresulttouswethoughtitourdutytoproposesettingitaside……Itwillbesaidthatyourprojectisaveritableproscription。\"—\"Notmoresothanthe19ofFructidor。\"—Cf。fordismissalsintheprovinces，Sauzay，V。，ch。
86。—AlbertBabeau，II。，486。DuringthefouryearstheDirectorylastedthemunicipalcouncilofTroyeswasrenewedseventimes，inwholeorinpart。
[141]BuchezetRoux，XXXIX。，61。（SessionofPrairial30，yearVII。）—Sauzay，X。，ch。87。—Léouzon—Leduc，\"CorrespondenceDiplomatiqueaveclacourdeSuede，\"P。203。—（LettersofJuly1，7
11，19August4；September23，1799。）\"Thepurificationoffunctionaries，somuchtalkedaboutnow，hasabsolutelynootherendinviewbuttheremovalofthepartisansofonefactioninordertosubstitutethoseofanotherfactionwithoutanyregardtomoralcharacter……Itisthischoiceofpersonswithoutprobity，justiceoranyprinciplesofhonestywhateverforthemostimportantofficeswhichmakesonetremble，andespecially，atthismoment，allwhoarereallyattachedtotheircountry。\"—\"Theopeningoftheclubsmust，ineveryrelation，bedeemedadisastrouscircumstance……
Allclassesofsocietyarepanic—strickenatthefaintestprobabilityofthere—establishmentofarepublicangovernmentcopiedafterthatof1793\"……ThepartyofpoliticalincendiariesinFranceistheonlyonewhichcarriesoutsuchdesignsenergeticallyanddirectly。\"
[142]Leouzon—Leduc，ibid，328，329。（DispatchesofSeptember19and23。）—Mallet—Dupan，\"MercureBritannique。\"（No。forOctober25，1799。LetterfromParis。September15。Expositionofthesituationandtableauoftheparties。）\"IwilladdthatthewarwagedwithsuccessbytheDirectoryagainsttheJacobins，（for，althoughtheDirectoryisitselfaJacobinproduction，itwantsnomoreofitsmasters），thatthiswar，Isay，hasralliedpeoplesomewhattothegovernmentwithouthavingconvertedanyonetotheRevolutionorreallyfrightenedtheJacobinswhowillpaythembackiftheyhavetimetodoit。\"
[143]Gohier，\"Mémoires，\"conversationwithSieyèsonhisentryintotheDirectory。\"Hereweare，\"saysSieyèstohim，\"membersofagovernmentwhich，aswecannotconcealfromourselves，isthreatenedwithacomingfall。Butwhentheicemeltsskilfulpilotscanescapeinthebreakingup。Afallinggovernmentdoesnotalwaysimperilthoseattheheadofit。\"
[144]Tacitus，\"Annales，\"bookVI。，§50。\"Macro，intrepidus，opprimiseneminjectumu1t？vestisdiscediquealimine。\"
[145]Mallet—Dupan，\"MercureBritannique。\"（Nos。forDecember25，1798andDecember1799。）\"FromtheverybeginningoftheRevolution，thereneverwas，intheuproarofpatrioticprotestations，amidstsomanypopulareffusionsofdevotiontothepopularcausetoLibertyinthedifferentparties，butonefundamentalconception，thatofgraspingpowerafterhavinginstitutedit，ofusingeverymeansofstrengtheningthemselves，andofexcludingthelargestnumberfromit，inordertocenterthemselvesinaprivilegedcommittee。Assoonastheyhadhurriedthroughthearticlesoftheirconstitutionandseizedthereinsofgovernment，thedominantpartyconjuredthenationtotrusttoit，notwithstandingthatthefarceoftheirreasoningwouldnotbringaboutobedience，……Powerandmoneyandmoneyandpower，allprojectsforguaranteeingtheirownheadsanddisposingofthoseoftheircompetitors，endinthat。Fromtheagitatorsof1789
tothetyrantsof1798，fromMirabeautoBarras，eachlaborsonlytoforciblyopenthegatesofrichesandauthorityandtoclosethembehindthem。\"
[146]Mallet—Dupan，ibid。，No。forApril10，1799。OntheJacobins。
\"Thesourcesoftheirenmities，theprimemotiveoftheirfury，theircoup—d’étatlayintheirconstantmistrustofeachother……
Systematic，immoralfactionists，cruelthroughnecessityandtreacherousthroughprudence，willalwaysattributeperverseintentions。CarnotadmitsthattherewerenottenmenintheConventionthatwereconsciousofprobity。\"
[147]Seeinthisrespect\"HistoiredemaVie，\"byGeorgeSand，volumes2，3and4，thecorrespondenceofherfatherenlistedasavolunteerin1798andalieutenantatMarengo。—Cf。MarshalMarmont，\"Memoires，\"I。，186，282，296，304。\"Ourambition，atthismoment，waswhollysecondary；wewereoccupiedsolelywithourdutiesorpleasures。Themostcordialandfrankestunionprevailedamongstusall。\"
[148]\"JournaldeMarchedusergentFracasse。\"—\"LesCahiersducapitaineCoignet。\"—CorrespondenceofMauriceDupinin\"HistoiredemaVie，\"byGeorgeSand。
[149]\"LesCahiersduCapitaineCoignet，\"p。76。\"Andthenwesawthebiggentlemengettingoutofthewindows。Mantles，capsandfeatherslayonthefloorandthegrenadiersrippedoffthelace。\"—Ibid。，78，NarrationbythegrenadierChome:\"Thepigeonsallflewoutofthewindowandwehadthehalltoourselves。\"
[150]DufortdeCheverney，\"Mémoires，\"September1，1800。
\"Bonaparte，beingfortunatelyplacedattheheadofthegovernment，advancedtheRevolutionmorethanfiftyyears；thecupofcrimeswasfullandoverflowing。Hecutoffthesevenhundredandfiftyheadsofthehydra，concentratedpowerinhisownhands，andpreventedtheprimaryassembliesfromsendingusanotherthirdoffreshscoundrelsintheplaceofthoseabouttotakethemselvesoff……SinceI
stoppedwritingthingsaresochangedastomakerevolutionaryeventsappearasiftheyhadtranspiredmorethantwentyyearsago……
Thepeoplearenolongertormentedonaccountofthedecade，whichisnolongerobservedexceptbytheauthorities……Onecantravelaboutthecountrywithoutapassport……Subordinationisestablishedamongthetroops；alltheconscriptsarecomingback……Thegovernmentknowsnoparty；aroyalistisplacedalongwithadeterminedrepublican，eachbeing，sotosay，neutralizedbytheother。TheFirstConsul，moreaKingthanLouisXIV。，hascalledtheablestmentohiscouncilswithoutcaringwhattheywere。\"—AnnePlumptre，\"ANarrativeofThreeYears’ResidenceinFrancefrom1802
to1805，\"I。，326，329。\"Theclassdenominatedthepeopleismostcertainly，takingitintheaggregate，favorablydisposedtoBonaparte。AnytaleofdistressfromtheRevolutionwasamongthisclassalwaysendedwiththis，’butnow，wearequiet，thankstoGodandtoBonaparte。’\"—Mallet—Dupan，withhisaccustomedperspicacity，（\"MercureBritainnique，\"Nos。forNovember25andDecember10，1799），atoncecomprehendedthecharacterandharmonyofthislastrevolution。\"ThepossibledominationoftheJacobinschilledallagesandmostconditions……Isthatnothing，tobepreserved，evenforoneyear，againsttheravagesofafaction，underwhoseempirenobodycansleeptranquilly，andfindthatfactiondrivenfromallplacesofauthorityjustatatimewheneverybodyfeareditssecondoutburst，withitstorches，itsassassins，itsassessors，anditsagrarianlaws，overthewholeFrenchterritory？……ThatRevolution，ofanentirelynewspecies，appearedtousasfundamentalasthatof1789。
[151]TheAncientRégime，p。144。
EndofTheFrenchRevolution，Volume3
TheModernRegime，Volume1[Napoleon]
TheOriginsofContemporaryFrance，Volume5
byHippolyteA。TaineContents:
PREFACE
BOOKFIRST。NapoleonBonaparte。
ChapterI。HistoricalImportanceofhisCharacterandGenius。
ChapterII。HisIdeas，PassionsandIntelligence。
BOOKSECOND。FormationandCharacteroftheNewState。
ChapterI。TheInstitutionofGovernment。
ChapterII。UseandAbuseofGovernmentServices。
ChapterIII。TheNewGovernmentOrganization。
BOOKTHIRD。ObjectandMeritsoftheSystem。
ChapterI。RecoveryofSocialOrder。
ChapterII。TaxationandConscription。
ChapterIII。AmbitionandSelf—esteem。
BOOKFOURTH。DefectandEffectsoftheSystem。
ChapterI。LocalSociety。
ChapterII。Localsocietysince1830。
PREFACE
ThefollowingthirdandlastpartoftheOriginsofContemporaryFranceistoconsistoftwovolumes。Afterthepresentvolume，thesecondistotreatoftheChurch，theSchoolandtheFamily，describethemodernmilieuandnotethefacilitiesandobstacleswhichasocietylikeourownencountersinthisnewmilieu:here，thepastandthepresentmeet，andtheworkalreadydoneiscontinuedbytheworkwhichisgoingonunderoureyes。——Theundertakingishazardousandmoredifficultthanwiththetwoprecedingparts。FortheAncientRégimeandtheRevolutionarehenceforthcompleteandfinishedperiods；wehaveseentheendofbothandarethusabletocomprehendtheirentirecourse。Onthecontrary，theendoftheulteriorperiodisstillwanting；thegreatinstitutionswhichdatefromtheConsulateandtheEmpire，eitherconsolidationordissolution，havenotyetreachedtheirhistoricterm:since1800，thesocialorderofthings，notwithstandingeightchangesofpoliticalform，hasremainedalmostintact。Ourchildrenorgrandchildrenwillknowwhetheritwillfinallysucceedormiscarry；witnessesofthedenouement，theywillhavefullerlightbywhichtojudgeoftheentiredrama。Thusfarfouractsonlyhavebeenplayed；ofthefifthact，wehavesimplyapresentiment。—Ontheotherhand，bydintoflivingunderthissocialsystem，wehavebecomeaccustomedtoit；itnolongerexcitesourwonder；howeverartificialitmaybeitseemstousnatural。Wecanscarcelyconceiveofanotherthatishealthier；andwhatismuchworse，itisrepugnanttoustodoso。For，suchaconceptionwouldsoonleadtocomparisonsandhencetoajudgmentand，onmanypoints，toanunfavorablejudgment，onewhichwouldbeacensure，notonlyofourinstitutionsbutofourselves。ThemachineoftheyearVIII，[1]
appliedtousforthreegenerations，haspermanentlyshapedandfixedusasweare，forbetterorforworse。If，foracentury，itsustainsus，itrepressesusforacentury。Wehavecontractedtheinfirmitiesitimports—stoppageofdevelopment，instabilityofinternalbalance，disordersoftheintellectandofthewill，fixedideasandideasthatarefalse。Theseideasareours；thereforeweholdontothem，or，rather，theyhavetakenholdofus。Togetridofthem，toimposethenecessaryrecoilonourmind，totransportustoadistanceandplaceusatacriticalpointofview，wherewecanstudyourselves，ourideasandourinstitutionsasscientificobjects，requiresagreateffortonourpart，manyprecautions，andlongreflection。—Hence，thedelaysofthisstudy；thereaderwillpardonthemonconsideringthatanordinaryopinion，caughtonthewing，onsuchasubject，doesnotsuffice。Inanyevent，whenonepresentsanopiniononsuchasubjectoneisboundtobelieveit。Icanbelieveinmyownonlywhenithasbecomepreciseandseemstomeproven。
MenthonSaint—Bernard，September，1890。
BOOKFIRST。NAPOLEONBONAPARTE。
CHAPTERI。HistoricalImportanceofhisCharacterandGenius。
Ifyouwanttocomprehendabuilding，youhavetoimaginethecircumstances，Imeanthedifficultiesandthemeans，thekindandqualityofitsavailablematerials，themoment，theopportunity，andtheurgencyofthedemandforit。But，stillmoreimportant，wemustconsiderthegeniusandtasteofthearchitect，especiallywhetherheistheproprietor，whetherhebuiltittoliveinhimself，and，onceinstalledinit，whetherhetookpainstoadaptittohowownwayofliving，tohisownnecessities，tohisownuse。—SuchisthesocialedificeerectedbyNapoleonBonaparte，itsarchitect，proprietor，andprincipaloccupantfrom1799to1814。ItishewhohasmademodernFrance；neverwasanindividualcharactersoprofoundlystampedonanycollectivework，sothat，tocomprehendthework，wemustfirststudythecharacteroftheMan。[2]
I。Napoleon’sPastandPersonality。
Heisofanotherraceandanothercentury。—Originofhispaternalfamily。—TransplantedtoCorsica。—Hismaternalfamily。—
LaetitiaRamolino。—PersistenceofCorsicansouvenirsinNapoleon’smind。—HisyouthfulsentimentsregardingCorsicaandFrance。—
Indicationsfoundinhisearlycompositionsandinhisstyle。—
Currentmonarchicalordemocraticideashavenoholdonhim。—Hisimpressionsofthe20thofJuneand10thofAugustafterthe31stofMay。—HisassociationswithRobespierreandBarraswithoutcommittinghimself。—HissentimentsandthesidehetakesVendémiaire13th。—ThegreatCondottière。—HischaracterandconductinItaly。
—Descriptionofhimmorallyandphysicallyin1798。—Theearlyandsuddenascendancywhichheexerts。AnalogousinspiritandcharactertohisItalianancestorsoftheXVthcentury。
Disproportionateinallthings，but，strangerstill，heisnotonlyoutofthecommonrun，butthereisnostandardofmeasurementforhim；throughhistemperament，instincts，faculties，imagination，passions，andmoralconstitutionheseemscastinaspecialmould，composedofanothermetalthanthatwhichentersintothecompositionofhisfellowsandcontemporaries。EvidentlyheisnotaFrenchman，noramanoftheeighteenthcentury；hebelongstoanotherraceandanotherepoch。[3]Wedetectinhim，atthefirstglance，theforeigner，theItalian，[4]andsomethingmore，apartandbeyondthese，surpassingallsimilitudeoranalogy。—Italianhewasthroughbloodandlineage；first，throughhispaternalfamily，whichisTuscan，[5]andwhichwecanfollowdownfromthetwelfthcentury，atFlorence，thenatSanMiniato；nextatSarzana，asmall，backward，remotetowninthestateofGenoa，where，fromfathertoson，itvegetatesobscurelyinprovincialisolation，throughalonglineofnotariesandmunicipalsyndics。\"Myorigin，\"saysNapoleonhimself，[6]\"hasmadeallItaliansregardmeasacompatriot……WhenthequestionofthemarriageofmysisterPaulinewithPrinceBorghésecameuptherewasbutonevoiceinRomeandinTuscany，inthatfamily，andwithallitsconnections:’Itwilldo，’saidallofthem，’it’samongstourselves，itisoneofourownfamilies……’\"WhenthePopelaterhesitatedaboutcomingtoParistocrownNapoleon，\"theItalianpartyintheConclaveprevailedagainsttheAustrianpartybysupportingpoliticalargumentswiththefollowingslighttributetonationalamourpropre:’AfterallweareimposinganItalianfamilyonthebarbarians，togovernthem。
WearerevengingourselvesontheGauls。’\"Significantwords，whichwillonedaythrowlightuponthedepthsoftheItaliannature，theeldestdaughterofmoderncivilization，imbuedwithherrightofprimogeniture，persistinginhergrudgeagainstthetransalpines，therancorousinheritorofRomanprideandofantiquepatriotism。[7]
FromSarzana，aBonaparteemigratestoCorsica，whereheestablisheshimselfandlivesafter1529。ThefollowingyearFlorenceistakenandsubjugatedforgood。Henceforth，inTuscany，underAlexanderdeMedici，thenunderCosmoI。andhissuccessors，inallItalyunderSpanishrule，municipalindependence，privatefeuds，thegreatexploitsofpoliticaladventuresandsuccessfulusurpations，thesystemofephemeralprincipalities，basedonforceandfraud，allgivewaytopermanentrepression，monarchicaldiscipline，externalorder，andacertainspeciesofpublictranquility。Thus，justatthetimewhentheenergyandambition，thevigorousandfreesapoftheMiddleAgesbeginstorundownandthendryupintheshriveledtrunk，[8]asmalldetachedbranchtakesrootinanisland，notlessItalianbutalmostbarbarous，amidstinstitutions，customs，andpassionsbelongingtotheprimitivemedievalepoch，[9]andinasocialatmospheresufficientlyrudeforthemaintenanceofallitsvigorandharshness。
—Grafted，moreover，byfrequentmarriages，onthewildstockoftheisland，Napoleon，onthematernalside，throughhisgrandmotherandmother，iswhollyindigenous。Hisgrandmother，aPietra—Santa，belongedtoSarténe，[10]aCorsicancantonparexcellencewhere，in1800，hereditaryvendettasstillmaintainedthesystemoftheeleventhcentury；wherethepermanentstrifeofinimicalfamilieswassuspendedonlybytruces；where，inmanyvillages，nobodystirredoutofdoorsexceptinarmedbodies，andwherethehouseswerecrenellatedlikefortresses。Hismother，LaetitiaRamolini，fromwhom，incharacterandinwill，hederivedmuchmorethanfromhisfather，[11]isaprimitivesoulonwhichCivilizationhastakennohold。Sheissimple，allofapiece，unsuitedtotherefinements，charms，andgracesofaworldlylife；indifferenttocomforts，withoutliteraryculture，asparsimoniousasanypeasantwoman，butasenergeticastheleaderofaband。Sheispowerful，physicallyandspiritually，accustomedtodanger，readyindesperateresolutions。Sheis，inshort，a\"ruralCornelia，\"whoconceivedandgavebirthtohersonamidsttherisksofbattleandofdefeat，inthethickestoftheFrenchinvasion，amidstmountainridesonhorseback，nocturnalsurprises，andvolleysofmusketry。[12]
\"Losses，privations，andfatigue，\"saysNapoleon，\"sheenduredallandbravedall。Herswasaman’sheadonawoman’sshoulders。\"
Thusfashionedandbroughtintotheworld，hefeltthat，fromfirsttothelast，hewasofhispeopleandcountry。
\"Everythingwasbetterthere，\"saidhe，atSaintHelena，[13]\"eventheverysmellofthesoil，whichhecouldhavedetectedwithhiseyesshut；nowherehadhefoundthesamething。Heimaginedhimselfthereagaininearlyinfancy，andlivedoveragainthedaysofhisyouth，amidstprecipices，traversingloftypeaks，deepvalleys，andnarrowdefiles，enjoyingthehonorsandpleasuresofhospitality，\"treatedeverywhereasabrotherandcompatriot，\"withoutanyaccidentorinsulteversuggestingtohimthathisconfidencewasnotwellgrounded。\"AtBocognano，[14]wherehismother，pregnantwithhim，hadtakenrefuge，\"wherehatredandvengeanceextendedtotheseventhdegreeofrelationship，andwherethedowryofayounggirlwasestimatedbythenumberofherCousins，Iwasfeastedandmadewelcome，andeverybodywouldhavediedforme。\"ForcedtobecomeaFrenchman，transplantedtoFrance，educatedattheexpenseofthekinginaFrenchschool，hebecamerigidinhisinsularpatriotism，andloudlyextolledPaoli，theliberator，againstwhomhisrelationshaddeclaredthemselves。\"Paoli，\"saidhe，atthedinnertable，[15]\"wasagreatman。Helovedhiscountry。Myfatherwashisadjutant，andneverwillIforgivehimforhavingaidedintheunionofCorsicawithFrance。Heshouldhavefollowedherfortunesandhavesuccumbedonlywithher。\"Throughouthisyouthheisatheartanti—French，morose，\"bitter，likingveryfewandverylittleliked，broodingoverresentment，\"likeavanquishedman，alwaysmoodyandcompelledtoworkagainstthegrain。AtBrienne，hekeepsalooffromhiscomrades，takesnopartintheirsports，shutshimselfinthelibrary，andopenshimselfuponlytoBourrienneinexplosionsofhatred:\"IwilldoyouFrenchmenalltheharmIcan！—\"Corsicanbynationandcharacter，\"
wrotehisprofessorofhistoryintheMilitaryAcademy，\"hewillgofarifcircumstancesfavorhim。\"[16]—LeavingtheAcademy，andingarrisonatValenceandAuxonne，heremainsalwayshostile，denationalized；hisoldbitternessreturns，and，addressinghisletterstoPaoli，hesays:\"Iwasbornwhenourcountryperished。
ThirtythousandFrenchmenvomitedonourshores，drowningthethroneoflibertyinfloodsofblood—suchwastheodiousspectacleonwhichmyeyesfirstopened！Thegroansofthedying，theshrieksoftheoppressed，tearsofdespair，surroundedmycradlefrommybirth……
Iwillblackenthosewhobetrayedthecommoncausewiththebrushofinfamy……vile，sordidsoulscorruptedbygain！\"[17]Alittlelater，hislettertoButtafuoco，deputyintheConstituentAssemblyandprincipalagentintheannexationtoFrance，isonelongstrainofrenewed，concentratedhatred，which，afteratfirsttryingtorestrainitwithintheboundsofcoldsarcasm，endsinboilingover，likered—
hotlava，inatorrentofscorchinginvective。—Fromtheageoffifteen，attheAcademyandafterwardsinhisregiment，hefindsrefugeinimaginationinthepastofhisisland；[18]herecountsitshistory，hisminddwellsuponitformanyyears，andhededicateshisworktoPaoli。Unabletogetitpublished，heabridgesit，anddedicatestheabridgmenttoAbbéRaynal，recapitulatinginastrainedstyle，withwarm，vibratingsympathy，theannalsofhissmallcommunity，itsrevoltsanddeliverances，itsheroicandsanguinaryoutbreaks，itspublicanddomestictragedies，ambuscades，betrayals，revenges，loves，andmurders，—inshort，ahistorysimilartothatoftheScottishhighlanders，whilethestyle，stillmorethanthesympathies，denotestheforeigner。Undoubtedly，inthiswork，asinotheryouthfulwritings，hefollowsaswellashecantheauthorsinvogue—Rousseau，andespeciallyRaynal；hegivesaschoolboyimitationoftheirtirades，theirsentimentaldeclamation，andtheirhumanitariangrandiloquence。Buttheseborrowedclothes，whichincommodehim，donotfithim；theyaretootight，andtheclothistoofine；theyrequiretoomuchcircumspectioninwalking；hedoesnotknowhowtoputthemon，andtheyripateveryseam。Notonlyhasheneverlearnedhowtospell，buthedoesnotknowthetruemeaning，connections，andrelationsofwords，theproprietyorimproprietyofphrases，theexactsignificanceofimagery；[19]hestridesonimpetuouslyathwartapell—mellofincongruities，incoherencies，Italianisms，andbarbarisms，undoubtedlystumblingalongthroughawkwardnessandinexperience，butalsothroughexcessofardorandofheat；[20]hisjerking，eruptivethought，overchargedwithpassion，indicatesthedepthandtemperatureofitssource。Already，attheAcademy，theprofessorofbelles—lettres[21]notesdownthat\"inthestrangeandincorrectgrandeurofhisamplificationsheseemstoseegranitefusedinavolcano。\"Howeveroriginalinmindandinsensibility，ill—adaptedasheistothesocietyaroundhim，differentfromhiscomrades，itisclearbeforehandthatthecurrentideaswhichtakesuchholdonthemwillobtainnoholdonhim。
Ofthetwodominantandoppositeideaswhichclashwitheachother，itmightbesupposedthathewouldleaneithertooneortotheother，althoughacceptingneither。—Pensioneroftheking，whosupportedhimatBrienne，andafterwardsintheMilitaryAcademy；whoalsosupportedhissisteratSaint—Cyr；who，fortwentyyears，isthebenefactorofhisfamily；towhom，atthisverytime，headdressesentreatingorgratefullettersoverhismother’ssignature—hedoesnotregardhimashisborngeneral；itdoesnotenterhismindtotakesidesanddrawhisswordinhispatron’sbehalf；’invainisheagentleman，towhom，d’Hozierhascertified；rearedinaschoolofnoblecadets，hehasnonobleormonarchicaltraditions。[22]—Poorandtormentedbyambition，areaderofRousseau，patronizedbyRaynal，andtackingtogethersentencesofphilosophicfustianaboutequality，ifhespeaksthejargonoftheday，itiswithoutanybeliefinit。
Thephrasesinvogueformadecent，academicaldraperyforhisideas，orservehimasaredcapfortheclub；heisnotbewilderedbydemocraticillusions，andentertainsnootherfeelingthandisgustfortherevolutionandthesovereigntyofthepopulace。—AtParis，inApril，1792，whenthestrugglebetweenthemonarchistsandtherevolutionariesisatitsheight，hetriestofind\"somesuccessfulspeculation，\"[23]andthinkshewillhireandsublethousesataprofit。Onthe20thofJunehewitnesses，onlyasamatterofcuriosity，theinvasionoftheTuileries，and，onseeingthekingatawindowplacetheredcaponhishead，exclaims，soastobeheard，\"
CheCaglione！\"Immediatelyafterthis:\"Howcouldtheyletthatrabbleenter！Mowdownfourorfivehundredofthemwithcannonsandtherestwouldrunaway。\"OnAugust10，whenthetocsinsounds，heregardsthepeopleandthekingwithequalcontempt；herushestoafriend’shouseontheCarrouselandthere，stillasalooker—on，viewsathiseasealltheoccurrencesoftheday。[24]Finally，thechateauisforcedandhestrollsthroughtheTuileries，looksinattheneighboringcafés，andthatisall:heisnotdisposedtotakesides，hehasnoJacobinorroyalistinclination。Hisfeatures，even，aresocalm\"astoprovokemanyhostileanddistrustfulstares，assomeonewhoisunknownandsuspicious。\"—Similarly，afterthe31stofMayandthe2ndofJune，his\"SouperdeBeaucaire\"showsthatifhecondemnsthedepartmentalinsurrectionitismainlybecausehedeemsitfutile:onthesideoftheinsurgents，adefeatedarmy，nopositiontenable，nocavalry，rawartillerymen，Marseillesreducedtoitsowntroops，fullofhostilesans—culottesandsobesieged，takenandpillaged。Chancesareagainstit:\"Lettheimpoverishedregions，theinhabitantsofVivaris，oftheCevennes，ofCorsica，fighttothelastextremity，butifyouloseabattleandthefruitofathousandyearsoffatigue，hardship，economy，andhappinessbecomethesoldier’sprey。\"[25]HerewassomethingwithwhichtheGirondistscouldbeconverted！—Noneofthepoliticalorsocialconvictionswhichthenexercisedsuchcontrolovermen’smindshaveanyholdonhim。Beforethe9thofThermidorheseemedtobea\"republicanmontagnard，\"andwefollowhimformonthsinProvence。\"thefavoriteandconfidentialadviserofyoungRobespierre，\"\"admirer\"oftheelderRobespierre，[26]intimateatNicewithCharlotteRobespierre。Afterthe9thofThermidorhaspassed，hefreeshimselfwithbombastfromthiscompromisingfriendship:\"I
thoughthimsincere，\"saysheoftheyoungerRobespierre，inaletterintendedtobeshown，\"butwerehemyfatherandhadaimedattyranny，Iwouldhavestabbedhimmyself。\"OnreturningtoParis，afterhavingknockedatseveraldoors，hetakesBarrasforapatron。Barras，themostbrazenofthecorrupt，Barras，whohasoverthrownandcontrivedthedeathofhistwoformerprotectors。[27]Amongthecontendingpartiesandfanaticismswhichsucceedeachotherhekeepscoolandfreetodisposeofhimselfashepleases，indifferenttoeverycauseandconcerninghimselfonlywithhisowninterests。—Ontheeveningofthe12thofVendémiaire，onleavingtheFeydeautheatre，andnoticingthepreparationsofthesectionists，[28]hesaidtoJunot:
\"Ah，ifthesectionsputmeincommand，IwouldguaranteetoplacethemintheTuileriesintwohoursandhaveallthoseConventionrascalsdrivenout！\"
Fivehourslater，summonedbyBarrasandtheConventionalists，hetakes\"threeminutes\"tomakeuphismind，and，insteadof\"blowinguptherepresentatives，\"hemowsdowntheParisians。Likeagoodcondottière，hedoesnotcommithimself，considersthefirstthatoffersandthentheonewhooffersthemost，onlytobackoutafterwards，andfinally，seizingtheopportunity，tograbeverything。
—Hewillmoreandmorebecomeatruecondottière，thatistosay，leaderofaband，increasinglyindependent，pretendingtosubmitunderthepretextofthepublicgood，lookingoutonlyforhisowninterest，self—centered，generalonhisownaccountandforhisownadvantageinhisItaliancampaignbeforeandafterthe18thofFructidor。[29]Heis，however，acondottièreofthefirstclass，alreadyaspiringtotheloftiestsummits，\"withnostopping—placebutthethroneorthescaffold，\"[30]\"determined[31]tomasterFrance，andthroughFranceEurope。Withoutdistraction，sleepingonlythreehoursduringthenight，\"heplayswithideas，men，religions，andgovernments，exploitingpeoplewithincomparabledexterityandbrutality。Heis，inthechoiceofmeansasofends，asuperiorartist，inexhaustibleinglamour，seductions，corruption，andintimidation，fascinating，andyetmoreterriblethananywildbeastsuddenlyreleasedamongaherdofbrowsingcattle。Theexpressionisnottoostrongandwasutteredbyaneye—witness，almostatthisverydate，afriendandacompetentdiplomat:\"Youknowthat，whileIamveryfondofthedeargeneral，I
callhimtomyselfthelittletiger，soastoproperlycharacterizehisfigure，tenacity，andcourage，therapidityofhismovements，andallthathehasinhimwhichmaybefairlyregardedinthatsense。\"[32]
Atthisverydate，previoustoofficialadulationandtheadoptionofarecognizedtype，weseehimfacetofaceintwoportraitsdrawnfromlife，onephysical，byatruthfulpainter，Guérin，andtheothermoral，byasuperiorwoman，MadamedeSta？l，whotothebestEuropeancultureaddedtactandworldlyperspicacity。Bothportraitsagreesoperfectlythateachseemstointerpretandcompletetheother。\"Isawhimforthefirsttime，\"[33]saysMadamedeSta？l，\"onhisreturntoFranceafterthetreatyofCampo—Formio。Afterrecoveringfromthefirstexcitementofadmirationtheresucceededtothisadecidedsentimentoffear。\"Andyet，\"atthistimehehadnopower，foritwaseventhensupposedthattheDirectorylookeduponhimwithagooddealofsuspicion。\"Peopleregardedhimsympathetically，andwereevenprepossessedinhisfavor；
\"thusthefearheinspiredwassimplyduetothesingulareffectofhispersononalmostallwhoapproachedhim。Ihadmetmenworthyofrespectandhadlikewisemetmenofferociouscharacter；butnothingintheimpressionwhichBonaparteproducedonmeremindedmeofeither。Isoonfound，inthevariousopportunitiesIhadofmeetinghimduringhisstayinParis，thathischaracterwasnottobedescribedintermscommonlyemployed；hewasneithermildnor）violent，norgentlenorcruel，likecertainpersonagesonehappenstoknow。A
beinglikehim，whollyunlikeanybodyelse，couldneitherfeelnorexcitesympathy；hewasbothmoreandlessthanaman；hisfigure，intellect，andlanguageboretheimprintofaforeignnationality……farfrombeingreassuredonseeingBonaparteoftener，heintimidatedmemoreandmoreeveryday。Ihadaconfusedimpressionthathewasnottobeinfluencedbyanyemotionofsympathyoraffection。Heregardsahumanbeingasafact，anobject，andnotasafellow—creature。Heneitherhatesnorloves，heexistsforhimselfalone；therestofhumanityaresomanyciphers。Theforceofhiswillconsistsintheimperturbablecalculationofhisegoism。Heisaskillfulplayerwhohasthehumanspeciesforanantagonist，andwhomheproposestocheckmate……EverytimethatIheardhimtalkI
wasstruckwithhissuperiority；itborenoresemblancetothatofmeninformedandcultivatedthroughstudyandsocialintercourse，suchaswefindinFranceandEngland。Hisconversationindicatedthetactofcircumstances，likethatofthehunterinpursuitofhisprey。Hisspiritseemedacold，keensword—blade，whichfreezeswhileitwounds。
Ifeltaprofoundironyinhismind，whichnothinggreatorbeautifulcouldescape，notevenhisownfame，forhedespisedthenationwhosesuffrageshesought……\"—\"Withhim，everythingwasmeansoraims；spontaneity，whetherforgoodorforevil，wasentirelyabsent。\"
Nolaw，noidealandabstractrule，existedforhim；
\"heexaminedthingsonlywithreferencetotheirimmediateusefulness；ageneralprinciplewasrepugnanttohim，eitherassomuchnonsenseorasanenemy。\"
Now，ifwecontemplateGuérin’sportrait，[34]weseeasparebody，whosenarrowshouldersundertheuniformwrinkledbysuddenmovements，theneckswathedinitshightwistedcravat，thetemplescoveredbylong，smooth，straighthair，exposingonlythemask，thehardfeaturesintensifiedthroughstrongcontrastsoflightandshade，thecheekshollowuptotheinnerangleoftheeye，theprojectingcheek—bones，themassive，protuberantjaw，thesinuous，mobilelips，pressedtogetherasifattentive，thelarge，cleareyes，deeplysunkunderthebroad，archedeyebrows，thefixed，obliquelook，aspenetratingasarapier，andthetwocreaseswhichextendfromthebaseofthenosetothebrow，asifinafrownofsuppressedangeranddeterminedwill。
Addtothistheaccountsofhiscontemporaries[35]whosaworheardthecurtaccentorthesharp，abruptgesture，theinterrogating，imperious，absolutetoneofvoice，andwecomprehendhow，themomenttheyaccostedhim，theyfeltthedominatinghandwhichseizesthem，pressesthemdown，holdsthemfirmlyandneverrelaxesitsgrasp。
Already，atthereceptionsoftheDirectory，whenconversingwithmen，orevenwithladies，heputsquestions\"whichprovethesuperiorityofthequestionertothosewhohavetoanswerthem。\"[36]\"Areyoumarried？\"sayshetothisone，and\"Howmanychildrenhaveyou？\"toanother。Tothatone，\"Whendidyoucomehere？\"or，again，\"Whenareyougoingaway？HeplaceshimselfinfrontofaFrenchlady，well—
knownforherbeautyandwitandthevivacityofheropinions，\"likethestiffestofGermangenerals，andsays:’Madame，Idon’tlikewomenwhomeddlewithpolitics！’\"Equality，ease，familiarityandcompanionship，vanishathisapproach。Eighteenmonthsbeforethis，onhisappointmentascommander—in—chiefofthearmyinItaly，AdmiralDecrès，whohadknownhimwellatParis，[37]learnsthatheistopassthroughToulon:\"Iatonceproposetomycomradestointroducethem，venturingtodosoonmyacquaintancewithhiminParis。Fullofeagernessandjoy，Istartoff。ThedooropensandIamabouttopressforwards，\"heafterwardswrote，\"whentheattitude，thelook，andthetoneofvoicesufficetoarrestme。Andyettherewasnothingoffensiveabouthim；still，thiswasenough。Inevertriedafterthattooverstepthelinethusimposedonme。\"Afewdayslater，atAlbenga，[38]certaingeneralsofdivision，andamongthemAugereau，avulgar，heroicoldsoldier，vainofhistallfigureandcourage，arriveatheadquarters，notwelldisposedtowardthelittleparvenusentouttothemfromParis。Recallingthedescriptionofhimwhichhadbeengiventothem，Augereauisabusiveandinsubordinatebeforehand:oneofBarras’favorites，theVendémiairegeneral，astreetgeneral，\"notyettriedoutonthefieldofbattle，[39]hasn’tafriend，consideredalonerbecauseheistheonlyonewhocanthinksforhimself，lookingpeaky，saidtobeamathematicianandadreamer！\"
Theyenter，andBonapartekeepsthemwaiting。Atlastheappears，withhisswordandbelton，explainsthedispositionoftheforces，givesthemhisorders，anddismissesthem。Augereauhasremainedsilent；Itisonlywhenhegetsoutofdoorsdoesherecoverhimselfandfallbackonhisaccustomedoaths。HeadmitstoMassenathat\"thatlittlebastardofageneralfrightenedhim。\"Hecannot\"comprehendtheascendancywhichmadehimfeelcrushedrightaway。\"[40]
Extraordinaryandsuperior，madeforcommand[41]andforconquest，singularandofanuniquespecies，isthefeelingofallhiscontemporaries。Thosewhoaremostfamiliarwiththehistoriesofothernations，MadamedeSta？land，afterher，Stendhal，gobacktotherightsourcestocomprehendhim，tothe\"pettyItaliantyrantsofthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies，\"toCastruccio—Castracani，totheBraccioofMantua，tothePiccinino，theMalatestasofRimini，andtheSforzasofMilan。Intheiropinion，however，itisonlyachanceanalogy，apsychologicalresemblance。Really，however，and）historicallyitisapositiverelationship。HeisadescendantofthegreatItalians，themenofactionoftheyear1400，themilitaryadventurers，usurpers，andfoundersofgovernmentslastingtheirlife—
time。Heinheritsindirectaffiliationtheirbloodandinwardorganization，mentalandmoral。[42]Abud，collectedintheirforest，beforetheageofrefinement，impoverishment，anddecay，hasbeentransportedintoasimilarandremotenursery，whereatragicandmilitantrégimeispermanentlyestablished。Theretheprimitivegermispreservedintactandtransmittedfromonegenerationtoanother，renewedandinvigoratedbyinterbreeding。Finally，atthelaststageofitsgrowth，itspringsoutofthegroundanddevelopsmagnificently，bloomingthesameasever，andproducingthesamefruitasontheoriginalstem。ModerncultivationandFrenchgardeninghaveprunedawaybutveryfewofitsbranchesandbluntedafewofitsthorns:itsoriginaltexture，inmostsubstance，andspontaneousdevelopmenthavenotchanged。ThesoilofFranceandofEurope，however，brokenupbyrevolutionarytempests，ismorefavorabletoitsrootsthantheworn—outfieldsoftheMiddleAgesandthereitgrowsbyitself，withoutbeingsubject，likeitsItalianancestors，torivalrywithitsownspecies；nothingchecksthegrowth；itmayabsorballthejuicesoftheground，alltheairandsunshineoftheregion，andbecometheColossuswhichtheancientplants，equallydeep—rootedandcertainlyasabsorbent，butborninalessfriablesoilandmorecrowdedtogether，couldnotprovide。
II。TheLeaderandStatesmanIntelligenceduringtheItalianRenaissanceandatthepresentday。—
IntegrityofBonaparte’smentalmachinery。—Flexibility，force，andtenacityofhisattention。—AnotherdifferencebetweenNapoleon’sintellectandthatofhiscontemporaries。—Hethinksobjectsandnotwords。—HisantipathytoIdeology。—Littleornoliteraryorphilosophicaleducation。—Self—taughtthroughdirectobservationandtechnicalinstruction。—Hisfondnessfordetails。—Hisinwardvisionofphysicalobjectsandplaces。—Hismentalportrayalofpositions，distances，andquantities。
\"Thehumanplant，\"saidAlfieri，\"isinnocountrybornmorevigorousthaninItaly\"；andnever，inItaly，wasitsovigorousasfrom1300
to1500，fromthecontemporariesofDantedowntothoseofMichaelAngelo，CaesarBorgia，JuliusII。，andMacchiavelli。[43]Thefirstdistinguishingmarkofamanofthosetimesisthesoundnessofhismentalinstrument。Nowadays，afterthreehundredyearsofservice，ourshaslostsomewhatofitsmoralfiber，sharpness，andversatility:
usuallythecompulsoryspecializationhascausedittobecomelop—
sidedmakingitunfitforotherpurposes。What’smore，theincreaseinready—madeideasandclichésandacquiredmethodsincrustsitandreducesitsscopetoasortofroutine。Finally，itisexhaustedbyanexcessofintellectualactivityanddiminishedbythecontinuityofsedentaryhabits。Itisjusttheoppositewiththoseimpulsivemindsofuncorruptedbloodandofanewstock。—Roederer，acompetentandindependentjudge，who，atthebeginningoftheconsulargovernment，seesBonapartedailyatthemeetingsoftheCouncilofState，andwhonotesdowneveryeveningtheimpressionsoftheday，iscarriedawaywithadmiration:[44]
\"Punctualateverysitting，prolongingthesessionfiveorsixhours，discussingbeforeandafterwardsthesubjectsbroughtforward，alwaysreturningtotwoquestions，’Canthatbejustified？[45]’’Isthatuseful？’examiningeachquestioninitself，inthesetworespects，afterhavingsubjectedittoamostexactandsharpanalysis；next，consultingthebestauthorities，thepasts，experience，andobtaininginformationaboutbygonejurisprudence，thelawsofLouisXIV。andofFredericktheGreat……Neverdidthecounciladjournwithoutitsmembersknowingmorethanthedaybefore；ifnotthroughknowledgederivedfromhim，atleastthroughtheresearchesheobligedthemtomake。NeverdidthemembersoftheSenateandtheLegislativeCorps，orofthetribunals，paytheirrespectstohimwithoutbeingrewardedfortheirhomagebyvaluableinstructions。Hecannotbesurroundedbypublicmenwithoutbeingthestatesman，allformingforhimacouncilofstate。\"
\"Whatcharacterizeshimabovethemall，\"isnotalonethepenetrationanduniversalityofhiscomprehension，butlikewiseandespecially\"theforce，flexibility，andconstancyofhisattention。Hecanworkeighteenhoursatastretch，ononeoronseveralsubjects。Ineversawhimtired。Ineverfoundhismindlackingininspiration，evenwhenwearyinbody，norwhenviolentlyexercised，norwhenangry。I
neversawhimdivertedfromonematterbyanother，turningfromthatunderdiscussiontoonehehadjustfinishedorwasabouttotakeup。
Thenews，goodorbad，hereceivedfromEgypt，didnotdiverthismindfromthecivilcode，northecivilcodefromthecombinationswhichthesafetyofEgyptrequired。Neverdidamanmorewhollydevotehimselftotheworkinhand，norbetterdevotehistimetowhathehadtodo。Neverdidamindmoreinflexiblysetasidetheoccupationorthoughtwhichdidnotcomeattherightdayorhour，neverwasonemoreardentinseekingit，morealertinitspursuit，morecapableoffixingitwhenthetimecametotakeitup。\"
Hehimselfsaidlateron:[46]
\"Varioussubjectsandaffairsarestowedawayinmybrainasinachestofdrawers。WhenIwanttotakeupanyspecialbusinessIshutonedrawerandopenanother。Noneofthemevergetmixed，andneverdoesthisincommodemeorfatigueme。IfIfeelsleepyIshutallthedrawersandgotosleep。\"
Neverhasbrainsodisciplinedandundersuchcontrolbeenseen，onesoreadyatalltimesforanytask，socapableofimmediateandabsoluteconcentration。Itsflexibility[47]iswonderful，\"intheinstantapplicationofeveryfacultyandenergy，andbringingthemalltobearatonceonanyobjectthatconcernshim，onamiteaswellasonanelephant，onanygivenindividualaswellasonanenemy’sarmy……Whenspeciallyoccupied，otherthingsdonotexistforhim；
itisasortofchasefromwhichnothingdivertshim。\"Andthishotpursuit，whichnothingarrestssavecapture，thistenacioushunt，thisheadlongcoursebyonetowhomthegoalisneverotherthanafreshstarting—point，isthespontaneousgait，thenatural，evenpacewhichhismindprefers。
\"Iamalwaysatwork，\"sayshetoRoederer。[48]\"Imeditateagreatdeal。IfIseemalwaysequaltotheoccasion，readytofacewhatcomes，itisbecauseIhavethoughtthematteroveralongtimebeforeundertakingit。Ihaveanticipatedwhatevermighthappen。ItisnospiritwhichsuddenlyrevealstomewhatIoughttodoorsayinanyunlooked—forcircumstance，butmyownreflection，myownmeditation……Iworkallthetime，atdinner，inthetheatre。Iwakeupatnightinordertoresumemywork。Igotuplastnightattwoo’clock。
IstretchedmyselfonmycouchbeforethefiretoexaminethearmyreportssenttomebytheMinisterofWar。Ifoundtwentymistakesinthem，andmadenoteswhichIhavethismorningsenttotheminister，whoisnowengagedwithhisclerksinrectifyingthem。\"—
Hisassociatesweakenandsinkundertheburdenimposedonthemandwhichhesupportswithoutfeelingtheweight。WhenConsul，[49]\"hesometimespresidesatspecialmeetingsofthesectionoftheinteriorfromteno’clockintheeveninguntilfiveo’clockinthemorning