Theyscarcelyshowthemselvesinthestreetswithoutbeinghootedat……Asournationandourcenturyarequiteotherwiseenlightened（thaninthetimeofLuther），itwillbecarriedfarenough；theywillexpelthepriests，abolishthepriesthoodandgetridofallrevelationandallmystery……Onedarenotspeakinbehalfoftheclergyinsocialcircles；oneisscoffedatandregardedasafamiliaroftheinquisition。Thepriestsremarkthat，thisyear，thereisadiminutionofmorethanone—thirdinthenumberofcommunicants。TheCollegeoftheJesuitsisbeingdeserted；onehundredandtwentyboardershavebeenwithdrawnfromthesesogreatlydefamedmonks。Ithasbeenobservedalsothat，duringthecarnivalinParis，thenumberofmaskscounterfeitingecclesiasticaldress，bishops，abbés，monksandnuns，wasneversogreat。\"—Sodeepisthisantipathy，themostmediocrebooksbecometheragesolongastheyareanti—Christianandcondemnedassuch。In1748aworkbyToussaintcalled\"LesMoeurs，\"infavorofnaturalreligion，suddenlybecomessofamous，\"thatthereisnooneamongacertainclassofpeople，\"writesBarbier，\"manorwoman，pretendingtobeintellectual，whoisnoteagertoreadit。\"Peopleaccosteachotherontheirpromenades，Haveyouread\"LesMoeurs\"？—Tenyearslatertheyarebeyonddeism。\"Materialism，\"Barbierfurthersaid，\"isthegreatgrievance……\"\"Almostallpeopleoferuditionandtaste，writesd’Argenson，\"inveighagainstourholyreligion……
Itisattackedonallsides，andwhatanimatesunbelieversstillmoreistheeffortsmadebythedevouttocompelbelief。Theypublishbookswhicharebutlittleread；debatesnolongertakeplace，everythingbeinglaughedat，whilepeoplepersistinmaterialism。\"
HoraceWalpole，whoreturnstoFrancein1765，[18]andwhosegoodsenseanticipatesthedanger，isastonishedatsuchimprudence:\"I
dinedtodaywithadozenscholarsandscientists，andalthoughalltheservantswerearoundusandlistening，theconversationwasmuchmoreunrestrained，evenontheOldTestament，thanIwouldallowatmyowntableinEnglandevenifasinglefootmanwaspresent。\"Peopledogmatizeeverywhere。\"Jokingisasmuchoutoffashionasjumpingjacksandtumblers。Ourgoodfolkshavenotimetolaugh！ThereisGodandthekingtobehauleddownfirst；andmenandwomen，oneandall，aredevoutlyemployedinthedemolition。Theythinkmequiteprofaneforhavinganybeliefleft……Doyouknowwhothephilosophersare，orwhatthetermmeanshere？Inthefirstplaceitcomprehendsalmosteverybody；andinthenext，meansmen，who，avowingwaragainstpopery，takeaim，manyofthem，atasubversionofallreligion……Thesesavants，—Ibegtheirpardons，thesephilosophers—areinsupportable，superficial，overbearingandfanatic:theypreachincessantly，andtheiravoweddoctrineisatheism；youwouldnotbelievehowopenly。Voltairehimselfdoesnotsatisfythem。Oneoftheirladydevoteessaidofhim，’Heisabigot，adeist！’\"
Thisisverystrong，andyetwehavenotcometotheendofit；
for，thusfar，impietyislessaconvictionthanthefashion。
Walpole，acarefulobserver，isnotdeludedbyit。\"BywhatIhavesaidoftheirreligiousorratherirreligiousopinions，youmustnotconcludetheirpeopleofqualityatheists—atleastnotthemen。
Happilyforthem，poorsouls！theyarenotcapableofgoingsofarintothinking。Theyassenttoagreatdealbecauseitisthefashion，andbecausetheydon’tknowhowtocontradict。\"Nowthat\"dandiesareoutmoded\"andeverybodyis\"aphilosopher，\"\"theyarephilosophers。\"Itisessentialtobelikealltherestoftheworld。
Butthatwhichtheybestappreciateinthenewmaterialismisthepungencyofparadoxandthefreedomgiventopleasure。Theyareliketheboysofgoodfamilies，fondofplayingtricksontheirecclesiasticalpreceptor。Theytakeoutoflearnedtheoriesjustwhatiswantedtomakeadunce—cap，andderivethemoreamusementfromthefunifitisseasonedwithimpiety。AseigniorofthecourthavingseenDoyen’spictureof\"St。Genevieveandtheplague—
stricken，\"sendstoapainterthefollowingdaytocometohimathismistress’sdomicile:\"Iwouldlike，\"hesaystohim，\"tohaveMadamepaintedinaswingputinmotionbyabishop；youmayplacemeinsuchawaythatImayseetheanklesofthathandsomewoman，andevenmore，ifyouwanttoenlivenyourpicture。\"[19]Thelicentioussong\"Marotte\"\"spreadslikewildfire；\"\"afortnightafteritspublication，\"saysCollé，\"Imetnoonewithoutacopy；anditisthevaudeville，orrather，theclericalassembly，whichgivesititspopularity。\"Themoreirreligiousalicentiousbookisthemoreitisprized；whenitcannotbeprinteditiscopiedinmanuscript。Collé
counts\"perhapstwothousandmanuscriptcopiesof’LaPucelle’byVoltaire，scatteredaboutParisinonemonth。\"Themagistratesthemselvesburnitonlyforform’ssake。\"ItmustnotbesupposedthatthehangmanisallowedtoburnthebookswhosetitlesfigureinthedecreeoftheCourt。Messieurswouldbeloathtodeprivetheirlibrariesofthecopyofthoseworkswhichfalltothembyright，andmaketheregistrarsupplyitsplacewithafewpoorrecordsofchicaneryofwhichthereisnoscantyprovision。\"[20]
But，asthecenturyadvances，unbelief，lessnoisy，becomesmoresolid。Itinvigoratesitselfatthefountain—head；thewomenthemselvesbegintobeinfatuatedwiththesciences。In1782，[21]
oneofMme。deGenlis’scharacterswrites，FiveyearsagoIleftthemthinkingonlyoftheirattireandthepreparationoftheirsuppers；Inowfindthemallscientificandwitty。\"Wefindinthestudyofafashionablewoman，alongsideofasmallaltardedicatedtoBenevolenceorFriendship，adictionaryofnaturalhistoryandtreatisesonphysicsandchemistry。Awomannolongerhasherselfpaintedasagoddessonacloudbutinalaboratory，seatedamidstsquaresandtelescopes[22]。TheMarquisedeNesle，theComtessedeBrancas，theComtessedePons，theMarquisedePolignac，arewithRouellewhenheundertakestomeltandvolatilizethediamond。Associationsoftwentyortwenty—fivepersonsareformedinthedrawing—roomstoattendlectureseitheronphysics，appliedchemistry，mineralogyoronbotany。FashionablewomenatthepublicmeetingsoftheAcademyofInscriptionsapplauddissertationsonthebullApis，andreportsontheEgyptian，PhoenicianandGreeklanguages。Finally，in1786，theysucceedinopeningthedoorsoftheCollegedeFrance。Nothingdetersthem。
Manyofthemusethelancetandeventhescalpel；theMarquisedeVoyerattendsatdissections，andtheyoungComtessedeCoignydissectswithherownhands。Thecurrentinfidelityfindsfreshsupportonthisfoundation，whichisthatoftheprevailingphilosophy。Towardstheendofthecentury[23]\"weseeyoungpersonswhohavebeeninsocietysixorsevenyearsopenlyplumingthemselvesontheirirreligion，thinkingthatimpietymakesupforwit，andthattobeanatheististobeaphilosopher。\"Thereare，undoubtedly，agoodmanydeists，especiallyafterRousseauappeared，butIquestionwhether，outofahundredpersons，therewereinParisatthistimetenChristianmenorwomen。\"Thefashionableworldfortenyearspast，\"saysMercier[24]in1783，\"hasnotattendedmass。PeoplegoonlyonSundayssoasnottoscandalizetheirlackeys，whilethelackeyswellknowthatitisontheiraccount。\"TheDucdeCoigny，[25]
onhisestatenearAmiens，refusestobeprayedforandthreatenshiscurateifhetakesthatlibertytohavehimcastoutofhispulpit；
hissonbecomesillandheprohibitstheadministeringofthesacraments；thesondiesandheopposestheusualobsequies，buryingthebodyinhisgarden；becomingillhimselfhecloseshisdooragainstthebishopofAmiens，whocomestoseehimtwelvetimes，anddiesashehadlived。Ascandalofthiskindisdoubtlessnotoriousand，therefore，rare。Almosteverybody，maleandfemale，\"allywithfreedomofideasaproperobservanceofforms。\"[26]Whenamaidappearsandsaystohermistress，\"MadamelaDuchesse，theHost（lebonDieu）isoutside，willyouallowhimtoenter？Hedesirestohavethehonorofadministeringtoyou，\"appearancesarekeptup。Thetroublesomeindividualisadmittedandheispolitelyreceived。Iftheyslipawayfromhimitisunderadecentpretext；butifheishumoreditisonlyoutofasenseofdecorum。\"AtSurawhenamandies，heholdsacow’stailinhishand。\"SocietywasnevermoredetachedfromChristianity。Initseyesapositivereligionisonlyapopularsuperstition，goodenoughforchildrenandinnocentsbutnotfor\"sensiblepeople\"andthegreat。ItisyourdutytoraiseyourhattotheHostasitpasses，butyourdutyisonlytoraiseyourhat。
Thelastandgravestsignofall！Ifthecurateswhoworkandwhoareofthepeopleholdthepeople’sideas，theprelateswhotalk，andwhoareofsocietyholdtheopinionsofsociety。AndIdonotalludemerelytotheabbésofthedrawing—room，thedomesticcourtiers，bearersofnews，andwritersoflightverse，thosewhofawninboudoirs，andwho，whenincompany，answerlikeanecho，andwho，betweenonedrawingroomandanother，serveasmegaphone；anecho，amegaphoneonlyrepeatsthephrase，whetherskepticalornot，withwhichitischarged。Irefertothedignitaries，and，onthispoint，thewitnessesallconcur。InthemonthofAugust，1767，theAbbé
Bassinet，grandvicarofCahors，onpronouncingthepanegyricofSt。
LouisintheLouvrechapel，[27]\"suppressedthesignofthecross，makingnoquotationfromScriptureandneverutteringawordaboutChristandtheSaints。HeconsideredLouisIXmerelyonthesideofhispolitical，moralandmilitaryvirtues。HeanimadvertedontheCrusades，settingforththeirabsurdity，crueltyandeveninjustice。
HestruckopenlyandwithoutcautionattheseeofRome。\"Others\"avoidthenameofChristinthepulpitandmerelyalludetohimasaChristianlegislator。\"[28]Inthecodewhichtheprevailingopinionsandsocialdecencyimposeontheclergyadelicateobserver[29]thusspecifiesdistinctionsinrankwiththeirpropershadesofbehavior:
\"Aplainpriest，acurate，musthavealittlefaith，otherwisehewouldbefoundahypocrite；atthesametime，hemustnotbetoowellsatisfied，forhewouldbefoundintolerant。Onthecontrary，thegrandvicarmaysmileatanexpressionagainstreligion，thebishopmaylaughoutright，andthecardinalmayaddsomethingofhisowntoit。\"\"Alittlewhileago，\"achroniclenarrates，\"someoneputthisquestiontooneofthemostrespectablecuratesinParis:Doyouthinkthatthebishopswhoinsistsostrenuouslyonreligionhavemuchofitthemselves？Theworthypastorreplied，afteramoment’shesitation:
Theremaybefourorfiveamongthemwhostillbelieve。\"Toonewhoisfamiliarwiththeirbirth，theirsocialrelations，theirhabitsandtheirtastes，thisdoesnotappearatallimprobable。\"DomCollignon，arepresentativeoftheabbeyofMettach，seigniorhigh—
justiciaryandcurateofValmunster，\"afine—lookingman，finetalker，andanagreeablehousekeeper，avoidsscandalbyhavinghistwomistressesathistableonlywithaselectfew；heisinotherrespectsaslittledevoutaspossible，andmuchlesssothantheSavoyardvicar，\"findingevilonlyininjusticeandinalackofcharity，\"andconsideringreligionmerelyasapoliticalinstitutionandformoralends。Imightcitemanyothers，likeM。deGrimaldi，theyoungandgallantbishopofLeMans，whoselectsyoungandgallantcomradesofhisownstationforhisgrandvicars，andwhohasarendezvousforprettywomenathiscountryseatatCoulans[30]。
Judgeoftheirfaithbytheirhabits。Inothercaseswehavenodifficultyindetermining。ScepticismisnotoriouswiththeCardinaldeRohan，withM。deBrienne，archbishopofSens，withM。deTalleyrand，bishopofAutun，andwiththeAbbéMaury，defenderoftheclergy。
Rivarol，[31]himselfaskeptic，declaresthatattheapproachoftheRevolution，\"theenlightenmentoftheclergyequaledthatofthephilosophers。\"\"Whowouldbelieveit，butbodywiththefewestprejudices，\"saysMercier，[32]\"istheclergy。\"AndtheArchbishopofNarbonne，explainingtheresistanceoftheupperclassoftheclergyinI791[33]attributesit，nottofaithbuttoapointofhonor。\"Weconductedourselvesatthattimeliketruegentlemen，for，withmostofus，itcouldnotbesaidthatitwasthroughreligiousfeeling。\"
V。POLITICALOPPOSITION。
Progressofpoliticalopposition。—Itsorigin。—Theeconomistsandtheparliamentarians。—Theypreparethewayforthephilosophers。—Politicalfault—findinginthedrawing—rooms。—
Femaleliberalism。
Thedistancebetweenthealtarandthethroneisashortone，andyetitrequiresthirtyyearsforopiniontoovercomeit。Nopoliticalorsocialattacksareyetmadeduringthefirsthalfofthecentury。Theironyofthe\"LettresPersanes\"isascautiousasitisdelicate，andthe\"EspritdesLois\"isconservative。AstotheAbbé
deSaint—Pierrehisreveriesprovokeasmile，andwhenheundertakestocensureLouisXIVtheAcademystrikeshimoffitslist。Atlast，theeconomistsononesideandtheparliamentariansontheother，givethesignal。—Voltairesays[34]that\"about1750thenation，satiatedwithverse，tragedies，comedies，novels，operas，romantichistories，andstillmoreromanticmoralizings，andwithdisputesaboutgraceandconvulsions，begantodiscussthequestionofcorn。\"
Whatmakesbreaddear？Whyisthelaborersomiserable？Whatconstitutesthematerialandlimitsoftaxation？Oughtnotalllandtopaytaxes，andshouldonepiecepaymorethanitsnetproduct？Thesearethequestionsthatfindtheirwayintodrawing—roomsundertheking’sauspices，bymeansofQuesnay，hisphysician，\"histhinker，\"
thefounderofasystemwhichaggrandizesthesovereigntorelievethepeople，andwhichmultipliesthenumberoftax—payerstolightentheburdenoftaxation。—Atthesametime，throughtheoppositedoor，otherquestionsenter，notlessnovel。\"IsFrance[35]amildandrepresentativemonarchyoragovernmentoftheTurkishstamp？Arewesubjecttothewillofanabsolutemaster，orarewegovernedbyalimitedandregulatedpower？……Theexiledparliamentsarestudyingpublicrightsattheirsourcesandconferringtogetherontheseasintheacademies。Throughtheirresearches，theopinionisgaininggroundinthepublicmindthatthenationisabovetheking，astheuniversalchurchisabovethepope。\"—Thechangeisstrikingandalmostimmediate。\"Fiftyyearsago，\"saysd’Argenson，again，\"thepublicshowednocuriosityconcerningmattersoftheState。TodayeverybodyreadshisGazettedeParis，evenintheprovinces。Peoplereasonatrandomonpoliticalsubjects，butneverthelesstheyoccupythemselveswiththem。\"—Conversationhavingonceprovideditselfwiththisdietholdsfasttoit，thedrawing—rooms，accordingly，openingtheirdoorstopoliticalphilosophy，and，consequently，totheSocialContract，totheEncyclopedia，tothepreachingsofRousseau，Mably，d’Holbach，Raynal，andDiderot。In1759，d’Argenson，whobecomesexcited，alreadythinksthelasthourhascome。\"Wefeelthebreathofaphilosophicalanti—monarchical，freegovernmentwind；theideaiscurrent，andpossiblythisformofgovernment，alreadyinsomeminds，istobecarriedoutthefirstfavorableopportunity。Perhapstherevolutionmighttakeplacewithlessoppositionthanonesupposes，occurringbyacclamation。[36]
Thetimeisnotyetcome，buttheseediscomingup。Bachaumont，in1762，noticesadelugeofpamphlets，tractsandpoliticaldiscussions，\"arageforarguingonfinancialandgovernmentmatters。\"
In1765，Walpolestatesthattheatheists，whothenmonopolizeconversation，inveighagainstkingsaswellasagainstpriests。A
formidableword，thatofcitizen，importedbyRousseau，hasenteredintocommonspeech，andthematterissettledonthewomenadoptingitastheywouldacockade。\"Asafriendandacitoyennecouldanynewsbemoreagreeabletomethanthatofpeaceandthehealthofmydearlittleone？\"[37]Anotherword，notlesssignificant，thatofenergy，formerlyridiculous，becomesfashionable，andisusedoneveryoccasion[38]。Alongwithlanguagethereisachangeofsentiment，ladiesofhighrankpassingovertotheopposition。In1771，saysthescofferBezenval，aftertheexileoftheParliament\"socialmeetingsforpleasureorotherpurposeshadbecomepettyStates—
Generalsinwhichthewomen，transformedintolegislators，establishedthepremisesandconfidentlypropoundedmaximsofpublicright。\"TheComtessed’Egmont，acorrespondentoftheKingofSweden，sendshimapaperonthefundamentallawofFrance，favoringtheParliament，thelastdefenderofnationalliberty，againsttheencroachmentsofChancellorMaupeou。\"TheChancellor，\"shesays，[39]\"withinthelastsixmonthshasbroughtpeopletoknowthehistoryofFrancewhowouldhavediedwithoutanyknowledgeofit……Ihavenodoubt，sire，\"sheadds，\"thatyouneverwillabusethepoweranenrapturedpeoplehaveentrustedtoyouwithoutlimitation……Mayyourreignprovetheepochofthere—establishmentofafreeandindependentgovernment，butneverthesourceofabsoluteauthority。\"
Numbersofwomenofthefirstrank，MesdamesdelaMarck，deBoufflers，deBrienne，deMesmes，deLuxembourg，deCroy，thinkandwriteinthesamestyle。\"Absolutepower，\"saysoneofthese，\"isamortalmaladywhich，insensiblycorruptingmoralqualities，endsinthedestructionofstates……Theactionsofsovereignsaresubjecttothecensureoftheirsubjectsastothatoftheuniverse……Franceisundoneifthepresentadministrationlasts。\"[40]
—When，underLouisXVI，anewadministrationproposesandwithdrawsfeeblemeasuresofreform。theircriticismshowsthesamefirmness:
\"Childishness，weakness，constantinconsistency，\"writesanother，[41]
\"incessantchange；andalwaysworseoffthanwewerebefore。
MonsieurandM。leComted’Artoishavejustmadeajourneythroughtheprovinces，butonlyaspeopleofthatkindtravel，withafrightfulexpenditureanddevastationalongthewholeroad，comingbackextraordinarilyfat；Monsieurisasbigasahogshead；astoM。leComted’Artoisheisbringingaboutorderbythelifeheleads。\"—
Aninspirationofhumanityanimatesthesefemininebreastsalongwiththatofliberty。Theyinterestthemselvesinthepoor，inchildren，inthepeople；Madamed’EgmontrecommendsGustavusIIItoplantDalecarliawithpotatoes。OntheappearanceoftheengravingpublishedforthebenefitofCalas[42]\"allFranceandevenallEurope，hastenstosubscribeforit，theEmpressofRussiagiving5，000livres[43]。\"Agriculture，economy，reform，philosophy，\"writesWalpole，\"arebonton，evenatthecourt。\"—PresidentDupatyhavingdrawnupamemoranduminbehalfofthreeinnocentpersons，sentenced\"tobebrokenonthewheel，everybodyinsocietyistalkingaboutit；\"\"idleconversationnolongerprevailsinsociety，\"saysacorrespondentofGustavusIII[44]\"sinceitisthatwhichformspublicopinion。Wordshavebecomeactions。Everysensitiveheartpraiseswithjoyapublicationinspiredbyhumanityandwhichappearsfulloftalentbecauseitisfulloffeeling。\"WhenLatudeisreleasedfromtheprisonofBicêtreMme。deLuxembourg，Mme。deBoufflers，andMme。deSta？ldinewiththegrocer—womanwho\"forthreeyearsandahalfmovedheavenandearth\"tosettheprisonerfree。Itisowingtothewomen，totheirsensibilityandzeal，toaconspiracyoftheirsympathies，thatM。deLallysucceedsintherehabilitationofhisfather。Whentheytakeafancytoapersontheybecomeinfatuatedwithhim；MadamedeLauzun，verytimid，goessofarastopubliclyinsultamanwhospeaksillofM。Necker。—Itmustbeborneinmindthat，inthiscentury，thewomenwerequeens，settingthefashion，givingthetone，leadinginconversationandnaturallyshapingideasandopinions[45]。Whentheytaketheleadonthepoliticalfieldwemaybesurethatthemenwillfollowthem:eachonecarriesherdrawingroomcirclewithher。
VI。WELL—MEANINGGOVERNMENT。
Infinite，vagueaspirations。—Generosityofsentimentsandofconduct。—Themildnessandgoodintentionsofthegovernment。—
Itsblindnessandoptimism。
Anaristocracyimbuedwithhumanitarianandradicalmaxims，courtiershostiletothecourt，privilegedpersonsaidinginunderminingprivileges，presentstousastrangespectacleinthetestimonyofthetime。Acontemporarystatesthatitisanacceptedprinciple\"tochangeandupseteverything。\"[46]Highandlow，inassemblages，inpublicplaces，onlyreformersandopposingpartiesareencounteredamongtheprivilegedclasses。
\"In1787，almosteveryprominentmanofthepeerageintheParliamentdeclaredhimselfinfavorofresistance……I
haveseenatthedinnerswethenattendedalmosteveryideaputforward，which，soonafterwards，producedsuchstartlingeffects。\"[47]
Alreadyin1774，M。deVaublanc，onhiswaytoMetz，findsadiligencecontaininganecclesiasticandacount，acolonelinthehussars，talkingpoliticaleconomyconstantly[48]。\"Itwasthefashionoftheday。Everybodywasaneconomist。Peopleconversedtogetheronlyaboutphilosophy，politicaleconomyandespeciallyhumanity，andthemeansforrelievingthepeople，（lebonpeuple），whichtwowordswereineverybody’smouth。\"Tothismustbeaddedequality；Thomas，inaeulogyofMarshalSaxesays，\"Icannotconcealit，hewasofroyalblood，\"andthisphrasewasadmired。Afewoftheheadsofoldparliamentaryorseigniorialfamiliesmaintaintheoldpatricianandmonarchicalstandard，thenewgenerationsuccumbingtonovelty。\"Forourselves，\"saysoneofthembelongingtotheyouthfulclassofthenobility，[49]\"withnoregretforthepastoranxietyforthefuture，wemarchedgailyalongoveracarpetofflowersconcealinganabyss。
Mockingcensorsofantiquatedways，ofthefeudalprideofourfathersandoftheirsoberetiquette，everythingantiqueseemedtousannoyingandridiculous。Thegravityofolddoctrinesoppressedus。ThecheerfulphilosophyofVoltaireamusedandtookpossessionofus。
Withoutfathomingthatofgraverwritersweadmireditforitsstampoffearlessnessandresistancetoarbitrarypower……
Liberty，what—everitslanguage，delighteduswithitsspirit，andequalityonaccountofitsconvenience。Itisapleasantthingtodescendsolongasonethinksonecanascendwhenonepleases；wewereatonceenjoying，withoutforethought，theadvantagesofthepatriciateandthesweetsofacommonerphilosophy。Thus，althoughourprivilegeswereatstake，andtheremnantsofourformersupremacywereunderminedunderourfeet，thislittlewarfaregratifiedus。
Inexperiencedintheattack，wesimplyadmiredthespectacle。
Combatswiththepenandwithwordsdidnotappeartouscapableofdamagingourexistingsuperiority，whichseveralcenturiesofpossessionhadmadeusregardasimpregnable。Theformsoftheedificeremainingintact，wecouldnotseehowitcouldbeminedfromwithin。Welaughedattheseriousalarmoftheoldcourtandoftheclergywhichthunderedagainstthespiritofinnovation。Weapplaudedrepublicanscenesinthetheater，[50]philosophicdiscoursesinourAcademies，theboldpublicationsoftheliteraryclass。\"—Ifinequalitystillsubsistsinthedistributionofofficesandofplaces，\"equalitybeginstoreigninsociety。Onmanyoccasionsliterarytitlesobtainprecedenceovertitlesofnobility。Courtiersandservantsofthepassingfashion，paidtheircourttoMarmontel，d’AlembertandRaynal。Wefrequentlysawincompanyliterarymenofthesecondandthirdrankgreetedandreceivingattentionsnotextendedtothenoblesoftheprovinces……Institutionsremainedmonarchical，butmannersandcustomsbecamerepublican。A
wordofpraisefromd’AlembertorDiderotwasmoreesteemedthanthemostmarkedfavorfromaprince……Itwasimpossibletopassaneveningwithd’Alembert，orattheH？teldeLarochefoucauldamongthefriendsofTurgot，toattendabreakfastattheAbbéRaynal’s，tobeadmittedintothesocietyandfamilyofM。deMalesherbes，andlastly，toapproachamostamiablequeenandamostuprightking，withoutbelievingourselvesabouttoenteruponakindofgoldeneraofwhichprecedingcenturiesaffordednoidea……Wewerebewilderedbytheprismatichuesoffreshideasanddoctrines，radiantwithhopes，ardentlyaglowforeverysortofreputation，enthusiasticforalltalentsandbeguiledbyeveryseductivedreamofaphilosophythatwasabouttosecurethehappinessofthehumanspecies。Farfromforeseeingmisfortune，excess，crime，theoverthrowofthronesandofprinciples，thefuturedisclosedtousonlythebenefitswhichhumanitywastoderivefromthesovereigntyofReason。Freedomofthepressandcirculationwasgiventoeveryreformativewriting，toeveryprojectofinnovation，tothemostliberalideasandtotheboldestofsystems。Everybodythoughthimselfontheroadtoperfectionwithoutbeingunderanyembarrassmentorfearinganykindofobstacle。WewereproudofbeingFrenchmenand，yetagain，Frenchmenoftheeighteenthcentury……Neverwasamoreterribleawakeningprecededbyasweeterslumberorbymoreseductivedreams。\"
Theydonotcontentthemselveswithdreams，withpuredesires，withpassiveaspirations。Theyareactive，andtrulygenerous；aworthycausesufficestosecuretheirdevotion。OnthenewsoftheAmericanrebellion，theMarquisdeLafayette，leavinghisyoungwifepregnant，escapes，bravestheordersofthecourt，purchasesafrigate，crossestheoceanandfightsbythesideofWashington。\"Themomentthequarrelwasmadeknowntome，\"hesays，\"myheartwasenlistedinit，andmyonlythoughtwastorejoinmyregiment。\"Numbersofgentlemenfollowinhisfootsteps。Theyundoubtedlylovedanger；\"thechanceofbeingshotistooprecioustobeneglected。\"[51]Butthemainthingistoemancipatetheoppressed；\"weshowedourselvesphilosophersbybecomingpaladins，\"[52]thechivalricsentimentenlistingintheserviceofliberty。Otherservicesbesidesthese，moresedentaryandlessbrilliant，findnofewerzealots。Thechiefpersonagesoftheprovincesintheprovincialassemblies，[53]thebishops，archbishops，abbés，dukes，counts，andmarquises，withthewealthiestandbestinformedofthenotablesintheThird—Estate，inallaboutathousandpersons，inshortthesocialelect，theentireupperclassconvokedbytheking，organizethebudget，defendthetax—
payeragainstthefiscalauthorities，arrangetheland—registry，equalizethetaille，provideasubstituteforthecorvée，providepublicroads，multiplycharitableasylums，educateagriculturists，proposing，encouraginganddirectingeveryspeciesofreformatorymovement。Ihavereadthroughthetwentyvolumesoftheirprocès—
verbaux:nobettercitizens，nomoreconscientiousmen，nomoredevotedadministratorscanbefound，nonegratuitouslytakingsomuchtroubleonthemselveswithnoobjectbutthepublicwelfare。Neverwasanaristocracysodeservingofpoweratthemomentoflosingit；
theprivilegedclass，arousedfromtheirindolence，wereagainbecomingpublicmen，and，restoredtotheirfunctions，werereturningtotheirduties。In1778，inthefirstassemblyofBerry，theAbbé
deSeguiran，thereporter，hasthecouragetostatethat\"thedistributionofthetaxesshouldbeafraternalpartitionofpublicobligations。\"[54]In1780theabbés，priorsandchaptersofthesameprovincecontribute60，000livresoftheirfunds，andafewgentlemen，inlessthantwenty—fourhours，contribute17，000livres。In1787，intheassemblyofAlen？onthenobilityandtheclergytaxthemselves30，000livrestorelievetheindigentineachparishsubjecttotaxation[55]。inthemonthofApril，1787，theking，inanassemblyofthenotables，speaksof\"theeagernesswithwhicharchbishopsandbishopscomeforwardclaimingnoexemptionintheircontributionstothepublicrevenue。\"InthemonthofMarch，1789，ontheopeningofthebailiwickassemblies，theentireclergy，nearlyallthenobility，inshort，thewholebodyoftheprivilegedclassvoluntarilyrenouncetheirprivilegesinrelationtotaxation。Thesacrificeisvotedunanimously；theythemselvesofferittotheThird—Estate，anditisworthwhiletoseetheirgenerousandsympathetictoneinthemanuscriptprocès—verbaux。
\"ThenobilityofthebailiwickofTours，\"saystheMarquisdeLusignan，[56]\"consideringthattheyaremenandcitizensbeforebeingnobles，canmakeamendsinnowaymoreinconformitywiththespiritofjusticeandpatriotismthatanimatesthebody，forthelongsilencetowhichithasbeencondemnedbytheabuseofministerialpower，thanindeclaringtotheirfellow—citizensthat，infuture，theywillclaimnoneofthepecuniaryadvantagessecuredtothembycustom，andthattheyunanimouslyandsolemnlybindthemselvestobearequally，eachinproportiontohisfortune，alltaxesandgeneralcontributionswhichthenationshallprescribe。\"
\"Irepeat，\"saystheComtedeBuzan？oisatthemeetingoftheThird—EstateofBerry，\"thatweareallbrothers，andthatweareanxioustoshareyourburdens……Wedesiretohavebutonesinglevoicegouptotheassemblyandthusmanifesttheunionandharmonywhichshouldprevailthere。Iamdirectedtomaketheproposaltoyoutounitewithyouinonememorandum。\"
\"Thesequalitiesareessentialinadeputy，\"saystheMarquisdeBarbanconspeakingforthenoblesofChateauroux，\"integrity，firmnessandknowledge；thefirsttwoareequallyfoundamongthedeputiesofthethreeorders；butknowledgewillbemoregenerallyfoundintheThird—Estate，whichismoreaccustomedtopublicaffairs。\"
\"Aneworderofthingsisunfoldingbeforeus，\"saystheAbbé
LegrandinthenameoftheclergyofChateauroux；\"theveilofprejudiceisbeingtornawayandgivingplacetoReason。SheispossessingherselfofallFrenchhearts，attackingattherootwhateverisbasedonformeropinionandderivingherpoweronlyfromherself。\"
Notonlydotheprivilegedclassesmakeadvancesbutitisnoefforttothem；theyusethesamelanguageasthepeopleoftheThird—
Estate；theyaredisciplesofthesamephilosophersandseemtostartfromthesameprinciples。ThenobilityofClermontinBeauvoisis[57]
ordersitsdeputies\"todemand，firstofall，anexplicitdeclarationoftherightsbelongingtoallmen。\"ThenoblesofMantesandMeulanaffirm\"thatpoliticalprinciplesareasabsoluteasmoralprinciples，sincebothhavereasonforacommonbasis。\"ThenoblesofRheimsdemand\"thatthekingbeentreatedtoorderthedemolitionoftheBastille。\"Frequently，aftersuchexpressionsandwithsuchayieldingdisposition，thedelegatesofthenoblesandclergyaregreetedintheassembliesofthe’Third—Estatewiththeclappingofhands，\"tears\"
andenthusiasm。Onwitnessingsucheffusionshowcanoneavoidbelievinginconcord？Andhowcanoneforeseestrifeatthefirstturnoftheroadonwhichtheyhavejustfraternallyenteredhandinhand？
Wisdomofthismelancholystampisnottheirs。Theysetoutwiththeprinciplethatman，andespeciallythemanofthepeople，isgood；
whyconjecturethathemaydesireevilforthosewhowishhimwell？
Theyareconscientiousintheirbenevolenceandsympathyforhim。
Notonlydotheyutterthesesentimentsbuttheygivethemproof。
\"Atthismoment，\"saysacontemporary，[58]\"themostactivepityanimatesallbreasts；thegreatdreadoftheopulentistoappearinsensible。\"ThearchbishopofParis，subsequentlyfollowedandstoned，isthedonatorof100，000crownstothehospitaloftheH？tel—
Dieu。TheintendantBerthier，whoistobemassacred，drawsupthenewassessment—rolloftheIle—de—France，equalizingthetaille，whichactallowshimtoabatetherate，atfirst，aneighth，andnext，aquarter[59]。ThefinancierBeaujonconstructsahospital。Neckerrefusesthesalaryofhisplaceandlendsthetreasurytwomillionstore—establishpubliccredit。TheDucdeCharost，from1770[60]down，abolishesseigniorialcorvéesonhisdomainandfoundsahospitalinhisseignioryofMeillant。ThePrincedeBeaufremont，thepresidentsdeVezet，deChamolles，deChaillot，withmanyseigniorsbesideinFranche—Comté，followtheexampleofthekinginemancipatingtheirserfs[61]。ThebishopofSaint—Claudedemands，inspiteofhischapter，theenfranchisementofhismainmorts。TheMarquisdeMirabeauestablishesonhisdomaininLimousinagratuitousbureauforthesettlementoflawsuits，whiledaily，atFleury，hecausesninehundredpoundsofcheapbreadtobemadefortheuseof\"thepoorpeople，whofighttoseewhoshallhaveit。\"[62]M。deBarral，bishopofCastres，directshiscuratestopreachandtodiffusethecultivationofpotatoes。TheMarquisdeGuerchyhimselfmountsonthetopofapileofhaywithArthurYoungtolearnhowtoconstructahay—stack。TheMarquisdeLasteyrieimportslithographyintoFrance。
Anumberofgrandseigniorsandprelatesfigureintheagriculturalsocieties，composeortranslateusefulbooks，familiarizethemselveswiththeapplicationsofscience，studypoliticaleconomy，informthemselvesaboutindustries，andinterestthemselves，eitherasamateursorpromoters，ineverypublicamelioration。\"Never，\"saysLacretelleagain，\"weretheFrenchsocombinedtogethertocombattheevilstowhichnaturemakesuspaytribute，andthosewhichinathousandwayscreepintoallsocialinstitutions。\"Canitbeadmittedthatsomanygoodintentionsthusoperatingtogetheraretoendindestruction？—Alltakecourage，governmentaswellasthehigherclass，inthethoughtofthegoodaccomplished，orwhichtheydesiretoaccomplish。ThekingremembersthathehasrestoredcivilrightstotheProtestants，abolishedpreliminarytorture，suppressedthecorvéeinkind，establishedthefreecirculationofgrains，institutedprovincialassemblies，builtupthemarine，assistedtheAmericans，emancipatedhisownserfs，diminishedtheexpensesofhishousehold，employedMalesherbes，TurgotandNecker，givenfullplaytothepress，andlistenedtopublicopinion[63]。Nogovernmentdisplayedgreatermildness；onthe14thofJuly，1789，onlysevenprisonerswereconfinedintheBastille，ofwhomonewasanidiot，anotherkepttherebyhisfamily，andfourunderthechargeofcounterfeiting[64]。Nosovereignwasmorehumane，morecharitable，morepreoccupiedwiththeunfortunate。In1784，theyearofinundationsandepidemics，herendersassistancetotheamountofthreemillions。Appealsaremadetohimdirect，evenforpersonalaccidents。Onthe8thofJune，1785，hesendstwohundredlivrestothewifeofaBretonlaboring—manwho，alreadyhavingtwochildren，bringsthreeatonceintotheworld[65]。Duringaseverewinterheallowsthepoordailytoinvadehiskitchen。Itisquiteprobablethat，nexttoTurgot，heisthemanofhisdaywholovedthepeoplemost。——Hisdelegatesunderhimconformtohisviews；IhavereadcountlesslettersbyintendantswhotrytoappearaslittleTurgots。\"Onebuildsahospital，anotheradmitsartisansathistable；\"[66]acertainindividualundertakesthedrainingofamarsh。M。delaTour，inProvence，issobeneficentduringaperiodoffortyyearsthattheTiers—Etatvotehimagoldmedalinspiteofhimself[67]。Agovernordeliversacourseoflecturesoneconomicalbread—making。—Whatpossibledangeristhereforshepherdsofthiskindamidsttheirflocks？OnthekingconvokingtheStates—Generalnobodyhad\"anysuspicion，\"norfearofthefuture。\"AnewStateconstitutionisspokenofasaneasyperformance，andasamatterofcourse。\"[68]—\"ThebestandmostvirtuousmenseeinthisthebeginningofaneweraofhappinessforFranceandforthewholecivilizedworld。Theambitiousrejoiceinthebroadfieldopentotheirdesires。Butitwouldhavebeenimpossibletofindthemostmorose，themosttimid，themostenthusiasticofmenanticipatinganyoneoftheextraordinaryeventstowardswhichtheassembledstatesweredrifting。\"
Notes:
[1]Macaulay。
[2]Stendhal，\"Rome，NaplesetFlorence，\"371。
[3]Morellet，\"Mémoires，\"I。139（onthewritingsandconversationsofDiderot，d，Holbachandtheatheists）。\"Atthattime，inthisphilosophy，allseemedinnocentenough，itbeingconfinedtothelimitsofspeculation，andneverseeking，eveninitsboldestflights，anythingbeyondacalmintellectualexercise。
[4]\"L’Hommeauxquaranteécus。\"Cf。Voltaire，\"Mémoires，\"thesuppersgivenbyFrederickII。\"Neverinanyplaceintheworldwastheregreaterfreedomofconversationconcerningthesuperstitionsofmankind。
[5]Morellet，Mémoires，\"I。133。
[6]Galiani，\"Correspondance，passim。
[7]Bachaumont，III。93（1766），II。202（1765）。
[8]Geffroy，\"GustaveIII。，\"I。114。
[9]Villemain，\"TableaudelaLitteratureaudix—huitièmesiècle，\"
IV。409。
[10]Grimm，\"corresp。littéraire，\"IV。176。DeSégur，\"Mémoires，\"I。113。
[11]\"PrincessedeBabylone。\"—Cf。\"leMondain。\"
[12]HerewemayhaveanimportantmotiveforthesocialistattitudestowardssexualmoralityasitwasduringtheactivienineteenseventiesuntiltheunexpectedappearanceofAIDSputanabruptendtotheproceedings。（SR。）
[13]Mme。d’Epinay，ed。Boiteau，I。216:atasuppergivenbyMlle。Quinault，thecomedian，atwhicharepresentSaint—Lambert，thePrincede……，DuclosandMme。d’Epinay。
[14]Forexample，thefatherofMarmant，amilitarygentleman，who，havingwonthecrossofSt。Louisattwenty—eight，abandonstheservicebecausehefindsthatpromotionisonlyforpeopleofthecourt。Inretirementonhisestatesheisaliberal，teachinghissontoreadthereportsmadebyNecker。（MarshalMarmont，\"Mémoires，\"I。9）。
[15]Aubertin，\"L’Espritpublic，\"inthe18thcentury，p。7。
[16]Montesquieu，\"LettresPersanes，\"（Letter61）。—Cf。
Voltaire，（\"D？nerduComtedeBoulainvilliers\"）。
[17]Aubertin，pp。281，282，285，289。
[18]HoraceWalpole，\"LettersandCorrespondence，\"Sept。27th，1765，October18th，28th，andNovember19th，1766。
[19]\"JournaletMémoiresdeCollé，\"publishedbyH。Bonhomme，II。24（October，1755），andIII。165（October1767）。
[20]\"Corresp。littéraire，\"byGrimm（September，October，1770）。
[21]Mme。DeGenlis，\"AdèleetThéodore，\"I，312。
[22]DeGoncourt，\"Lafemmeaudix—huitièmesiècle，\"371—373。—
Bachaumont，I。224（April13，1763）。
[23]Mme。deGenlis，\"AdèleetThéodore，\"II。326。
[24]\"TableaudeParis，\"III。44。
[25]Métra。\"Correspondancesecrète，\"XVII。387（March7，1785）。
[26]DeGoncourt，ibid。456。—VicomtessedeNoailles，\"ViedelaPrincessedePoix，\"formerlydeBeauvau。
[27]TheAbbédeLatteignaut，canonofRheims，theauthorofsomelightpoetryandconvivialsongs，\"hasjustcomposedforNicolet’stheateraparadeinwhichtheintrigueissupportedbyagoodmanybroadjests，verymuchinthefashionatthistime。ThecourtierswhogivethetonetothistheaterthinkthecanonofRheimssuperb。\"
（Bachaumont，IV。174，November，1768）。
[28]Bachaumont，III。253。—Chateaubriand，\"Mémoires，\"I。
246。
[29]Champfort，279。
[30]MerlindeThionville，\"Vieetcorrespondance，\"byJeanRaynaud。（\"LaChartreuseduValSaint—Pierre。\"Readtheentirepassage）。—\"SouvenirsManuscrits，\"byM—……
[31]Rivarol，\"Mémoires，\"I。344。
[32]Mercier，IV。142。\"InAuvergne，saysM。deMontlosier，I
formedformyselfasocietyofpriests，menofwit，someofwhomweredeistsandothersopenatheists，withwhomIcarriedonacontestwithmybrother。\"（\"Mémoires，\"I。37）。
[33]Lafayette。\"Mémoires，\"III。58。
[34]\"Dict。Phil。\"article\"Wheat。\"—ThemostimportantworkofQuesnayisoftheyear1758，\"Tableauéconomique。\"
[35]D’Argenson，\"Mémoires，\"IV。141；VI。320，465；VII。23；
VIII。153，（1752，1753，1754）。—Rousseau’sdiscourseonInequalitybelongsalsoto1753。Onthissteadymarchofopinionconsulttheexcellentworkofd’Aubertin，\"L’Espritpublicaudix—
huitièmesiècle。\"
[36]ThisseemstobepropheticofthenightofAugust4，1789。
[37]\"Corresp。deLaurettedeMalboissière，\"publishedbytheMarquisedelaGrange。（Sept。4，1762，November8，1762）。
[38]MadameduDeffantinalettertoMadamedeChoiseul，（quotedbyGeffroy），\"GustaveetlacourdeFrance，\"I。279。
[39]Geffroy，ibid。I。232，241，245。
[40]Geffroy，ibid。I。267，281。SeelettersbyMadamedeBoufflers（October，1772，July1774）。
[41]Ibid……I。285。ThelettersofMme。delaMarch（1776，1777，1779）。
[42]Avictimofreligiousrancoragainsttheprotestants，whosecause，takenopbyVoltaire，excitedgreatindignation。—TR。
[43]Bachaumont，III。14（March28，1766。Walpole，Oct。6，1775）。
[44]Geffloy，ibid。（AletterbyMmeSta？l，5776）。
[45]Collé，\"Journal，\"III。437（1770）:\"WomenhavegottheupperhandwiththeFrenchtosuchanextent，theyhavesosubjugatedthem，thattheyneitherfeelnorthinkexceptastheydo。\"
[46]\"Correspondance，\"byMétra，III。200；IV。131。
[47]\"MémoiresduChancelierPasquier，_Ed。PlonParis1893，Vol。
I。page26。
[48]DeVaublanc，\"Souvenirs，\"I。117，377。
[49]DeSégur，\"Mémoires，\"I。17。
[50]Ibid。I。151。\"IsawtheentireCourtatthetheaterinthechateauatVersaillesenthusiasticallyapplaudVoltaire’stragedyof’Brutus，’andespeciallytheselines:
JesuisfilsdeBrutus，etjeporteenmoncoeurLalibertégravéeetlesroisenhorreur。\"
[51]DeLauzun，80（inrelationtohisexpeditionintoCorsica）。
[52]DeSégur，I。87。
[53]TheassembliesofBerryandHaute—Guyennebeganin1778and1779；thoseofothergeneralshipsin1787。Allfunctioneduntil1789。（Cf。LéoncedeLavergne，\"LesAssembléesprovinciales\"）。
[54]LéoncedeLavergne，ibid。26，55，183。ThetaxdepartmentoftheprovincialassemblyofTourslikewisemakesitsdemandsontheprivilegedclassinthematteroftaxation。
[55]Procés—verbauxoftheprov。ass。ofNormandy，thegeneralshipofAlen？on，252。—Cf。Archivesnationales，II，1149:in1778inthegeneralshipofMoulins，thirty—ninepersons，mostlynobles，supplyfromtheirownfunds18，950livrestothe60，000
livresallowedbythekingforroadsandasylums。
[56]Archivesnationales，procès—verbauxandregistersoftheStates—General，vol。XLIX。p。712，714（thenoblesandclergyofDijon）；vol。XVI。p。183（thenoblesofAuxerre）vol。XXIX。
pp。352，455，458（theclergyandnoblesofBerry）；vol。CL。p。266
（theclergyandnoblesofTours）；vol。XXIX；theclergyandnoblesofChateauroux，（January29，1789）；pp。572，582。vol。XIII。
765（thenoblesofAutun）。—Seeasasummaryofthewhole，the\"RésumédesCahiers\"byPrud’homme，3vols。
[57]Prud’homme，ibid……II。39，51，59。DeLavergne，384。
In1788，twohundredgentlemenofthefirstfamiliesofDauphinysign，conjointlywiththeclergyandtheThird—Estateoftheprovince，anaddresstothekinginwhichoccursthefollowingpassage:\"Neithertimenorobligationlegitimizesdespotism；therightsofmenderivefromnaturealoneandareindependentoftheirengagements。\"
[58]Lacretelle，\"Hist。deFranceaudix—huitièmesiècle，\"V。2。
[59]Procès—verbeauxoftheprov。ass。oftheIle—de—France（1787），p。127。
[60]DeLavergne，ibid……52，369。
[61]\"Lecridelaraison，\"byClerget，curéd’Onans（1789），p。258。
[62]LucasdeMontigny，\"MémoiresdeMirabeau，\"I。290，368。—
ThérondeMontaugé，\"L’agricultureetlesclassesruralesdanslepaysToulousain，\"p。14。
[63]\"ForeignersgenerallycouldscarcelyformanideaofthepowerofpublicopinionatthistimeinFrance；theycanwithdifficultycomprehendthenatureofthatinvisiblepowerwhichcommandsevenintheking’spalace。\"（Necker，1784，quotedbyDeTocqueville）。
[64]GranierdeCassagnac，II。236。—M。deMalesherbes，accordingtocustom，inspectedthedifferentstateprisons，atthebeginningofthereignofLouisXVI。\"Hetoldmehimselfthathehadonlyreleasedtwo。\"（SenacdeMeilhan，\"Dugouvemement，desmoeurs，etdesconditionsenFrance。\"）。
[65]Archivesnationales，II。1418，1149，F。14，2073。
（Assistancerenderedtovarioussufferingprovincesandplaces。）
[66]Aubertin，p。484（accordingtoBachaumont）。
[67]DeLavergne，472。
[68]MathieuDumas，\"Mémoires，\"I。426。—SirSamuelRomilly，\"Mémoires，\"I。99。——\"Confidenceincreasedeventoextravagance，\"
（Mme。deGenlis）。—Onthe29thJune，1789，NeckersaidatthecouncilofthekingatMarly，\"WhatismorefrivolousthanthefearsnowentertainedconcerningtheorganizationoftheassemblyoftheStates—General？Nolawcanbepassedwithoutobtainingtheking’sassent\"（DeBarentin，\"Mémoires，\"p。187）。—AddressoftheNationalAssemblytoitsconstituents，October2，1789。\"Agreatrevolutionofwhichtheideashouldhaveappearedchimericalafewmonthssincehasbeeneffectedamongstus。\"
CHAPTERIII。THEMIDDLECLASS。
I。THEPAST。
TheformerspiritoftheThird—Estate。—Publicmattersconcernthekingonly。—LimitsoftheJansenistandparliamentarianopposition。
Thenewphilosophy，confinedtoaselectcircle，hadlongservedasamereluxuryforrefinedsociety。Merchants，manufacturers，shopkeepers，lawyers，attorneys，physicians，actors，professors，curates，everydescriptionoffunctionary，employeeandclerk，theentiremiddleclass，hadbeenabsorbedwithitsowncares。Thehorizonofeachwaslimited，beingthatoftheprofessionoroccupationwhicheachexercised，thatofthecorporationinwhicheachonewascomprised，ofthetowninwhicheachonewasborn，and，attheutmost，thatoftheprovincewhicheachoneinhabited[1]。Adearthofideascoupledwithconsciousdiffidencerestrainedthebourgeoiswithinhishereditarybarriers。Hiseyesseldomchancedtowanderoutsideofthemintotheforbiddenanddangerousterritoryofstateaffairs；hardlywasafurtiveandrareglancebestowedonanyofthepublicacts，onthematterswhich\"belongedtotheking。\"Therewasnocriticalirritabilitythen，exceptwiththebar，thecompulsorysatelliteoftheParliament，andbornealonginitsorbit。In1718，afterasessionoftheroyalcourt（litdejustice），thelawyersofParisbeingonastriketheRegentexclaimsangrilyandwithastonishment，\"What！thosefellowsmeddlingtoo！\"[2]Itmustbestatedfurthermorethatmanykeptthemselvesinthebackground。\"Myfatherandmyself，\"afterwardswritestheadvocateBarbier，\"tooknopartintheuproars，amongthosecausticandturbulentspirits。\"andheaddsthissignificantarticleoffaith:\"Ibelievethatonehastofulfillhisdutieshonorably，withoutconcerningoneselfwithstateaffairs，inwhichonehasnomissionandexercisesnopower。\"DuringthefirsthalfoftheeighteenthcenturyIamabletodiscoverbutonecenterofoppositionintheThird—Estate，theParliament；andaroundit，feedingtheflame，theancientGallicanorJansenistspirit。\"ThegoodcityofParis，\"writesBarbierin1733，\"isJansenistfromtoptobottom，\"andnotalonethemagistrates，thelawyers，theprofessors，thebestamongthebourgeoisie，\"butagainthemassoftheParisians，men，womenandchildren，allupholdingthatdoctrine，withoutcomprehendingit，orunderstandinganyofitsdistinctionsandinterpretations，outofhatredtoRomeandtheJesuits。Women，thesilliest，andevenchambermaids，wouldbehackedtopiecesforit……\"Thispartyisincreasedbythehonestfolksofthekingdomwhodetestpersecutionsandinjustice。Accordingly，whenthevariouschambersofmagistrates，inconjunctionwiththelawyers，tendertheirresignationsandfileoutofthepalace\"amidstacountlessmultitude，thecrowdexclaims:BeholdthetrueRomans，thefathersofthecountry！andasthetwocounselorsPucelleandMenguypassalongtheyflingthemcrowns。\"ThequarrelbetweentheParliamentandtheCourt，constantlyrevived，isoneofthesparkswhichprovokesthegrandfinalexplosion，whiletheJansenistembers，smolderingintheashes，aretobeofusein1791whentheecclesiasticaledificecomestobeattacked。But，withinthisoldchimney—corneronlywarmembersarenowfound，firebrandscoveredup，sometimesscatteringsparksandflames，butinthemselvesandbythemselves，notincendiary；theflameiskeptwithinboundsbyitsnature，anditssupplieslimititsheat。
TheJansenististoogoodaChristiannottorespectpowersinauguratedfromabove。Theparliamentarian，conservativethroughhisprofession，wouldbehorrifiedatoverthrowingtheestablishedorderofthings。Bothcombatfortraditionandagainstinnovation；hence，afterhavingdefendedthepastagainstarbitrarypowertheyaretodefenditagainstrevolutionaryviolence，andtofall，theoneintoimpotencyandtheotherintooblivion。
II。CHANGEINTHECONDITIONOFTHEBOURGEOIS。
Changeintheconditionofthebourgeois。—Hebecomeswealthy。
—HemakesloanstotheState。—Thedangerofhiscreditorship。—
Heinterestshimselfinpublicmatters。
Theuprisingis，however，latetocatchonamongthemiddleclass，and，beforeitcantakehold，theresistantmaterialmustgraduallybemadeinflammable。——IntheeighteenthcenturyagreatchangetakesplaceintheconditionoftheThird—Estate。Thebourgeoishasworked，manufactured，traded，earnedandsavedmoney，andhasdailybecomericherandricher。[3]Thisgreatexpansionofenterprises，oftrade，ofspeculationandoffortunesdatesfromLaw；[4]arrestedbywaritreappearswithmorevigorandmoreanimationateachintervalofpeaceafterthetreatyofAix—la—
Chapellein1748，andthatofParisin1763，andespeciallyafterthebeginningofthereignofLouisXVI。TheexportsofFrancewhichamountedto106millionsin1720
124millionsin1735
192millionsin1748
257millionsin1755
309millionsin1776
354millionsin1788。
In1786SaintDomingoaloneshipsbacktoFrancefor131
millionsofitsproducts，andinreturnreceives44millionsinmerchandise。Asaresultoftheseexchangeswesee，atNantes，andatBordeaux，thecreationofcolossalcommercialhouses。\"IconsiderBordeaux，saysArthurYoung，asricheranddoingmorebusinessthananycityinEnglandexceptLondon；……oflateyearstheprogressofmaritimecommercehasbeenmorerapidinFrancethaneveninEngland。\"[5]Accordingtoanadministratoroftheday，ifthetaxesontheconsumptionofproductsdailyincreasetherevenue，thisisbecausetheindustrysince1774hasdevelopedanumberofnewproducts[6]。Andthisprogressisregularandconstant。\"Wemaycalculate，\"saysNeckerin1781，\"onanincreaseoftwomillionsayearonallthedutiesonconsumption。\"——Inthisgreatexertionofinnovation，laborandengineering，Paris，constantlygrowing，isthecentralworkshop。Itenjoys，toamuchgreaterextentthantoday，themonopolyofallworksofintelligenceandtaste，books，pictures，engravings，statues，jewelry，toiletdetails，carriages，furniture，articlesoffashionandrarity，whateveraffordspleasureandornamentationforanelegantworldlysociety；allEuropeissuppliedbyit。In1774itstradeinbooksisestimatedat45millions，andthatofLondonatonlyone—quarterofthatsum[7]。Upontheprofitsmanyimmenseandevenmorenumerousmoderatefortuneswerebuiltup，andthesenowbecameavailableforinvestment。——Infact，weseethenoblesthandsstretchingouttoreceivethem，princesoftheblood，provincialassemblies，assembliesoftheclergy，and，attheheadofall，theking，who，themostneedy，borrowsattenpercentandisalwaysinsearchofadditionallenders。AlreadyunderFleury，thedebthasaugmentedto18millionsininterests，andduringtheSevenyears’War，to34millions。UnderLouisXVI。，M。Neckerborrowsacapitalof530millions；M。JolydeFleury，300millions；M。deCalonne，800millions；inall1630millionsoveraperiodoftenyears。Theinterestofthepublicdebt，only45millionsin1755，reaches106millionsin1776andamountsto206millionsin1789[8]。
Whatcreditorswhichthesefewfigurestellusabout！AstheThird—
Estate，itmustbenoted，isthesoleclassmakingandsavingmoney，nearlyallthesecreditorsbelongit。Thousandsofothersmustbeaddedtothese。Inthefirstplace，thefinancierswhomakeadvancestothegovernment，advancesthatareindispensable，because，fromtimeimmemorial，ithaseatenitscornontheblade，sothepresentyearisalwaysgnawingintotheproductofcomingyears；thereare80millionsofadvancesin1759，and170millionsin1783。Inthesecondplacetherearesomanysuppliers，largeandsmall，who，onallpartsoftheterritory，keepaccountswiththegovernmentfortheirsuppliesandforpublicworks，averitablearmyandincreasingdaily，sincethegovernment，impelledbycentralization，takessoleresponsibilityforallventures，and，requestedbypublicopinion，itincreasesthenumberofundertakingsusefultothepublic。UnderLouisXV。theStatebuildssixthousandleaguesofroads，andunderLouisXVI。in1788，toguardagainstfamine，itpurchasesgraintotheamountoffortymillions。
ThroughthisincreaseofactivityanditsdemandsforcapitaltheStatebecomestheuniversaldebtor；henceforthpublicaffairsarenolongerexclusivelytheking’sbusiness。Hiscreditorsbecomeuneasyathisexpenditures；foritistheirmoneyhewastes，and，ifheprovesabadadministrator，theywillberuined。Theywanttoknowsomethingofhisbudget，toexaminehisbooks:alenderalwayshastherighttolookafterhissecurities。Weaccordinglyseethebourgeoisraisinghisheadandbeginningtopaycloseattentiontothegreatmachinewhoseperformances，hithertoconcealedfromvulgareyes，have，uptothepresenttime，beenkeptastatesecret。Hebecomesapolitician，and，atthesametime，discontented。Foritcannotbedeniedthatthesematters，inwhichheisinterested，arebadlyconducted。Anyyoungmanofgoodfamilymanagingaffairsinthesamewaywouldbechecked。TheexpensesoftheadministrationoftheStatearealwaysinexcessoftherevenue[9]。Accordingtoofficialadmissions[10]theannualdeficitamountedto70in1770，and80
millionsin1783；whenonehasattemptedtoreducethisithasbeenthroughbankruptcies；onetothetuneoftwomilliardsattheendofthereignofLouisXIV，andanotheralmostequaltoitinthetimeofLaw，andanotheronfromathirdtoahalfofalltheinterestsinthetimeofTerray，withoutmentioningsuppressionsindetail，reductions，indefinitedelaysinpayment，andotherviolentandfraudulentmeanswhichapowerfuldebtoremployswithimpunityagainstafeeblecreditor。\"Fifty—sixviolationsofpublicfaithhaveoccurredfromHenryIVdowntotheministryofM。deLoménieinclusive，\"[11]whilealastbankruptcy，morefrightfulthantheothers，loomuponthehorizon。Severalpersons，BezenvalandLinguetforinstance，earnestlyrecommenditasanecessaryandsalutaryamputation。Notonlyarethereprecedentsforthis，andinthisrespectthegovernmentwilldonomorethanfollowitsownexample，butsuchisitsdailypractice，sinceitlivesonlyfromdaytoday，bydintofexpedientsanddelays，diggingoneholetostopupanother，andescapingfailureonlythroughtheforcedpatiencewhichitimposesonitscreditors。
Withit，saysacontemporary，peoplewereneversureofanything，beingalwaysobligedtowait[12]。\"Weretheircapitalinvestedinitsloans，theycouldneverrelyonafixeddateforthepaymentofinterest。Didtheybuildships，repairhighways，orthesoldiersclothed，theyhadnoguaranteesfortheiradvances，nocertificatesofrepayment，beingreducedtocalculatethechancesinvolvedinaministerialcontractastheywouldtherisksofaboldspeculation。\"
Itpaysifitcanandonlywhenitcan，eventhemembersofthehousehold，thepurveyorsofthetableandthepersonalattendantsoftheking。In1753thedomesticsofLouisXVhadreceivednothingforthreeyears。WehaveseenhowhisgroomswentouttobegduringthenightinthestreetsofVersailles；howhispurveyors\"hidthemselves；\"how，underLouisXVIin1778，therewere792，620francsduetothewine—merchant，and3，467，980francstothepurveyoroffishandmeat[13]。In1788，sogreatisthedistress，theMinisterdeLoménieappropriatesandexpendsthefundsofaprivatesubscriptionraisedforahospital，and，atthetimeofhisresignation，thetreasuryisempty，save450，000francs，halfofwhichheputsinhispocket。Whatanadministration！——Inthepresenceofthisdebtor，evidentlybecominginsolvent，allpeople，farandnear，interestedinhisbusiness，consulttogetherwithalarm，anddebtorsareinnumerable，consistingofbankers，merchants，manufacturers，employees，lendersofeverykindanddegree，and，inthefrontrank，thecapitalists，whohaveputalltheirmeansforlifeintohishands，andwhoaretobegshouldhenotpaythemannuallythe44millionsheowesthem；theindustrialistsandtraderswhohaveentrustedtheircommercialintegritytohimandwhowouldshrinkwithhorrorfromfailureasitsissue；andafterthesecometheircreditors，theirclerks，theirrelations，inshort，thelargestportionofthelaboringandpeaceableclasswhich，thusfar，hadobeyedwithoutamurmurandneverdreamedofbringingtheestablishedorderofthingsunderitscontrol。Henceforththisclasswillexercisecontrolattentively，distrustfullyandangrily。Woetothosewhoareatfault，fortheywellknowthattheruinoftheStateistheirruin。
III。SOCIALPROMOTION。
Herisesonthesocialladder。—Thenobledrawsneartohim。
—Hebecomescultivated。—Heentersintosociety。—Heregardshimselfastheequalofthenoble。—Privilegesanannoyance。
Meanwhilethisclasshasclimbedupthesocialladder，and，throughitsélite，rejoinedthoseinthehighestposition。FormerlybetweenDoranteandM。Jourdain，betweenDonJuanandM。Dimanche，[14]
betweenM。SotenvillehimselfandGeorgesDandin，thedistancewasvast；everythingwasdifferent—dress，house，habits，characters，pointsofhonor，ideasandlanguage。OntheonehandthenoblesaredrawnnearertotheThird—Estateand，ontheother，theThird—Estateisdrawnnearertothenobles，actualequalityhavingprecededequalityasaright。——Ontheapproachoftheyear1789itwasdifficulttodistinguishonefromtheotherinthestreet。Theswordisnolongerwornbygentlemeninthecity；theyhaveabandonedembroideriesandlaces，andwalkaboutinplainfrock—coats，ordrivethemselvesintheircabriolets[15]。\"ThesimplicityofEnglishcustoms，\"andthecustomsoftheThird—Estateseemtothembetteradaptedtoordinarylife。Theirprominenceprovesirksometothemandtheygrowwearyofbeingalwaysonparade。Henceforththeyacceptfamiliaritythattheymayenjoyfreedomofaction，andarecontent\"tominglewiththeirfellow—citizenswithoutobstacleorostentation。—
—\"Itiscertainlyagravesign，andtheoldfeudalspiritshavereasontotremble。TheMarquisdeMirabeau，onlearningthathissonwishestoactashisownlawyer，consoleshimselfbyseeingothers，ofstillhigherrank，domuchworse[16]。
\"Asitwasdifficulttoaccepttheideathatthegrandsonofmyfather，whomwejusthadseenpassbyonthepromenade，everybody，youngandold，raisingtheirhatstohimfromafar，wouldsoonbeseenatthebarofalowertribunal，theretocontestminorlegalmatterswithpettifoggers；butIsaidtomyself，however，thatLouisXIVwouldbestillmoreastonishedhadheseenthewifeofhisgrand—successordressedinapeasant’sfrockandapron，withnoattendants，notapageoranyoneelse，runningaboutthepalaceandtheterraces，requestingthefirstscampinafrock—coatsheencounteredtogiveherhishand，whichhesimplydoes，allthewaydowntothefootofthesteps。\"
Butthelevelingofmannersandappearancesoflifereflected，indeed，onlyanequalizationofmindsandtempers。Theantiquescenerybeingtornawayindicatesthedisappearanceofthesentimentstowhichitbelonged。Itindicatedgravity，dignity，customofself—
controlandofexposed，inauthorityandcommand。Itwastherigidandsumptuousparadeofasocialcorpsofstaff—officers。Atthistimetheparadeisdiscontinuedbecausethecorpshasbeendissolved。
Ifthenoblesdresslikethebourgeoisieitisowingtotheirhavingbecomebourgeois，thatistosay，idlersretiredfrombusiness，withnothingtodobuttotalkandamusethemselves。——Undoubtedlytheyamusethemselvesandconverselikepeopleofrefinement；butitisnotverydifficulttoequaltheminthisrespect。NowthattheThird—
Estatehasacquireditswealthagoodmanycommonershavebecomepeopleofsociety。ThesuccessorsofSamuelBernardarenolongersomanyTurcarets，butParis—Duverneys，Saint—Jameses，Labordes，refinedmen，peopleofcultureandoffeeling，possessingtact，literaryandphilosophicalattainments，benevolent，givingpartiesandknowinghowtoentertain[17]。Withthem，slightlydifferent，wefindthesamecompanyaswithagrandlord，thesameideasandthesametone。Theirsons，messieursdeVillemer，deFrancueil，d’Epinay，throwmoneyoutofthewindowwithasmucheleganceastheyoungdukeswithwhomtheysup。Aparvenuwithmoneyandintellectsoonlearnstheropes，andhisson，ifnothimself，isinitiated:afewyears’exercisesinanacademy，adancing—master，andoneofthefourthousandpublicofficeswhichconfernobility，supplyhimwiththedeficientappearances。
Now，inthesetimes，assoonasoneknowshowtoconformtothelawsofgood—breeding，howtobowandhowtoconverse，onepossessesapatentforadmissioneverywhere。AnEnglishman[18]remarksthatoneofthefirstexpressionsemployedinpraiseofamanis，\"hehasaverygracefuladdress。\"TheMaréchaledeLuxembourg，sohigh—spirited，alwaysselectsLaharpeashercavalier，because\"heoffershisarmsowell。\"——Thecommonernotonlyentersthedrawing—room，ifheisfittedforit，buthestandsforemostinitifhehasanytalent。Thefirstplaceinconversation，andeveninpublicconsideration，isforVoltaire，thesonofanotary，forDiderot，thesonofacutler，forRousseau，thesonofawatchmaker，ford’Alembert，afoundlingbroughtupbyaglazier；and，afterthegreatmenhavedisappeared，andnowritersofthesecondgradeareleft，theleadingduchessesarestillcontenttohavetheseatsattheirtablesoccupiedbyChampfort，anotherfoundling，Beaumarchais，thesonofanotherwatchmaker，Laharpe，supportedandraisedoncharity，Marmontel，thesonofavillagetailor，andmayothersoflessnote，inshort，everyparvenupossessingwit。
Thenobility，toperfecttheirownaccomplishments，borrowtheirpensandaspiretotheirsuccesses。\"WehaverecoveredfromthoseoldGothicandabsurdprejudicesagainstliteraryculture，\"saysthePrincedeHénin；[19]\"asformyselfIwouldcomposeacomedyto—morrowifIhadthetalent，andifIhappenedtobemadealittleangry，I
wouldperforminit。\"And，infact，\"theVicomtedeSégur，sonoftheministerofwar，playsthepartoftheloverin’Nina’onMlle。deGuimard’sstagewiththeactorsoftheItalianComedy。\"[20]OneofMme。deGenlis’spersonages，returningtoParisafterfiveyears’
absence，saysthat\"heleftmenwhollydevotedtoplay，hunting，andtheirsmallhouses，andhefindsthemallturnedauthors。\"[21]Theyhawkabouttheirtragedies，comedies，novels，eclogues，dissertationsandtreatisesofallkindsfromonedrawingroomtoanother。Theystrivetogettheirpiecesplayed；theypreviouslysubmitthemtothejudgmentofactors；theysolicitawordofpraisefromtheMercure；
theyreadfablesatthesittingsoftheAcademy。Theybecomeinvolvedinthebickering，inthevainglory，inthepettinessofliterarylife，andstillworse，ofthelifeofthestage，inasmuchastheyarethemselvesperformersandplayincompanywithrealactorsinhundredsofprivatetheaters。Addtothis，ifyouplease，otherpettyamateurtalentssuchassketchinginwater—colors，writingsongs，andplayingtheflute。——Afterthisamalgamationofclassesandthistransferofpartswhatremainsofthesuperiorityofthenobles？Bywhatspecialmerit，throughwhatrecognizedcapacityaretheytosecurerespectofamemberoftheThird—Estate？Outsideoffashionableeleganceandafewpointsofbreeding，inwhatrespecttheydifferfromhim？Whatsuperioreducation，whatfamiliaritywithaffairs，whatexperiencewithgovernment，whatpoliticalinstruction，whatlocalascendancy，whatmoralauthoritycanbeallegedtosanctiontheirpretensionstothehighestplaces？——Inthewayofpractice，theThird—Estatealreadydoesthework，providingthequalifiedmen，theintendants，theministerialhead—clerks，thelayandecclesiasticaladministrators，thecompetentlaborersofallkindsanddegrees。CalltomindtheMarquisofwhomwehavejustspoken，aformercaptainintheFrenchguards，amanoffeelingandofloyalty，admittingattheelectionsof1789that\"theknowledgeessentialtoadeputywouldmostgenerallybefoundintheThird—Estate，themindtherebeingaccustomedtobusiness。\"——Inthewayoftheory:thecommonerisaswell—informedasthenoble，andhethinksheisstillbetterinformed，because，havingreadthesamebooksandarrivedatthesameprinciples，hedoesnot，likehim，stophalf—wayontheroadtotheirconsequences，butplungesheadlongtotheverydepthsofthedoctrine，convincedthathislogicisclairvoyanceandthatheismoreenlightenedbecauseheistheleastprejudiced。——Considertheyoungmenwho，abouttwentyyearsofagein1780，borninindustriousfamilies，accustomedtoeffortandabletoworktwelvehoursaday，aBarnave，aCarnot，aRoederer，aMerlindeThionville，aRobespierre，anenergeticstock，feelingtheirstrength，criticizingtheirrivals，awareoftheirweakness，comparingtheirownapplicationandeducationtotheirlevityandincompetence，and，atthemomentwhenyouthfulambitionstirswithinthem，seeingthemselvesexcludedinadvancefromanysuperiorposition，consignedforlifetosubalternemployment，andsubjectedineverycareertotheprecedenceofsuperiorswhotheyhardlyrecognizeastheirequals。AttheartilleryexaminationswhereChérin，thegenealogist，refusescommoners，andwheretheAbbéBosen，amathematician，rejectstheignorant，itisdiscoveredthatcapacityiswantingamongthenoblepupilsandnobilityamongthecapablepupils，[22]thetwoqualitiesofgentilityandintelligenceseemingtoexcludeeachother，astherearebutfourorfiveoutofahundredpupilswhocombinethetwoconditions。Now，associetyatthistimeismixed，suchtestsarefrequentandeasy。Whetherlawyer，physician，ormanofletters，amemberoftheThird—Estatewithwhomadukeconversesfamiliarly，whositsinadiligencealongsideofacount—colonelofhussars，[23]canappreciatehiscompanionorhisinterlocutor，weighhisideas，testhismeritandesteemhimathiscorrectvalue，andIamsurethathedoesnotoverratehim。——